DUMLAO, JM STACEY B.

BSEE – 4B
EE 147: Sensor Examples

Thermostat

Actual Photo of a Thermostat for Aircon

A thermostat is a type of contact temperature sensor that uses an electro-mechanical component

and two thermally differing metals, such as nickel, copper, tungsten, or aluminum, to produce
a Bi-metallic strip. When it's chilly outside, one of the strips contracts and its connections close,
allowing current to flow through the thermostat. When it gets hot, one of the metal strips
expands and opens the contacts, stopping the current flow.

Circuit Diagram of a Thermostat

So, how exactly does a thermostat function? When things heat up, they become larger, and
when they cool down, they become smaller (water is a notable exception: it expands when it
heats up and when it freezes too). Mechanical thermostats use this principle (known as thermal
expansion) to turn on and off an electric circuit. Bimetallic strips and gas-filled bellows are the
two most prevalent varieties.
 Resistive Temperature Detector

Actual Photo of a Resistive Temperature Detector

Temperature is measured using a resistive temperature detector (RTD), commonly known as a

resistance thermometer. It is made up of high-purity conducting metals such as platinum,
copper, or nickel and is based on the temperature coefficient of sensors. These materials are
coiled into a coil with temperature-dependent changes in electrical resistance. The principle of
operation of an RTD is identical to that of a thermistor.

Circuit Diagram of a Resistive Temperature Detector

So how does resistive temperature detector work? An RTD works by using a basic principle;
as the temperature of a metal increases, so does the resistance to the flow of electricity. An
electrical current is passed through the sensor, the resistance element is used to measure the
resistance of the current being passed through it. As the temperature of the resistance element
increases the electrical resistance also increases. The electrical resistance is measured in
Ohms. The resistance value can then be converted into temperature based on the characteristics
of the element. Typical response time for an RTD is between 0.5 and 5 seconds making them
suitable to applications where an immediate response is not required.
 Potentiometer

Actual Photo of a Potentiometer

A potentiometer can be an electrical or resistive type of sensor, because its working principle
is based on change in resistance of wire with its length. This converts rotary or linear
displacement to electrical voltage. The resistance of wire is directly proportional to length of
wire. If the length of wire changes then the resistance of wire also changes. Potentiometers are
available as rotary and linear potentiometers in the market, and can be used to measure the
angular position and linear position, respectively; through voltage division the changes in
resistance can be used to create an output voltage that is directly proportional to the input
displacement.

Circuit Diagram of a Potentiometer

So how does potentiometer work? A potentiometer is a passive electronic component.
Potentiometers work by varying the position of a sliding contact across a uniform resistance.
In a potentiometer, the entire input voltage is applied across the whole length of the resistor,
and the output voltage is the voltage drop. A potentiometer has two terminals of the input
source fixed to the end of the resistor. To adjust the output voltage the sliding contact gets
moved along the resistor on the output side.
 Photoresistors

Actual Photo of a Photoresistors

A light sensor is a photoelectric passive sensor which changes the light energy into an electrical
signal output. It measures the ambient light which is surrounding light, room light and reflected
light. The major component of a light sensor is the light dependent resister (LDR) or
photoresistor. It is a resistor that depends on the light which changes its resistance depending
on the amount of light incident on it. The sensors are made up of semiconductor materials and
therefore when light is incident on semiconductor material it becomes low conductive and
therefore has less resistance. When we increase the light intensity, its resistance decreases and
vice versa.

Circuit Diagram of a Photoresistors

So how does photoresistor works? When the lights falls on the photoresistors, some of the
valence electrons absorbs energy from the light and breaks the bonding with the atoms. The
valence electrons, which break the bonding with the atoms, are called free electrons. A
photoresistor is a variable resistor that’s resistance changes depending on the amount of light
it is exposed to. A photoresistor is made of a highly resistant semi-conductor material.
 Photomultiplier Tubes

Actual Photo of a Photomultiplier Tubes

A photomultiplier tube (PMT) consists of a photocathode followed by an electron multiplier.
A single photon ejects an electron from the photocathode. Electric fields in the PMT accelerate
the electron into another surface called a dinode. The collision of the electron with the dinode
releases several new electrons, which are accelerated into another dinode. This process is
repeated several times producing a typical electron gain of ∼106. The current from the PMT
can be measured directly, but better signal-to-noise ratio can be obtained using a nonlinear
process called photon counting.

Circuit Diagram of a Photomultiplier Tubes

Photomultipliers acquire light through a glass or quartz window that covers a photosensitive
surface, called a photocathode, which then releases electrons that are multiplied by electrodes
known as metal channel dynodes. At the end of the dynode chain is an anode or collection
electrode. Over a very large range, the current flowing from the anode to ground is directly
proportional to the photoelectron flux generated by the photocathode.
 Sound Sensor

Actual Photo of a Sound Sensor

A sound sensor is also known as auditory and used to detect the intensity of sound. It converts
the acoustic wave into an electrical signal output. These sensors can also detect sound pressure
waves which are not within the audible range, making them suitable for a wide range of tasks.
Sound sensors are mostly used for security purposes.

