ASSIGNMENT – 03

ELECTROCERAMICS MTN-402

1.Actuators and Sensors

Sensors and Actuators are essential elements of the embedded systems. These are
used in several real-life applications such as flight control system in an aircraft,
process control systems in nuclear reactors, power plants that require to be
operated on an automated control. Sensors and Actuators mainly differ by the
purpose both provide, the sensor is used to monitor the changes in the
environment by using measurands while the actuator is used when along with
monitoring the control is also applied such as to control the physical change.
These devices act as the mediator between the physical environment and the
electronic system where the sensor and actuator are embedded.

A sensor is an electronic instrument that is able to measure the physical quantity

and generate a considerate output. These outputs of the sensors are usually in the
form of electrical signals.

There are various types of sensors such as position, temperature, pressure, speed
sensors, but fundamentally there are two types – analog and digital. The different
types come under these two basic types. A digital sensor is incorporated with an
Analog-to-digital converter while analog sensor does not have any ADC.

An actuator is a device that alters the physical quantity as it can cause a

mechanical component to move after getting some input from the sensor. In other
words, it receives control input (generally in the form of the electrical signal) and
generates a change in the physical system through producing force, heat, motion,
etcetera.

An actuator can be interpreted with the example of the stepper motor, where an
electrical pulse drives the motor. Each time a pulse given in the input accordingly
motor rotates in a predefined amount. A stepper motor is suitable for the
applications where the position of the object has to be controlled precisely, for
example, robotic arm.

Despite the many attractive potential uses of ceramic materials as humidity

sensors, some unavoidable drawbacks, including toxicity, poor biocompatibility,
long response and recovery times, low sensitivity and high hysteresis have
stymied the use of these materials in advanced applications. Therefore, a
capacitive humidity sensor using lead-free Ca,Mg,Fe,Ti-Oxide (CMFTO)-based
electro-ceramics with perovskite structures synthesized by solid-state step-
sintering. In comparison with conventional capacitive humidity sensors, the
presented CMFTO-based humidity sensor shows a high sensitivity of up to
3000% compared to other materials, even at lower signal frequency. The best also
shows a rapid response (14.5 s) and recovery (34.27 s), and very low hysteresis
(3.2%) in a 33%–95% relative humidity range which are much lower values than
those of existing conventional sensors

BASIS FOR
SENSORS ACTUATORS
COMPARISON

Basic Used to measure the Impel continuous and

continuous and discrete discrete processes
process variables. parameters.

Placed at Input port Output port

Outcome Electrical signal Heat or motion

 Example Magnetometer, Cameras, LED, Laser, Loudspeaker,
Accelerometer, Solenoid, motor
microphones. controllers.

2.PIEZOELECTRICS

Piezo is used to describe materials that accumulate a charge as a result of the

piezoelectric effect. Piezo materials, including crystals and ceramics generate a
voltage in response to an applied mechanical stress. In what is known as the
inverse piezoelectric effect, these same materials will lengthen or shorten in
response to an applied voltage.

Piezoelectric ceramics are a preferred material choice due to their ability to be

tailored to meet the requirements of a specific purpose. Currently, PZT (lead
zirconate titanate) materials are the most widely used piezo ceramics. They offer
greater sensitivity and higher operating temperatures than other piezo ceramics.
Piezoelectric ceramics were first put to practical use around 1950, and have been
actively used in a wide range of industries since then. Various applications have
been devised using their electromechanical transducer ability, including
communication circuit components, ultrasonic transducers, sensors
and actuators. Such a wide application area is one characteristic
of piezoelectric ceramics compared to other electro-ceramics.

PIEZOELECTRIC CONSTANTS
Because piezoelectric ceramic is anisotropic, physical constants relate to both the
direction of the applied mechanical or electric force and the directions
perpendicular to the applied force. Consequently, each constant generally has two
subscripts that indicate the directions of the two related quantities, such as stress
(force on the ceramic element / surface area of the element) and strain (change in
length of element / original length of element) for elasticity. The direction of
positive polarization usually is made to coincide with the Z-axis of a rectangular
system of X, Y, and Z axes. Direction X, Y, or Z is represented by the subscript
1, 2, or 3, respectively, and shear about one of these axes is represented by the
subscript 4, 5, or 6, respectively. The piezoelectric charge constant, d,
the piezoelectric voltage constant, g, and the permittivity, e, are temperature
dependent factors.

The piezoelectric charge constant, d, is the polarization generated per unit of

mechanical stress (T) applied to a piezoelectric material or, alternatively, is the
mechanical strain (S) experienced by a piezoelectric material per unit of electric
field applied.

