ARARI LRD 11th Proceeding

Amhara Agricultural Research Institute
Livestock Research Directorate
Proceedings of the 11
1 th Annual Regional Conference on
Completed Livestock Research Activities
April 30 - May 5, 2018, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia

Proceedings of the 11th Annual Regional Conference on

Completed Livestock Research Activities
April 30 - May 5, 2018, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia
Editors:
Solomon Abegaz
Likawent Yeheyis
Mesfin Lakew
P.O.Box 527
Tel: +251 - 582 - 20 64 00
Fax: +251 -582 - 26 60 77
Website: www.ARARI.ORG
E-mail: arari@ethionet.et
Published June, 2019
Copyright © 2019 by Amhara Agricultural Research Institute (ARARI), Livestock Research

Directorate, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia
The Views and interpretations expressed in this proceeding are entirely those of the authors and
should not be attributed in any manner to Amhara Agricultural Research Institute, Livestock
Research Directorate.
ARARI encourages fair use of this material. Proper citation is requested.
Correct citation: Solomon Abegaz, Likawent Yeheyis and Mesfin Lakew (Eds.). 2019.
Proceedings of the 11th Annual Regional Conference on Completed Livestock Research
Activities April 30 - May 5, 2018, Amhara Agricultural Research Institute, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia.
Proceedings of the 11th Annual Regional Conference on Completed Livestock Research Activities 2019
Table of Contents
Potential of Dry Brewery Grain to Replace Commercial Concentrate for Fattening of 50%
Dorper Crossbred Sheep on Natural Pasture Based Basal Diet ...................................................... 1
Effects of Different Proportions of Dry Brewery Grain and Concentrate Mixture

Supplementation on Performance of Yearling Menz Lambs Fed Natural Pasture Hay as a Basal
Diet ................................................................................................................................................ 13
Effect of Feeding Processed Pigeon Pea (Cajauns Cajan) Seed Meal on Nutrient Intake and
Growth Performance of Broiler Chicken Breeds .......................................................................... 24
Evaluation of Different Levels of Dried Brewery Grain Byproduct as Replacement of Toasted

Soybean in Broiler Diet ................................................................................................................ 33
Comparative Growth and Carcass Characteristics of Central Highland and Boer x Central
Highland Crossbred Goats under Different Levels of Supplementation ...................................... 48
Doe Reproductive Performance and Kid Survivability of Boer and Its Crosses with Central
Highland Goats Reared at Ataye Farm, North Shoa, Ethiopia ..................................................... 67
Performance Evaluation and Genetic Parameters Estimate of Growth Traits in Boer and Their
Crosses with Central Highland Goats Reared at Ataye Farm, North Shoa, Ethiopia ................... 84
Estrus Synchronization Using PGF2α and PMSG Protocols on Abergelle Goat during Lower
Breeding Season in Waghemira, Ethiopia .................................................................................... 96
Open Nucleus Breeding Strategy for Fogera Cattle Breed in Ethiopia: Achievements and Future
Directions .................................................................................................................................... 110
Adaptation and Characterization of Major Pollen and Nectar Source Plants in Wag-Lasta,
Amhara Region ........................................................................................................................... 125
Identification and Characterization of Major Monofloral Honeys and Their Properties in Wag-
Lasta Area of the Amhara Region .............................................................................................. 133
Assessment of Beekeeping Practices of Youth Groups in Eastern Amhara, Ethiopia ............... 149
Economic Value of Pollination Service Provided by Biological Pollinators on Major Agricultural

Crops in Ethiopia ........................................................................................................................ 165
Post-Harvest Fish Losses and Fish Consumption Habits of the Local Community in Tekeze
Reservoir Fisheries, Wag-Himra Zone, Ethiopia ........................................................................ 178
i
Monitoring of Commercially Important Fishes of Lake Ardibo and Lugo, South Wollo Ethiopia
..................................................................................................................................................... 195
Compositions and Relative Abundances of Fish Species at Ayehu and Birr Rivers in Blue Nile
Basin, Ethiopia ............................................................................................................................ 212
Assessment of Some Invasive Aquatic Weeds and Water Hyacinth Effect on Fishery and other
Aquatic Biota in Lake Tana, Amhara region, Ethiopia .............................................................. 226
Survey and Enhancement of Small Water Bodies for Culture Based Fishery Development in
Amhara Regional State ............................................................................................................... 237
Magnitude and Causes of Cattle Morbidity and Mortality under On-Station Setup at Andassa
Livestock Research Center ......................................................................................................... 253
Investigation on Major Health Problems of Small Ruminants in Selected Districts of Waghemira

zone, Amhara Regional State, Ethiopia ...................................................................................... 263
Participatory Profiling of Major Cattle Disease and Seroepidemiological Investigation of

Contagious Bovine Pleuropneumonia (CBPP) and Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) in Lalibela,
Sekota and Ziquala Districts of Amhara Region, Northern Ethiopia ......................................... 273
Evaluation of Peste des Petits Ruminants Antibody Level in Vaccinated Goats in Waghimrazone,
Northern Ethiopia........................................................................................................................ 287
Health and Welfare Problems of pack Donkeys in North and South Wollo Zones, Amhara
Region, Ethiopia ......................................................................................................................... 294
ii
Preface
The livestock research directorate in Amhara Agricultural Research Institute (ARARI) is one of
the six research directorates in the institute. The directorate is conducting livestock research
activities to solve the major livestock production constraints in the region. The research activities
have both basic and applied nature with the later having the lion share of all activities. Similar to
other institutions in the country the directorate has its own GTP II target and the research
activities are geared towards achieving that goal. However, preparing a research proposal,
conducting a research and finalizing an experiment is not an end in any research process. The
collected data and the analysis result has to be written in the form of scientific paper and has to
be published. It is through publishing that the findings of any research activity can be
communicated to the end user. Unless a result is published the energy and money invested to
conduct the experiment will be lost. The contents of this proceeding are papers presented in our
annual regional completed research activities review forum. In this proceeding several research
results which are very relevant to end users are compiled in the area of animal production,
animal breeding, feeds and nutrition, animal health, apiculture, poultry and fishery. I hope the
research results published in this proceeding will contribute to the development of the livestock
sector in the region in particular and in the country at large. The papers in this proceeding will
have also an impact in modernizing the traditional livestock production system in our region. In
addition the contents of this proceeding will also be an important reference material for
researchers, university students and instructors, investors and development workers. Finally I
would like to thank those researchers and their assistants who contributed and shared their
research results to be published in this proceeding. My special thanks also go to the reviewers for
their unreserved assistance to review the articles and the editors who edited the proceeding. In
addition I would like to thank ARARI for covering the cost associated with the reviewing of the
papers, editing of the proceeding and printing. In this occasion I would like to remind our
researchers to publish their research findings in time.
Likawent Yeheyis (PhD)
Director, Livestock Research Directorate

