TOP DOWN APPROACH

Steps used in Photolithography

Advantages of Electron beam Lithography
1. First and for most, it has high resolution up to 20 nm.

2. It can print complex computer generated patterns directly on the wafer.

3. It is a very flexible technique that can work with a variety of materials and an
almost infinite number of patterns.

Some of its disadvantages include:

1. It is very expensive and complex with high maintenance cost,

2. It suffers forward scattering and back scattering problems,

3. It has slower speed than photolithography

 Similar to photolithography, photoresist is applied to the surface of the
silicon wafer prior to exposure. However, due to the use of X-rays, the masks
needed for this process are designed with unique materials and are thinner
than those used in the photolithography process. Typically, X-ray mask
membranes are made of elements with low atomic numbers because elements
with high atomic numbers, such as gold, have a high X-ray mass attenuation
coefficient, which means they are able to absorb X-ray radiation.

Advantage of X-ray lithography

1. X-rays have shorter wavelengths than UV light (approximately 0.4 to 4
nanometers), which allow for greater more energy to be carried and
therefore a higher resolution.

2. X-rays do not suffer from diffraction issues that are common in UV light
during photolithography.

3. Smaller wavelengths allow for greater precision, allowing for smaller

designs to be produced on silicon wafers.

4. X-rays have a uniform refraction pattern, which reduces the chances of X-

rays scattering to unwanted regions of the wafer during the exposure
process.
Disadvantage of X-ray lithography
1. The mask membrane must be made very thin and internal stress could result in
distortion of the absorber.

2. In addition, unlike UV light, X-rays cannot be focused through a lens. In

photolithography, a lens is used to focus UV light and create proportionally smaller
designs on the wafer than the size of the designs on the mask.

3. In X-ray lithography, the size of the designs on the mask will be the size of the designs
on the wafer. This means that in order to produce small designs on the silicon wafer,
one must create equally small designs on the mask.

4. The mask is quite expensive to produce. The membrane uses materials that have small
atomic attenuation coefficients, such diamond. The absorber must use materials with
high attenuation coefficients, such as gold.
 PROCESSING VARIABLES
❖Milling speed and time

❖Ball to Powder weight ratio (BPR)

❖Processing Control agent (PCA)

❖Milling atmosphere

❖Extent of filling
1. High-Energy Ball Milling Media
The HEBM media comprises milling balls and jar in which HEBM is performed. HEBM
media is a major source of contamination via diffusion as well as abrasion. Choice of
HEBM media depends upon characteristics of the material to be milled such that
contamination via diffusion and abrasion could be reduced. Stainless steel, hardened
steel, tungsten carbide (WC), and zirconia (ZrO2) are most commonly used HEBM
media. WC or ZrO2 are most advisable due to the excellent abrasion resistance,
however, their use is limited owing to the high cost.

2. Process Controlling Agents (PCA)

Process controlling agents are used to decrease the sticking of the powder to balls and
walls of the milling jar. PCA could be in solid, liquid or gaseous form, and get adsorbed
on the surface of the metal, causing reduction in surface energy. There are a number of
PCA listed in the literature and reviewed by Suryanarayana.
Stearic acid is most commonly used PCA in case of Al alloys. Ethanol, toluene,
methanol, benzene etc. are other reported PCAs for ball milling of Al alloys.

3. High-Energy Ball Milling Time (Mt)

Milling time is a very important factor, which should be long enough to achieve steady
state grain reduction and complete alloying. However, longer ball milling time
increases chances of contamination, costs time and money, and may lead to the
formation of unwanted phases. Therefore optimization of milling time is necessary.
Choice of milling time depends upon the type of mill, the milling speed, the ball-to
powder ratio, material under consideration, and the milling temperature.
4. High Energy Ball Milling Temperature (MT)
Milling temperature is an important variable. A higher temperature is
expected to promote alloying process through diffusion but leads to increase in
minimum achievable grain size. Lower milling temperature reduces recovery
rate and therefore is expected to result in finer grain size at faster grain
refinement rate. In case of Al alloys, the milling temperature was either kept
close to the room temperature or close to the liquid nitrogen temperature.
During room temperature milling, temperature of balls increases with milling
time and stabilizes to a maximum temperature after approximately 20 h of
milling.

5. High-Energy Ball Milling Speed

Milling speed is varied depending upon the type of ball mill, ball to powder
ratio, and purpose of high-energy ball milling. Usually a higher milling speed
leads to higher impact energy causing faster grain refinement. However, it
should be noted that above a critical speed, all the balls will be pinned to the
inner wall of milling vessel, causing no impact and therefore it is important to
choose optimum speed of high-energy ball mill. Additionally, increased speed
also escalates the wear of milling media as well as temperature, therefore
milling speed should be chosen carefully considering the material and other
HEBM parameters. Agglomeration of the powder was reported to increase
with increase in milling speed and more PCA (ethanol) was required to
prevent agglomeration.
6. High-Energy Ball Milling Atmosphere
Al is a reactive element therefore milling is performed in an inert atmosphere
or in vacuum. Ar is the most commonly used milling atmosphere. Use of
nitrogen, hydrogen, and helium is also reported. Other gases, i.e., NH3 could
be introduced to induce chemical reactions, leading to reactive high-energy
ball milling. Al was found adherent to the milling tools during milling in Ar
atmosphere, which could be prevented by using the hydrogen atmosphere as
H embrittles Al. Room temperature solubilities of the most of the gases in Al
are reported to be very less and therefore contamination due to the inert
gases was assumed negligible.

7. Ball to Powder Weight Ratio (BPR)

BPR has significant effect on the kinetics of alloying and/or grain refinement.
BPR largely depends the purpose, and type of high-energy ball mill. A small
BPR may not induce any significant grain refinement. Increase in BPR leads
to the finer grain size and faster grain refinement. For Spex-800 and
planetary types of HEBMs, 10:1 is most commonly used BPR. BPR for attritor
was significantly higher. It should be noted that BPR should be considered
along with the size of the balls. BPR and size of the balls should be optimized
to introduce maximum energy to the material under consideration.
8. Extent of Vial Filling
Extent of filling of the vial is also an important processing parameter for
consideration. Inside the milling jar, the space should be sufficient for ball
movement and collision of powder particles in between the moving balls.
Extent of the filling of the vial. Usually, at least 50% of the total volume is left
empty.