The piezoelectric voltage constant, g, is the electric field generated by a

piezoelectric material per unit of mechanical stress applied or, alternatively, is the
mechanical strain experienced by a piezoelectric material per unit of electric
displacement applied.
The permittivity, or dielectric constant, ε, for a piezoelectric ceramic material is
the dielectric displacement per unit electric field. εT is the permittivity at constant
stress, εS is the permittivity at constant strain. The first subscript to ε> indicates
the direction of the dielectric displacement; the second is the direction of the
electric field.

APPLICATIONS OF PIEZOELECTRIC CERAMICS

A piezoelectric system can be constructed for virtually any application for which
any other type of electromechanical transducer can be used. For any particular
application, however, limiting factors include the size, weight, and cost of the
piezoelectric system.

Piezoceramic ceramic devices fit into four general categories:

 piezo generators
 sensors
 piezo actuators and
 transducers.

3.Ferroelectric Materials

Ferroelectric materials were discovered in 1920 in the form of bulk single crystals
of Rochell salt. Since then, a number of ferroelectric materials, including
NH4H2PO4 (ADP), KH2PO4 (KDP), LiNbO3 (LN), LiTaO3 (LT), BaTiO3 (BT),
PbTiO3 (PT), Pb (Zr,Ti) O3 (PZT), (Pb,La)TiO3 (PLT), and
(Pb,La)(Zr,Ti)O3 (PLZT), were developed in the form of bulk single-crystal and
bulk polycrystalline ceramics.
Among these ferroelectric materials, perovskite (ABO3) with oxygen octahedral
structures is now widely used for the production of electronic components and
micro transducers.

All ferroelectric materials are pyroelectric, however, not all pyroelectric materials
are ferroelectric. Below a transition temperature called the Curie temperature
ferroelectric and pyroelectric materials are polar and possess a spontaneous
polarization or electric dipole moment. However, this polarity can be reoriented
or reversed fully or in part through the application of an electric field with
ferroelectric materials. Complete reversal of the spontaneous polarization is
called “switching”.

Ferroelectric materials contain one or more polar axes along which a spontaneous
polarization can be developed below the material’s Curie temperature. The
application of a strong enough electric field can force the polarization direction
to be changed. The arrangement of cations and anions within a ferroelectric gives
rise to dipole moments within each unit cell, and the resulting polarization can be
measured via the material’s surface current. One distinctive characteristic of
ferroelectrics is the hysteretic behaviour in the polarization vs. electric field
curve.
Above the Curie temperature is known as the paraelectric phase where the
material has higher symmetry and behaves like a normal dielectric with no
hysteresis. Some ferroelectrics have additional ferroelectric-
ferroelectric transitions (usually to lower symmetry) below the Curie temperature
and some even undergo a transition back to a paraelectric state. Rochelle salt
(sodium potassium tartrate tetrahydrate) exhibits upper and lower Curie
temperatures and was the material in which ferroelectricity was first observed.

The ability of ferroelectrics to change their atomic structure under the influence
of electric fields gives rise, in some cases, to extremely high values of
permittivity, and hence dielectric constant. For example, lead magnesium niobate
in single crystal form has a dielectric constant just over 30,000 with the actual
maximum depending on measurement frequency and temperature.

Perovskite structure .
The most commonly studied ferroelectrics have the cubic perovskite structure (in
the paraelectric state) with chemical formula ABO3 (Figure 3.2). As
conventionally drawn, A-site cations occupy the corners of a cube, while B-
site cations sit in the body centre. Three oxygen atoms per unit cell rest on the
faces. The lattice constant of these perovskites is always close to 4 Å due to the
rigidity of the oxygen octahedra network and the well-defined oxygen ionic
radius of 1.35 Å. All materials in this study have structures based on the
perovskite structure, with displacements which are important because they result
in polarization and can also lead to crystal symmetry changes. Another common
ferroelectric structure is the layered perovskite structure which consists of a
varying number of perovskite unit cells separated by an oxide layer. This structure
is also found in many high TC superconductors.

Applications of ferroelectrics

• Non-volatile memory

• Piezoelectric for ultrasound imaging and actuators

• Electro-optic materials for data storage applications

• Thermistors

• Switches known as trans chargers or trans polarizers

• Oscillators and filters

• Light deflectors, modulators and displays

4.POLARIZATION
Dielectric polarization is the term given to describe the behaviour of a material
when an external electric field is applied on it. A simple picture can be made
using a capacitor as an example. The figure below shows an example of a
dielectric material in between two conducting parallel plates. The charges in the
material will have a response to the electric field caused by the plates.

Figure The bound charges are the charges that are touching the capacitor
plates, while the free charges usually float around in the material, but for this
case, they are aligned with the bound charges.