Bahir Dar, Ethiopia
iii
Potential of Dry Brewery Grain to Replace Commercial Concentrate for Fattening of 50%
Dorper Crossbred Sheep on Natural Pasture Based Basal Diet
Tefera Mekonen1, Leulseged Alemayehu1, Mesfin Eshete1, Ashenafi Kebede1, Ayele Abebe1,
Asfaw Bisrat1, Beneberu Tefera1, Aschalew Tsegahun2, and Tesfa Getachew1
1
Debre Birhan Agricultural Research Centre, P.O.Box: 112, Debre Birhan, Ethiopia
2
Holetta Agricultural Research Center, Holetta, Ethiopia
ABSTRACT
The experiment was conducted at Debre Birhan agricultural research centre, with the objective of
evaluating the potential of dry brewery grain to replace commercial concentrate for fattening of
50% Dorper crossbred ram lambs. Experimental design was RCBD with five treatments and
initial body weight and age were used for blocking. Thirty-five 50% Dorper crossbred ram lambs
were used for this research. The treatments were: T1: Natural pasture hay adlib + 400g
commercial concentrate, T2: Natural pasture hay adlib + 300g dry brewery grain + 100g
commercial concentrate and T5: Natural pasture hay adlib + 400g dry brewery grain. Wet
brewery grain was purchased from Dashen brewery factory a dair-dried prior to supplementation.
There was significant (P<0.001) difference among treatment groups in body weight change and
inclusion of different levels of dried brewery grain in the concentrate mix gave significantly
(P<0.001) higher body weight gain than commercial concentrate alone supplemented group. The
average daily weight gain ranged from 97.99 to 124.54g. The result indicated that T3, T5 and T4
gave higher net benefit of Birr 934.43, 857.62 and 736.79 per head, respectively. Based on
marginal rate of return (MRR) T4 is the best treatment and using this treatment a farmer can
benefit 6.61 Birr for every 1 Birr investment. However, if availability of commercial
concentrates is a problem, sole DBG can be used to fatten of 50% Dorper crossbred sheep.
Keywords: Dorper crossbred sheep, Dry brewery grain, Commercial concentrate, Profitability
1
INTRODUCTION
In Ethiopia, sheep productivity has been characterized by low productivity, mainly due to poor
nutrition. In the past, efforts have been made to improve sheep productivity through feeding
management. Among the technologies so far generated, supplementation of sheep with
commercial concentrate and agro-industrial products are the major ones; though the uptake of the
technology was below expectation. This is mainly attributed to unavailability and/or high cost of
supplements. Hence, it is timely to look other alternative feed sources which are available and
cost effective. Recently two brewery factories are functional at Debre Birhan town. Brewery
grain is a by-product of these factories, which is rich in crude protein (CP) (20%), and highly
digestible (Seyoum et al., 2007). The CP fraction of wet brewery grain (~27% CP) has been a
good source of bypass protein (Merchen et al., 1979). Moreover, it contains easily fermentable
fibers (Ojowi et al., 1997). Hence, brewery grain could be used as a protein supplement to
formulate sheep’s ration.
Dorper is a recently introduced breed and has good performance across different agro-ecologies
in Ethiopia (EIAR, 2014). At the moment 50% Dorper x Menz crossbred lambs are produced at
Debre Birhan agricultural research center and distributed to farmers and investors in sheep
farming. Rams inappropriate for breeding will be culled out and sold for meat production. In
order to exploit the breed genetic potential it is timely to develop cost effective feed package
from locally available feed resources. Therefore, the objective of the present study was to
evaluate the effect of commercial concentrate substitution with dried brewers’ grains (DBG) on
growth performance of 50% Dorper crossbred male sheep and to assess the cost-effectiveness of
replacing commercial concentrate with dried brewery grain to finish 50% Dorper X Menz
crossbred male Sheep.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study Area
The experiment was conducted at Debre Birhan agricultural research center. The study area is
located in Central Highlands of Ethiopia at about 120 km North East of Addis Ababa, at an
2
altitude of 2800 meter above sea level. The geographical location of Debre Birhan is 09º 35' 45''
to 09º 36' 45'' north latitude and from 39º 29' 40'' to 39º 31' 30'' east longitude (NSRC, 2006).
Experimental Animal Management and Feeding
Thirty five 9 to 12 months old 50% Dorper x Menz crossbred local male sheep with initial body
weight of 23.20+4.79kg were purchased from the farmers who have been involved in community
based sheep breeding program and used for this study. The experimental animals were penned
individually and fed with natural pasture hay adlib at 20% refusal. Supplements were divided in
to two halves and fed at 8.30 and 16:00 h with respective to their treatments. Water was provided
adlib throughout the experimentation period. The experimental animals were treated for internal
and external parasites prior to the experiment.
Experimental Design and Treatments
The experimental design was randomized complete block design and age and initial body weight
were used for blocking. Sheep from each block was randomly assigned to five treatment groups;
seven sheep per treatment. A feeding trial has been carried out for 91 days after 15 days of
acclimatization period. The treatments were:
T1: Natural pasture hay (NPH) adlib + 400g commercial concentrate (CC)/day
T2: NPH adlib + 300g dry brewery grains (DBG) + 100g CC/day
T3: NPH adlib + 200g DBG + 200g CC/day
T4: NPH adlib + 100g DBG + 300 g CC/day
T5: NPH adlib + 400g DBG/day
The treatments were made iso-nitrogenous based on the CP content of DBG and the supplement
contains 23.73% CP across all treatments (Table 2). Commercial concentrated was prepared by
mixing 75.54% wheat bran and 24.46% soya bean cake.
3
Data Collection and Analysis
Initial body weight was measured at the beginning of the experiment for each sheep and
fortnightly then after. Feed offered and left over was measured daily to determine the feed
intake. Body weight data was analyzed following GLM procedure of SPSS (version 21).
The model used for the experiment is Yij = µ + Ti + βj + eij: Where; Yij = response variable, µ =
overall mean, Ti = treatment effect, βj = block effect (initial body weight) and eij = random error.
Partial budget analysis was performed to evaluate the economic advantage of the different
treatments by using the procedure of CIMMYT (1988) and Shapiro et al. (1994). Labor cost was
assumed to be constant for all treatments. Data on supplementary feed cost, initial and final
animal price were taken. The purpose of marginal analysis is to show how the net benefits from
an investment increase as the amount being invested increases. The marginal rate of return
reveals what farmers can expect to gain on the average in return of each investment when they
decide to change from one practice to another (CIMMYT, 1988). The initial market price of each
experimental animal was taken from records and experienced traders estimated the final price.
The price difference of each experimental animals before and after the experiment was
considered as gross/total return (TR) in the analysis. Variable costs were taken by considering
the expenditures incurred in various feedstuffs. The cost of the supplementary feeds was
computed by multiplying the actual intake of the whole feeding period with the prevailing prices.
The partial budget method measures profit or losses, which are net return (NR), the amount of
money left when total variable costs (TVC) are subtracted from the total returns (TR). Total
variable costs include the costs of all inputs that change due to the change in production
technology.
NR = TR - TVC
The marginal rate of return (MRR) measures the increase in net return (ΔGM) associated
with each additional unit of expenditure (ΔTVC) expressed in percentage, after arranging TVC
in ascending order.
MRR = (ΔGM / ΔTVC) X 100
4
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The natural pasture hay used in this experiment is poor in quality; low in CP and high in fiber,
unable to satisfy maintenance requirementof sheep (Table 1). The CP content of natural pasture
hay is below 7% which is considered as optimum level for normal rumen fermentation (Minson,
1990). The neutral detergent fiber (NDF) (75.6%) and acid detergent fiber (ADF) (61.2%)
content of natural pasture hay is too high, limits feed intake and digestibility. On the other hand,
DBG and soya bean seed cake that were used as a supplementary feed in the experiment are rich
in CP. The fiber component of DBG is too high, which could affect feed intake. However, its
digestible organic matter is high (75.2%) (Seyoum et al., 2007) and may not be a problem.
Table 1: The chemical analysis of feed ingredients