Circuit Diagram of a Arduino Whistle Detector

Switch using Sound Sensor

Sound sensors—called auditory sensors by engineers—are used in many devices that we use
every day. The stimulus-to-response pathways seen in electronic sound sensor operation
mimics the human body process that involves our ears and signal transmission to the brain.
Microphones are the sound sensors used in phones, computers, baby monitors and music
systems like karaoke machines. The use of sensors has exploded into the design of uncountable
every day tools, equipment, appliances and devices.
 Proximity Sensor

Actual Photo of a Proximity Sensor

A proximity sensor can be used for detecting the presence of a nearby object without any
physical contact. It emits an electromagnetic field for a beam of electromagnetic radiation as
infrared instances and changes in the field returning a signal. The object being sensed is often
referred to as the proximity sensor’s target. Depending on different types of proximity sensors,
different targets are used. For example, an inductive proximity sensor needs a metal object,
whereas a capacitive photoelectric sensor is suitable for a plastic target. A proximity sensor has
high reliability due to the absence of mechanical parts and lack of physical contact between the
sensor and target. It has very short range when used as a touch switch. It is commonly used in
industrial applications, manufacturing of food production, mobile phones etc.

Circuit Diagram of a Proximity Sensor

Proximity sensors are used in a wide variety of applications pertaining to noncontacting

displacement sensing and dimensional gaging. Some typical applications are; Measurement
and control of the gap between a robotic welding torch head and the work surface; Gaging the
thickness of metal plates in manufacturing operations (e.g., rolling and forming); Detecting
surface irregularities in machined parts; Angular speed measurement at steady state, by
counting the number of rotations per unit time; Level detection (e.g., in the filling, bottling,
and chemical process industries); Monitoring of bearing assembly processes.
 Accelerometer

Actual Photo of an Accelerometer

This sensor is used to detect the acceleration of an object, and operates by sensing the
acceleration of gravity, and the direction of the object is calculated. This sensor is a kind of
microelectromechanical system (MEMS), which uses a silicon integrated circuit. These sensors
convert the mechanical motion caused in an accelerometer into an electrical signal by using the
piezoelectric, piezo-resistive and capacitive components.

Circuit Diagram of an Accelerometer

Accelerometers find many applications in industries. As already discussed, you can find them
in the most complex machines to your handheld devices. Let’s look at some of the real-world
applications of accelerometers. Digital Devices: Accelerometers in smartphones and digital
cameras are responsible for rotating the display based on the orientation you hold it.
Vehicles: The invention of airbags have saved millions of lives over the years. Accelerometers
are used to trigger the airbags as the sensor would send a signal when it experiences a sudden
shock. Drones: Accelerometers help drones to stabilize their orientation midflight. Rotating
Machinery: Accelerometers used in rotating machines detect undulating
vibrations. Industrial Platforms: To measure platform stability or tilt. Vibration
Monitoring: Machines that move generate vibrations, and these vibrations can be harmful to
the machines if left to amplify without supervision. Accelerometers are useful in monitoring
vibrations and are increasingly used in industrial plants, turbines, etc.
 Capacitive Sensor

Actual Photo of a Capacitive Sensor

The capacitive sensor has an important element as a capacitor. Parallel capacitors are generally
placed like top and bottom plates at some certain distance and between these parallel capacitor
plates there is a dielectric medium. The main principle of change in capacitance is used such
that it may be caused by change in overlapping area, change in distance between two plates
and change in dielectric constant. Changes of these parameters can be made by the physical
variables like displacement, force, pressure and flow of liquid. Capacitance and output
impedance are measured with a bridge circuit. An extremely small force is needed to operate
them and hence they are very useful for a small system. The sensors are highly sensitive with
good frequency response and high output. As force requirement is small, thus the power
requirement is also less to operate the sensors. The metallic parts of the sensor must be insulated
from each other in order to reduce the effect of stray capacitance.

Circuit Diagram of a Capacitive Sensor

Capacitive displacement sensors are used for distance measurement in low-temperature as a
reference system for other distance sensors. Other typical applications are tolerance testing in
mass production, vibration measurement, strain measurement, thickness measurement and
thickness control of thin metal foils, thickness measurement of plastic foils during production,
beveling and bending of wafers in semiconductor production and many more.
 Crystal Hygrometer

Actual Photo of a Crystal Hygrometer

In a crystal hygrometer, crystals are coated with hydroscopic materials (hydroscopic

polymers). These crystals are used as frequency determination elements in the oscillator, and
therefore just like with the capacitive hygrometer, if there is change in humidity then frequency
also changes. Frequency changes due to the humidity as the mass of the crystal changes with
amount of water absorbed by the coating. This change in frequency is measured. Humidity
sensors are used in industry, agriculture, the medical field, environment monitoring etc.

Circuit Diagram of Crystal Hygrometer

In crystal hygrometer, the hygroscopic crystal or the crystal having the coating of hygroscopic
material is used. When the crystal absorbs the drops of the water, the mass of the crystal
changes. The change in mass is proportional to the total water absorbed by the crystals. It uses a
pair of thermometers standing side by side. One has a bulb open to the air; the other has a bulb
covered in a wet cloth. The water on the cloth causes evaporation and loss of heat from the
bulb, making its reading lower than that on the dry-bulb thermometer