Using the capacitor model, it is possible to define the relative permittivity or the
dielectric constant of the material by setting its relative permittivity equivalent to
the ratio of the measured capacitance and the capacitance of a test capacitor,
which is also equal to the absolute permittivity of the material divided by the
permittivity of vacuum.

ϵr=QQ0=CCo=ϵϵ0(1)(1)ϵr=QQ0=CCo=ϵϵ0

The dielectric constant is an important term, because another term known as the
electronic polarizability or αeαe can be related to the dielectric constant. The
electronic polarizability is a microscopic polarization phenomenon that occurs in
all materials and is one of the main mechanisms that drives dielectric polarization.

To explain how the dielectric constant relates to the electronic polarizability of a

material, the polarization or P of a material should be determined. The
polarization of a material is defined as the total dipole moment per unit volume.

ϵr−1ϵr+2=Nαe3ϵ0(4)(4)ϵr−1ϵr+2=Nαe3ϵ0

This equation is known as the Clausius-Mossotti equation and is the way to

interchange between the microscopic property of electronic permittivity and the
dielectric constant. In addition to knowing the electronic polarizability of a
material, there are also other sub-factors, such as chemical composition and bond
type that determine the total dielectric behaviour of a material. However,
electronic polarization is always inherent in a dielectric material.

5.CHARGE DISPALCEMENT

Electric displacement, auxiliary electric field or electric vector that represents

that aspect of an electric field associated solely with the presence of separated
free electric charges, purposely excluding the contribution of any electric charges
bound together in neutral atoms or molecules. If electric charge is transferred
between two originally uncharged parallel metal plates, one becomes positively
charged and the other negatively charged by the same amount, and an electric
field exists between the plates. If a slab of insulating material is inserted between
the charged plates, the bound electric charges comprising the internal structure of
the insulation are displaced slightly, or polarized; bound negative charges (atomic
electrons) shift a fraction of an atomic diameter toward the positive plate, and
bound positive charges shift very slightly toward the negative. This shift of
charge, or polarization, reduces the value of the electric field that was present
before the insertion of the insulation. The actual average value of the electric
field E, therefore, has a component P that depends on the bound polarization
charges and a component D, electric displacement, that depends on the free
separated charges on the plates. The relationship among the three
vectors D, E, P in the metre-kilogram-second (mks) or SI system
is: D = ε0E + P (ε0 is a constant, the permittivity of a vacuum). In the centimetre-
gram-second (cgs) system the relationship is: D = E + 4πP.
The value of the electric displacement D may be thought of as equal to the amount
of free charge on one plate divided by the area of the plate. From this point of
view D is frequently called the electric flux density, or free charge surface
density, because of the close relationship between electric flux and electric
charge. The dimensions of electric displacement, or electric flux density, in the
metre-kilogram-second system are charge per unit area, and the units are
coulombs per square metre. In the centimetre-gram-second system the
dimensions of D are the same as those of the primary electric field E, the units of
which are dynes per electrostatic unit, or statvolts per centimetre.

6.DIELECTRIC STRENGTH

Dielectric Strength reflects the electric strength of insulating materials at various

power frequencies. Or it can be defined as the measure of dielectric breakdown
resistance of a material under an applied voltage and is expressed as Volts per
unit thickness. It is an indicator of how good an insulator a material is.

In other words, it is the voltage per unit thickness at which a material will conduct
electricity. The higher the value, the more electrically insulating a material is.
It is an important property sought for materials used in applications where
electrical field is present and is a vital parameter for electrical industry
applications.

Applications include:

 Development of materials for energy storage applications

 Dielectric materials for capacitors
 Thin films in high speed digital circuitry

The dielectric strength depends on:

 The type of the plastic and electrodes

 The shape of the plastic and electrodes
 The rate with which the field is increased, and
 The medium that surrounds the insulator

The most generally used standard tests to calculate dielectric strength are ASTM
D149 or IEC 60243-1 .

The measurement of dielectric strength is usually carried out either by the:

 Short-time method
 Slow rate-of-rise method
 Step-by-Step method

Factors Affecting Dielectric Strength

 It is approximately inversely proportional to the absolute temperature. At

the same time, it is equally important to note that below room temperature,
dielectric strength is substantially independent of temperature change.
  Mechanical loading has a pronounced effect on dielectric strength
Since, a mechanical stress may introduce internal flaws which serve as
leakage paths, mechanical loaded insulators may show substantially
reduced values of dielectric strength.
 Dielectric Strength of an insulating material is influenced by the
fabricationdetails
For example, flow lines in a compression molding or weld lines in an
injection molding may serve as paths of least resistance of leakage currents,
this reducing the dielectric strength. Even nearly invisible minute flaws in
a plastics insulator may reduce the dielectric strength to one-third this
normal value.