Feed ingredients DM % Ash% CP% NDF% ADF
Natural pasture hay 88.0 13.46 6.00 75.59 61.24
Dried brewery grain* 92.5 6.90 23.73 77.23 31.2
Commercial concentrate 89.10 4.99 23.73 36.54 13.11
*Dried brewery grain was used from Dashen brewery factory
Natural pasture hay and total dry matter intake was not significantly different (P>0.05) among
treatment groups (Table 3). This is in agreement with Takele and Animut (2011) who reported
that basal diet have not been affected by supplementation. Hay intake for 50% Dorper crossbred
male sheep in the current study is higher than reported for local Menz sheep (Eshete et al., 2013;
Tefera et al., 2015) as well as for 25% and 50% Dorper crossbred sheep (Mekonen et al., 2013).
Though, the total dry matter intake in the current study is higher than local Menz sheep (Eshete
et al., 2013; Tefera et al., 2015) local Tikur and 50% Dorper crossbred sheep (Mekonen et al.,
2013) it was slightly lower than reported for 25% Dorper crossbred sheep by (Mekonen et al.,
2013). The percent of dry matter intake on body weight basis was also not significantly different
(P>0.05) among treatment groups (Table 3) and the result obtained in the current study is within
the range reported for sheep by different authors (Gillespie, 1987; Susan, 2003; Abebe, 2006;
Yeshambel, 2012).
5
In this study, inclusion of DBG did not affect total dry matter intake (Table 3). In agreement with
the findings of Inthapanya et al. (2016), inclusion of 5% ensiled brewery grain in the diet did not
reduce feed intake, rather improved it. According to Kearl (1982) the calculated and offered CP
requirement for 25kg weighing sheep was satisfactory (Table 3).
Table 2: The composition of experimental diets (in DM)

Treatments
Feed ingredient T1 T2 T3 T4 T5
Natural pasture hay Adlib Adlib Adlib Adlib Adlib
Commercial concentrate 356.4 89.1 178.2 267.3 0.0
Dried brewery grains 0 276.0 184.0 92.0 368.0
Total supplement 356.4 365.1 362.1 359.3
CP % 23.73 23.73 23.73 23.73 23.7
CP: crude protein; T1: Natural pasture hay (NPH) adlib + 400g commercial concentrate; T2:
NPH adlib + 300g dry brewery grains + 100g commercial concentrate; T3: NPH adlib + 200g
dry brewery grains + 200g commercial concentrate; T4: NPH adlib + 100g dry brewery
grains+300g commercial concentrate; T5: NPH adlib + 400g dry brewery grains.
Total body weight change and average daily weight gain of 50% Dorper X Menz sheep
significantly differ (P<0.01) among the treatment groups (Table 4). In the current study,
inclusion of DBG in the concentrate mix significantly (P<0.01) increased body weight gain
compared to CC alone supplemented group (T1). Except in T1, the mean body weight gain
observed in this study is comparable with that of Mekonen et al. (2014); Ayele et al. (2016)
reported for 50% Dorper crossbred sheep supplemented with 400-448g CC. According to these
authors 50% Dorper crossbred sheep gained 126.0 and 117.1 g/head/day. However, the lower
body weight gained in this experiment as compared with Ayele et al. (2016) for 50% Dorper
crossbred sheep indicate 400g/d commercial concentrate supplementation may not satisfy the
nutrient requirement of the breed. Galmessa (2013) and Nake et al. (in press) reported that the
capacity of DBG to replace commercial concentrate without affecting growth rate of calves and
Menz sheep, respectively.
6
Table 3: The feed and nutrient intake of 50% Dorper X Menz crossbred sheep fed natural pasture
hay as a basal diet and supplemented with different proportion of dried brewery grain and
commercial concentrate
% DM intake on body CP intake
Hay intake g/d Total DM intake g/d weight basis g/d Mean +
Treatment Mean + SE (g) Mean + SE (g) Mean + SE (%) SE
T1 669.93 (19.24) 1027.01 (19.24) 3.33 (0.16) 124.93 (1.16)
T2 663.40 (21.28) 1036.17 (21.28) 3.37 (0.17) 128.26 (1.28)
T3 665.49 (21.28) 1033.02 (21.28) 3.69 (0.16) 127.15 (1.28)
T4 651.08 (19.24) 1013.39 (19.24) 3.44 (0.15) 125.04 (1.16)
T5 660.33 (21.16) 1038.33 (21.16) 3.30 (0.16) 129.32 (1.27)
Mean 662.05 (9.21) 1029.58 (9.21) 3.43 (0.73) 126.94 (0.55)
P-value P > 0.05 P > 0.05 P > 0.05 P > 0.05
LS: Level of significance; T1: Natural pasture hay (NPH) adlib + 400g commercial concentrate;
T2: NPH adlib + 300g dry brewery grains + 100g commercial concentrate; T3: NPH adlib +
200g dry brewery grains + 200g commercial concentrate; T4: NPH adlib + 100g dry brewery
grains+300g commercial concentrate; T5: NPH adlib + 400g dry brewery grains.
This finding is in agreement with Radzik-Rant et al. (2018) who reported inclusion of 35% wet
brewery grain in the feed significantly improved body weight gain of male lambs over the
control. This might be attributed to the rumen un-degraded protein (RUP) contained in DBG
(Merchen et al. 1979; Wattiaux, 2004), which improves efficiency of protein utilization in
ruminants (Inthapanya et al., 2016). In line with this, Haddad et al. (2005) found that higher
body weight gain was recorded when Awassi sheep was supplemented with higher rumen un-
degradable protein. Another probable reason for improved growth rate of sheep supplemented
with different proportion of DBG might be the higher sulphur content of distiller’s grain (Lanka,
2014) that stimulates microbial growth which increase microbial protein supply (McSweeney
and Denman, 2007). Hence, in a ration formulation, we should not consider only the level of CP
of the supplements but also should have to look in to the protein type and other important
nutrients contained in supplement, especially for fast growing sheep breeds.
7
Table 4: Body weight gain of 50% Dorper X Menz crossbred sheep fed natural pasture hay and
supplemented with different proportion of commercial concentrate and dried brewery grain
ADG, g TWG, Kg
Treatment Number of sheep LSMEAN + SE LSMEAN+SE
b
T1 6 97.99 (5.58) 8.92 (0.51)b
T2 5 123.08 (6.11)a 11.20 (0.56)a
a
T3 6 124.54 (5.58) 11.33 (0.51)a
T4 6 121.34 (5.58)ab 11.04 (0.51)ab
a
T5 7 122.06 (5.16) 11.11 (0.47)a
Mean 116.81 (2.59) 10.63 (0.24)
P-value P<0.01 P<0.01
CV% 11.48 11.48
ADG: Average daily weight gain; TWG: Total weight gain; LS: Level of significance; T1:
Natural pasture hay (NPH) adlib + 400g commercial concentrate; T2: NPH adlib + 300g dry
brewery grains + 100g commercial concentrate; T3: NPH adlib + 200g dry brewery grains +
200g commercial concentrate; T4: NPH adlib + 100g dry brewery grains + 300g commercial
concentrate; T5: NPH adlib + 400g dry brewery grains.
The economic analysis of the experiment is computed and described for each treatment in (Table
6). The major variables that determine profitability of sheep feeding enterprise is feed cost and
initial price of the animals (Table 5). Aganga et al. (2005) reported that under intensive and
semi-intensive livestock production feed is the major cost, which is similar to this study. The
marginal rate of return (MRR) analysis reveals what farmers can expect to gain on the average in
return of each investment when they decide to change from one practice to another. The marginal
rate of return (MRR) of T3 and T4 are economically attractive. In addition, the biological data
revealed those DBG supplemented groups (T2- T5) have higher body weight gain value than T1.
Moreover, T3, T5 and T4 returned a higher net benefit of Birr 934.4, 857.6 and 736.8/head,
respectively. Replacement of concentrate with DBG (T5) is simple and brought biologically good
body weight gain and better net benefit. MRR of T4 showed high return per investment (Birr 6.61
for every 1 Birr) after recovering the investment. The analysis of MRR can be used as a
supportive decision making procedure for biological results, hence, T3 T4 and T5 were financially
feasible options and the choice of the best treatment among the above three treatment is based on
the biological result.
8
Table 5: Partial budget and marginal rate of return analysis for different feeding treatments
Specific Items and their cost Units T5 T3 T2 T4 T1 (Control)
Initial price Birr/head 567.73 517.20 602.18 566.61 598.50
Total weight gain kg/head 11.11 11.33 11.20 11.04 8.92
ADG gm/head 122.06 124.54 123.08 121.34 97.99
Hay consumed for 91 days kg/head 60.06 60.06 60.06 59.15 60.97
WBG consumed for 91 days kg/head 33.70 16.84 25.25 8.42 0.00
Commercial concentrate for 91 days kg/head 0.00 15.90 7.94 23.82 32.49
Hay cost consumed for 91 days Birr/head 240.24 240.24 240.24 236.60 243.88
WBG cost consumed for 91 days Birr/head 20.54 10.27 15.40 5.13 0.00
Commercial concentrate cost for 91
days Birr/head 0.00 76.16 38.03 114.10 155.65
Total feed cost Birr/head 260.78 326.67 293.67 355.83 399.53
Medication cost Birr/head 4.20 4.20 4.20 4.20 4.20
Total Cost Birr/head 832.71 848.07 900.05 926.64 1002.23
Gross Return (GR), Selling price Birr/head 1690.33 1782.50 1487.53 1663.43 1303.73
Net Return (NR) Birr/head 857.62 934.43 587.48 736.79 301.50
∆GR - 92.17 294.97 175.90 -359.70
∆TVC - 15.36 51.98 26.59 75.59
MRR (%) 600.03 D 661.65 D
T = Treatment, GR = Gross return, NR = Net return, MRR = Marginal rate of return, ∆TVC =
change in total variable cost, D= Dominated; T1: Natural pasture hay adlib + 400g commercial
concentrate; T2: NPH adlib + 300g dry brewery grains + 100g commercial concentrate; T3:
Natural pasture adlib + 200g dry brewery grains + 200g commercial concentrate; T4: Natural
pasture hay adlib + 100g dry brewery grains + 300g commercial concentrate; T5: Natural
pasture hay adlib + 400g dry brewery grains; WBG = Wet brewery grain
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
Inclusion of DBG at different level in the concentrate mix significantly improved body weight
change. Inclusion of 25% DBG has higher MRR%, followed by 50% inclusion of DBG in the
concentrate mix. Sole DBG supplementation gave high net benefit and there is no problem in
mixing of DBG in the commercial concentrate mixture. In the areas where availability of
commercial concentrate is limited and expensive, DBG can be used as the best treatment for 50%
Dorper crossbred sheep fattening. The result should be verified at on-farm level.
9
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Prod, DOI 10.1007/s11250-013-0532-y.
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of America, 483p.
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Bisrat (in-press). Effects of different proportions of dry brewery grains and concentrate
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T. Niemiec. 2018. The effect of the addition of wet brewer’s grain to the diet of lambs on
body weight gain, slaughter valueand meat quality. Archives Animal Breeding, 61
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values of Ethiopian feeds.Research report 73, Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research,
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Tefera Mekonen, Getachew Animut, Mengistu Urge. 2015. Digestibility and feed intake of
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2018. Weight and carcass changes of Dorper sheep supplemented with forage legumes and
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Pakistan Journal of Nutrition11 (4): 322-331.
12
Effects of Different Proportions of Dry Brewery Grain and Concentrate Mixture