7.DIELECTRIC CONSTANT

The dielectric constant is the ratio of the permittivity of a substance to the

permittivity of free space. It is an expression of the extent to which a material
concentrates electric flux, and is the electrical equivalent of relative magnetic
permeability.

As the dielectric constant increases, the electric flux density increases, if all other
factors remain unchanged. This enables objects of a given size, such as sets of
metal plates, to hold their electric charge for long periods of time, and/or to hold
large quantities of charge. Materials with high dielectric constants are useful in
the manufacture of high-value capacitors.

A high dielectric constant, in and of itself, is not necessarily desirable. Generally,

substances with high dielectric constants break down more easily when subjected
to intense electric fields, than do materials with low dielectric constants. For
example, dry air has a low dielectric constant, but it makes an excellent dielectric
material for capacitors used in high-power radio-frequency (RF) transmitters.
Even if air does undergo dielectric breakdown (a condition in which the dielectric
suddenly begins to conduct current), the breakdown is not permanent. When the
excessive electric field is removed, air returns to its normal dielectric state. Solid
dielectric substances such as polyethylene or glass, however, can sustain
permanent damage.

The dielectric constant is sometimes called relative permittivity or specific

inductive capacity. In the centimetre–gram–second system the dielectric constant
is identical to the permittivity.

8.DIELECTRIC LOSS

An efficient dielectric supports a varying charge with minimal dissipation of

energy in the form of heat. There are two main forms of loss that may dissipate
energy within a dielectric. In conduction loss, a flow of charge through the
material causes energy dissipation. Dielectric loss is the dissipation of energy
through the movement of charges in an alternating electromagnetic field as
polarisation switches direction.

Dielectric loss is especially high around the relaxation or resonance frequencies

of the polarisation mechanisms as the polarisation lags behind the applied field,
causing an interaction between the field and the dielectric’s polarisation that
results in heating. This is illustrated by the diagram below (recall that the
dielectric constant drops as each polarisation mechanism becomes unable to keep
up with the switching electric field.)
Dielectric loss tends to be higher in materials with higher dielectric constants.
This is the downside of using these materials in practical applications.

Dielectric loss is utilised to heat food in a microwave oven: the frequency of the
microwaves used is close to the relaxation frequency of the orientational
polarisation mechanism in water, meaning that any water present absorbs a lot of
energy that is then dissipated as heat. The exact frequency used is slightly away
from the frequency at which maximum dielectric loss occurs in water to ensure
that the microwaves are not all absorbed by the first layer of water they encounter,
therefore allowing more even heating of the food.

9. PYROELECTRICS

Pyroelectricity can be visualized as one side of a triangle, where each corner

represents energy states in the crystal: kinetic, electrical and thermal energies.
The side between electrical and thermal corners represents the pyroelectric effect
and produces no kinetic energy. The side between kinetic and electrical corners
represents the piezoelectric effect and produces no heat.
Pyroelectric charge in minerals develops on the opposite faces of asymmetric
crystals. The direction in which the propagation of the charge tends is usually
constant throughout a pyroelectric material, but, in some materials, this direction
can be changed by a nearby electric field. These materials are said to
exhibit ferroelectricity. All known pyroelectric materials are
also piezoelectric with the exceptions of boron aluminium nitride (BAlN) and
boron gallium nitride (BGaN) at certain compositions[6], the two properties being
closely related. However, note that some piezoelectric materials have a crystal
symmetry that does not allow pyroelectricity.

Pyroelectric materials are mostly hard and crystals, however, soft pyroelectricity
can be achieved by using electrets.

Pyroelectricity is measured as the change in net polarization (a vector)

proportional to a change in temperature. The total pyroelectric coefficient
measured at constant stress is the sum of the pyroelectric coefficients at constant
strain (primary pyroelectric effect) and the piezoelectric contribution from
thermal expansion (secondary pyroelectric effect). Under normal circumstances,
even polar materials do not display a net dipole moment. As a consequence, there
are no electric dipole equivalents of bar magnets because the intrinsic dipole
moment is neutralized by "free" electric charge that builds up on the surface by
internal conduction or from the ambient atmosphere. Polar crystals only reveal
their nature when perturbed in some fashion that momentarily upsets the balance
with the compensating surface charge.

Spontaneous polarization is temperature dependent, so a good perturbation probe

is a change in temperature which induces a flow of charge to and from the
surfaces. This is the pyroelectric effect. All polar crystals are pyroelectric, so the
10 polar crystal classes are sometimes referred to as the pyroelectric classes.
Pyroelectric materials can be used as infrared and millimetre wavelength
radiation detectors.