Supplementation on Performance of Yearling Menz Lambs Fed Natural Pasture Hay as a
Basal Diet
Nake Ziku1, Tefera Mekonen1, Aschalew Tsegahun2, Beneberu Tefera1, Ayele Abebe1 and
Asfaw Bisrat1
1
Debre Birhan Agricultural Research Center, P.O.Box 112, Debre Birhan, Ethiopia
2
Holetta Agricultural Research Center, P. O. Box 31, Holetta, Ethiopia
ABSTRACT
An on-station feeding trial was conducted between February and May, 2017 to evaluate the
effect of different proportion of dry brewery grain and concentrate mixtures supplementation on
the performance of Menz sheep. Experimental lambs were fed natural pasture hay adlib as a
basal diet and supplemented with 98% dried brewery grain (DBG) T1 or 69.12 % DBG + 28.88%
Concentrate mixture (CM) T2 or 44.04% DBG + 53.96% CM T3 or 21% DBG + 77% CM T4 or
98% CM T5. In addition, all experimental lambs supplemented with 1.5% limestone and 0.5%
common salt. There was significant difference (P<0.001) among treatment groups in hay and
total dry matter intakes. The highest and lowest basal intakes were recorded in T1 and T3,
respectively. Significantly (P<0.001), highest total dry matter intake were recorded for T5,
followed by T4 and no significant difference (P>0.05) was observed among T1, T2 and T3.
However, no significant difference (P>0.05) was observed among treatment groups in body
weight gain and in measured carcass characteristics. Partial budget analysis revealed that sole
DBG supplementation fetched highest net benefit. Hence, sole DBG could be one of the potential
supplements to be used to fatten of Menz lambs.
Keywords: Menz sheep, dried brewery grain, concentrate mixture, body weight, and carcass
INTRODUCTION
Sheep production is an important agricultural activity in mixed farming system of highland of

Ethiopia (Benin and Pender, 2002). Besides providing mutton, skin and manure, they are good
sources of incomeand to improve the overall farm productivity. However, the overall
performance of sheep is in the highlands of Ethiopia is low, attributed to mainly poor feeding
management.
13
Communal grazing lands are the major feed source for livestock in Amhara region, which have
been declining in availability and quality (Benin and Pender, 2002). Supplementation of poor
quality roughages with improved forage legumes and concentrate improve performance of sheep
(Tefera et al., 2018a; Tefera et al., 2018 b). However, development and utilization of improved
forage is insignificant. Moreover, concentrate becoming expensive and unavailable to proximity
of smallholder farmer. Hence, finding of locally available supplement, with relatively low cost
should come on top of research agenda.
Currently, two brewery factories are operating at Debre Birhan town. Brewery spent grain, the
major byproduct of brewery factory, is used as livestock feed. Brewery spent grain is rich in
protein and modest in energy (Seyoum et al., 2007) and a good source of bypass protein
(Merchen et. al., 1979), which could partly replace concentrate mixture for sheep fattening.
Hence this experiment was designed to evaluate the potential of DBG to replace concentrate
mixture in fattening of Menz sheep.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Description of the Study Area
The experiment was conducted at Debre Birhan Agricultural Research Centre (DBARC).
DBARC is located in the central highlands of Ethiopia, 120 km North East of Addis Ababa, at an
altitude of 2800 meter above sea level. The geographical location of DBARC is 09º 35' 45'' to
09º 36' 45'' North latitude and from 39º 29' 40'' to 39º 31' 30'' East longitude (NSRC, 2006). The
average annual rainfall is 897.8 mm. The temperature, which is relatively cool, ranges from 6.5
to 22oC, (NSRC, 2006). The area is characterized by mixed crop livestock production system.
Barley, wheat, and faba bean are the major crops grown in the area. Among livestock kept in the
area, cattle and sheep are the dominant species. The grazing area is dominated by Andropogan
absynicus and Trifolium spp.
14
Feed Preparation and Feeding Procedure
Grass haydominated by Andropogan absynicus and Trifolium species was harvested from the
center, cured, baled and kept under shade until fed to experimental lambs. The wet brewery spent
grain was brought from Debre Birhan Dashen beer factory at 7 days interval. Wet brewery spent
grain was air dried and kept in sack pending an experiment. Lentil husk was purchased from
small scale pulse crop processor at Debre Birhan town. The oat grains produced with in DBARC,
which was coarsely grounded prior to feeding. Coarsely grounded Noug seed cake (Guizotia
abyssinica), wheat bran, salt and limestone were purchased from local market. The concentrate
mix was prepared by mixing wheat bran, noug seed cake, oat grain, lentil husk, salt and
limestone after separate weighing of each component. The brewers dried grain and concentrate
were mixed thoroughly based on the proposed proportions (Table 1).
Natural pasture hay was fed, as the basal diet, to all experimental animals adlibitum. The
supplements were divided in to two equal portions and offered at 0830 and 1600h daily. Fresh
water was available at all times throughout the experimental period. The feeding trial lasted for
96 days following 15 days of acclimation period. The sheep were penned individually and each
sheep were fed according to the treatments.
Table 1: Percentage composition of the experimental rations

Treatment diets
Ingredients T1 T2 T3 T4 T5
Natural pasture hay Adlib Adlib Adlib Adlib Adlib
Dry Brewers grain 98 69.12 44.04 21 0.0
Wheat bran 0.0 6.46 12.11 17 22.0
Noug seed cake 0.0 9.69 18.17 26 33.0
Oat grain 0.0 4.40 8.26 12 15
Lentil husk 0.0 8.33 15.42 22 28
Lime stone 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
Salt 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
CP, % (calculated) 13.98 13.82 13.82 13.85 14.0
ME, MJ/kg DM (calculated) 12.1 12.16 12.29 12.69 12.69
CP: Crud protein; ME: Metabolizable energy; MJ: Mega Joule; DM: Dry mater; T1: 98% DBG
supplementation; T2: 69.12% DBG + 28.88% CM; T3: 44.04% DBG + 53.96% CM; T4: 21%
DBG + 77% CM; T5: 98% CM
15
Table 2: Actual composition of experimental diet (as fed basis)

Concentrate mixture
Treatments DBG ( g) NSC (g) WB (g) OG (g) LH ( g) Lime stone (g) Salt (g)
Treatment1 452 0 0 0 0 6.24 2.08
Treatment 2 333 46.16 30.15 21.05 39.08 6.51 2.17
Treatment 3 222 92 60 42 78 6.81 2.27
Treatment 4 111 138 90 63 117 7.16 2.39
Treatment 5 0 188 123 85.69 159 7.66 2.55
DBG: Dried brewery grain; NSC: Noug seed cake; WB: Wheat bran; OG: Oats grain; LH: lentil
husk;Treatment 1: 98% DBG supplementation; Treatment 2: 69.12% DBG + 28.88%
concentrate mix (CM); Treatment 3: 44.04% DBG + 53.96% CM; Treatment 4: 21% DBG +
77% CM; Treatment 5: 98% CM
Experimental Animal Management
All experimental animals were vaccinated against sheep pox and anthrax. Similarly all
experimental animals were treated for internal as well external parasite prior to the inception of
the experiment.
The experimental design was RCBD. Thirty five yearling intact male Menz lambs were
purchased from the local market and used for this experiment. Initial body weight of the sheep
was 22.51+2.06 kg and used for blocking. Sheep from each block was randomly assigned to 5
treatment groups and each treatment group had 7 sheep. At the middle of the experiment one
sheep was died from treatment 5. The five experimental rations were formulated on an iso-
nitrogenous and iso-caloric basis. Diets were prepared to satisfy the energy (11 MJ ME/kg/ DM)
and protein (10% of CP) requirement of 22kg sheep gaining 100g per day as recommended by
Mandal et al. (2004). The treatments were:
T1: Natural pasture hay adlib (NPH) + 98% DBG + 1.5% lime stone + 0.5% salt
T2: NPH adlib + 69.12% DBG + 28.88% CM + 1.5% lime stone+ 0.5% salt
T3: NPH adlib + 44.04% DBG + 53.96% CM + 1.5% lime stone+ 0.5% salt
T4: NPH adlib +21% DBG + 77% CM + 1.5% lime stone+ 0.5% salt
T5: NPH adlib + 98% CM+ 1.5% lime stone+ 0.5% salt
16
During the feeding trial, feed offered and refusals were recorded daily and feed intake was
determined as a difference between feed offered and refused. Grab samples taken in the middle
of each week and a composite sample (one for each feed type) was formed for the entire feeding
trial. Feed refusal was sampled for each animal at the middle of each week and pooled per
treatment.
The chemical analysis was carried out in the Nutrition Laboratory of DBARC. Samples were
dried in forced dry oven at 650C for 72 h, grounded to pass through a 1mm sieve screen and kept
in air tight plastic bags pending analysis. DM, CP, OM and ash analysis was done according to
AOAC (1990). Neutral detergent fiber (NDF), Acid detergent fiber (ADF), and Acid detergent
lignin (ADL) was analysed following the procedures of Van Soest and Robeson (1985). The
metabolizable energy (ME; MJ/kg DM) intake of experimental animals was estimated from in
vivo digestible organic matter intake (DOMI) values by using the equation developed by
Agricultural Food and Research Council (1993) as ME (MJ/kg DM) = 0.0157*DOMI g/kg DM,
where DOMI = digestible organic matter intake.
Body weight measurement was done at the beginning of the experiment and fortnightly then after
till the end of the experiment. Body weight measurements were taken after over night fasting.
Average daily gain (ADG) was calculated as the difference between the final and initial body
weight divided by the number of feeding days. Total live weight gain was calculated by taking
the difference between final and initial live weights of the experimental animal.
After over night fasting, all lambs were slaughtered for carcass evaluation. Quantitative data
were analysed following the General Linear Model procedure of SAS (SAS, 2002). When
treatment effect was significant, mean were separated by the least significant difference method.
The model used for the experiment was:
Yijk = μ + ti + Bij + eik;
Where; Yij = response variable, µ = overall mean, Ti = treatment effect, βj = block effect (initial
body weight) and eij = random error.
17
Cost benefit analysis was carried out to determine the profitability of the feeding treatments.
Labour cost was assumed to be constant for all treatments. The total variable costs assumed were
animal purchase, feed cost and medicaments during the experimental period. The total revenue is
the selling price of sheep, which was estimated using three experienced sheep traders. Net
income (NI) was calculated by deducting the total variable costs (TVC) from the total returns
(TR) (NI = TR – TVC).
The chemical analysis of the experimental feeds is presented in Table 3. The natural pasture used
in this experiment is poor in quality and nutrient content. This is attributed to late harvesting of
natural pasture due to unseasonal rainfall. The CP content is below 7%, which is considered to be
optimal for normal rumen fermentation (Minson, 1990). The NDF and ADF content is 62.2 and
53.3%, respectively, which can limit feed intake. On the other hand the CP content of dried
brewery grain is above 20%. This indicates DBG could be used as a protein supplement in sheep
ration.
Table 3: The chemical composition of experimental feeds

Feed DM% ASH% CP% NDF% ADF% ADL%
NPH 90 13.33 5.82 62.22 53.33 31.11
BDG 91 8.8 21.74 36.66 28.88 11.11
Wheat bran 88 5.5 14.73 34.44 15.55 10
Oat grain 87 5.5 10.62 65.55 57.77 37.77
Lentil husk 88 12.22 19.44 57.77 47.77 26.66
Noug seed cake 87 12.22 35 40 31.11 14.44
ADF: Acid detergent fiber; ADL; Acid detergent lignin; BDG: Brewery dried grain; DM: Dry
matter; CP: Crude protein; NDF: Neutral detergent fiber; Natural pasture hay
There was significant difference (P<0.0001) among treatment groups in hay as well as total dry
matter intake (Table 4). The higher hay intake was recorded for sole DBG supplemented group.
On the contrary, the higher dry matter intake was measured for 100% concentrate mix
supplemented group, which was followed by 75% and 50% CM supplemented group. To make
the ration iso-nitrogenous the proportion of concentrate mix increased in the diet as the CP% of
the feed ingredients in the concentrate mix was low (the amount of CM increased as the level of
DBG reduced in the ration).
18
All offered supplements were consumed by the experimental animals and the total feed intake
increased as the proportion of concentrate mix increased. The higher hay intake is for sole DBG
supplemented group compared to sole CM supplemented group, which is due to substitution
effect. Though hay intake is low, in this study, the total dry matter intake is similar with Tefera et
al. (2014a) reported for Menz sheep. This is because of higher amount of concentrate in current
study (600 vs. 300g).
Table 4: Effects of different proportions of dry brewery grains and concentrate mixture
supplementation on feed intake of Menz sheep fed natural pasture hay as a basal diet
Hay DM intake Supplement DM Total DM intake
Treatments N LSMEAN + SE intake (Mean) LSMEAN + SE
a
T1 7 400.93 (2.78) 385.25 786.18 (2.78)c
T2 7 389.53 (2.78)ab 396.93 786.46 (2.77)c
c
T3 7 372.18 (2.78) 415.53 787.72 (2.77)c
T4 7 377.81 (2.78)bc 435.13 812.94 (2.78)b
bc
T5 6 383.03 (3.05) 462.77 845.80 (3.05)a
LS P<0.0001 P<0.0001
CV% 1.91 0.91
CV: Coefficient of variation; LS: Level of significance; N: number of observations; T1: 98%
dried brewery grain (DBG); T2: 69.12% DBG + 28.88% concentrate mix (CM); T3: 44.04%
DBG + 53.96% CM; T4:21% DBG + 77% CM; T5: 98% CM
There is no significant difference (P>0.05) among treatment groups in body weight gain (Table
5). This indicates dried brewery grain could totally replace the fattening ration without affecting
growth rate of Menz sheep. The ADG found in the current study is higher than reported for Menz
sheep (Tefera et al., 2014; Eshete et al., 2013). This might be either due to the higher amount of
supplement used inthe current study (600 vs. 300g, as fed basis) or inclusion of brewery grain,
which has a potential to improve body weight gain in sheep (Radzik-Rant et. al., 2018; Mullu et
al., 2008; Tefera et al., in press). Despite different source of protein supplements, which are
different in rumen degradability, used in the current study no significant difference was observed
among treatments. Noug seed cake is completely degraded in the rumen, whereas, DBG is good
source of Rumen un-degradable protein (RUP) (Merchen et al., 1979). There is evidence that
inclusion of some bypass protein in supplement improves growth rate in high producing
ruminants (Haddad et al., 2005; Moore et al., 1999). However, in sheep breeds which have slow
growth rate, increasing the level of RUP did not improve body weight gain (Habib et al., 2001).
19
Menz sheep is a slowly growing breed and its protein requirement could be satisfied by
microbial protein synthesized in the rumen. Hence, for sheep breed, such as Menz sheep which
has slow growth rate, there is no need to worry about the extent of RUP in the protein
supplement; rather the focus should be improving efficiency of microbial protein synthesis.
supplementation on body weight change of Menz sheep fed natural pasture hay as a basal diet
Treatments N ADG (LSMEAN + SE) TWG (LSMEAN + SE)
T1 7 73.51 (6.09) 7.06 (0.59)
T2 7 82.14 (6.09) 7.89 (0.59)
T3 7 75.00 (6.09) 7.20 (0.59)
T4 7 69.64 (6.09) 6.69 (0.59)
T5 6 74.12 (6.69) 7.12 (0.64)
LS NS NS
CV% 21.52 21.52
ADG: Average daily gain; CV: Coefficient of variation; LS: Level of significance; N: number of
observations; TWG: Total weight gain; T1: 98% dried brewery grain (DBG); T2: 69.12% DBG
+ 28.88% concentrate mix (CM); T3: 44.04% DBG + 53.96% CM; T4:21% DBG + 77% CM;
T5: 98% CM
No significant difference (P>0.05) was observed among treatment groups in hot carcass weight
(HCW) and dressing percentage (Table 6). The HCW and dressing percentage (DP) observed in
this study was higher than previous research reports for Menz sheep (Eshete et al., 2013; Tefera
et al., 2014). This is attributed to the higher concentrate supplementation in current study (600
vs. 300g). Hence, 300g of concentrate supplementation, which is considered satisfactory for
Menz sheep, needs reconsideration.
The partial budget analysis shows that as the level of DBG increase in the fattening ration the net
benefit increase. The highest profit was attained when sole DBG was supplemented replacing the
whole concentrate mix (Table7). There is positive net benefit for all treatments; the sensitivity
analysis showed that there is positive net benefit at 5 and 10% increase in total cost and 5 and
10% decrease in selling price. However, the net benefit is positive for only sole DBG
supplementation at 20% increase in total cost and decrease in selling price. This could bedue to
the lower cost of DBG compared to CM.
20
supplement on carcass characteristics of Menz sheep fed natural pasture hay as a basal diet
Hot carcass weight (Kg) Dressing % on SW
Treatment N LSMEAN + SE LSMEAN + SE
T1 7 13.83 (0.45) 46.02 (0.59)
T2 7 14.69 (0.45) 46.22 (0.59)
T3 7 14.26 (0.45) 45.88 (0.59)
T4 7 14.41 (0.45) 46.94 (0.59)
T5 6 14.41 (0.49) 46.70 (0.65)
LS NS NS
CV% 8.24 3.37
CV: Coefficient of variation; DP: Dressing percentage; HCW: Hot carcass weight; LS: Level of
significance; N: number of observations; T1: 98% dried brewery grain (DBG); T2: 69.12%
DBG + 28.88% concentrate mix (CM); T3: 44.04% DBG + 53.96% CM; T4:21% DBG + 77%
CM; T5: 98% CM
Table 7: The partial budget analyses of different proportion of dry brewery grains and
concentrate mixture supplementation for Menz sheep
Description Sheep feeding with different treatment
Treatments T1 T2 T3 T4 T5
Selling Price (Birr/head) 1661.00 1680.00 1668.00 1638.00 1654.00
Average total cost (Birr/head) 1095.76 1165.90 1206.30 1259.16 1322.24
Net benefit (Birr/head) 565.24 514.10 461.70 378.84 331.76
Sensitivity analysis
+ 5% total cost (Birr/head) 1150.55 1224.20 1266.62 1322.12 1388.35
-5% selling Price (Birr/head) 1577.95 1596.00 1584.60 1556.10 1571.30
+10% total cost (Birr/head) 1205.34 1282.49 1326.93 1385.08 1454.46
+20% total cost (Birr/head) 1314.91 1399.08 1447.56 1510.99 1586.69
Net benefit (Birr/head) 13.89 -55.08 -113.16 -200.59 -263.49
T1: 98% dried brewery grain (DBG); T2: 69.12% DBG + 28.88% concentrate mix (CM); T3:
44.04% DBG + 53.96% CM; T4: 21% DBG + 77% CM; T5: 98% CM
21
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Replacement of concentrate mixture with DBG up to 100% did not affect growth rate, hot
carcass and dressing percentage in Menz sheep. However, due to lower cost of DBG, the highest
net benefit was attained for sole DBG supplementation. Hence, sole DBG could be supplemented
to fatten Menz sheep fed natural pasture hay as a basal diet.
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23
Effect of Feeding Processed Pigeon Pea (Cajauns Cajan) Seed Meal on Nutrient Intake and
Growth Performance of Broiler Chicken Breeds
Solomon Tiruneh1, Molla Bishaw1, Abito Asres1, Asres Zegeye1, Liuel Yezengaw1 and Mesfin
Lakew2
1
Sirinka Agricultural Research Center, P.O.Box 74, Woldia, Ethiopia
2
Amhara Agricultural Research Institute, P.O.Box 527, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia
ABSTRACT
A total of 300 day old chicks Cobb 500 strain of broiler chicks were initially raised together for
one week in a brooding house at Jari Agricultural Research sub-center. At the end of the
brooding period (1 week), 285 chicks were randomly distributed into 15 pens equally;
representing 5 feeding treatments to evaluate the performance of chicks fed varying dietary
levels of pigeon pea seed meal (PSM) replacing soybean meal (SBM) up to the age of 56 days.
Treatments were the inclusion of PSM at 0 (T1), 5 (T2), 10 (T3), 15 (T4) and 20% (T5) of SBM.
Two birds were randomly selected from each replication for carcass evaluation at the end of the
feeding experiment. The result showed that PSM used in the experiment had the crude protein
content of 21%. Daily Dry Matter (DM) intake of chicks ranged 87.73 to 100.31 g/bird and was
greater (P<0.05) for T4 than T5 and T2. Daily body weight gain of chicks for the entire
experimental period was 36.01, 35.76, 37.51, 34.96 and 36.02g for T1, T2, T3, T4, and T5,
respectively, and values were greater for T3 as compared to T1, T2, T 4 and T 5 (P<0.05).
Replacement of PSM for SBM lowered (P<0.05) yield of most parameters such as dressed
weight, eviscerated weight, breast weight, thigh weight, drumstick weight, and giblet weight.
Depending on the production parameters measured, PSM can be substituted to SBM in broilers
diet up to a level of 20% inclusion in the total ration without negative effect on production
performance and did not have any adverse effect on the health of birds, indicating the potential
of the grain as an alternative feed ingredient in poultry feeding in areas where pigeon pea is
available.
Keywords: Carcass yield, Dry matter intake, Pigeon pea, Weight gain
24
INTRODUCTION
Ethiopia is believed to have the largest livestock population in Africa. The recent poultry
population census CSA (2016) shows that Ethiopia has about 60.51 million poultry. This sub-
sector has been contributing a considerable portion to the economy of the country by providing
food, cash income, promoting saving, social functions and employment (Mburu et al., 2012).
Besides, chicken production in the urban peri-urban areas contributes to employment
opportunities for the youth, elders, women and disabled (Axumite, 1994 cited in Dereje, 2011).
Pigeon pea (Cajanus Cajan) is an important grain legume commonly grown and consumed by
livestock in tropical and subtropical regions of the world (ICRISAT, 1986). Pigeon pea contains
a high level of crude protein ranges from 21-30% (Udedibie and Igwe, 1989; Amaefule and
Onwudike, 2000). This provides the best source of feed for livestock in addition to manufacture
of the byproduct. Pigeon pea was found to contain as percentage CP (22- 27), CF (7.3-10), NFE
(61.2), Fat (1.7-2.1), Ash (3.1-4.2), Lysine about 7.59 (Morton, 1976; Grimand, 1988). Amino
acid availability was 82.33% with low content of sulfur amino acids especially Cystine and
Methionine.
Moreover, pigeon pea is a good source of soluble vitamins especially Thiamin, Riboflavin,
Niacin and Choline (Singh, 1977). The Metabolizable Energy (ME) content was 11.1 MJ/kg in
the raw and 12.0 MJ/kg in the toasted seed meal. Anti-nutritional factors in Nigerian pigeon pea
seed include trypsin inhibitor activity, tannins, and phytases. According to Khadiga et al. (2009);
inclusion of 10% processed pigeon pea seeds had no significant effects on feed intake, weight
gain, feed conversion ratio, final live body weight, hot carcass weight, and dressing percentage.
On the other hand, broiler chicks could be fed up to 25% CCSM in the diet as raw, toasted,
boiled or soaked CCSM without any adverse effect on the performance of the broiler chicks
(Kperegbeyi and Ikperite, 2009)
In the same manner, the inclusion of roasted PSM can be included in broiler starter and finisher
diets at 26% and 27% levels, respectively without any adverse effect on the health and overall
performance of broiler birds. At such levels of inclusion, roasted PSM can replace 40% of
soybean and 31.19% of maize in broiler starter diets, while 50% of soybean and 24.39% of
25
maize can be replaced in broiler finisher diets (Ani and Okeke, 2011). On the other hand,
processing of Cajanus Cajan seed significantly improved CCSM utilization and CP retention of
the broiler chicks, especially boiled and toasted CCSM (Ani and Okeke, 2011).
In the study area, pigeon pea has been promoted to be planted for soil and water conservation
practices and as animal feed. Following this plantation, farmers were producing pigeon pea seed.
So it is mandatory to find alternative means of utilization for this resource. On the other hand,
poultry feed protein source is costly, and hence it is important to use this available resource
wisely. Therefore, the objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of feeding pigeon pea
(Cajuns Cajan) seed meal on nutrients intake and growth performances of Broiler chicken
breeds.
The experiment was conducted at Sirinka Agricultural Research Center in Jari sub Center,
located in the eastern Amhara region of Ethiopia, about 435 km northeast of Addis Ababa.
Geographically the experimental site is located at 11°14′N latitude and 39°40′E longitude and an
elevation of 1700 m above sea level (m.a.s.l). The mean maximum and minimum temperatures
during the growing season were 28.0 and 6.0 °C, respectively.
Animals, Experimental Design and Treatments
The experimental period lasted for 7 weeks (starter fed for 3 weeks and finisher fed for 4 weeks)
in 2017. A total of 300 day-old chicks Cobb 500 strain of broiler chicks were initially raised
together for one week in a brooding house. At the end of the brooding period (1 week), 285
chicks were randomly assigned to 5 treatment diets in a completely randomized design. Each
group was replicated 3 times with 19 chicks per replica. Birds were sourced from Debre Zeit
private poultry farm.
26
Table 1: Chemical composition of feed ingredients used to formulate the experimental rations
Boiled pigeon Boiled Soybean
Nutrients pea meal meal Corn grain Wheat bran
DM % 89 91 91 92
Ash% 3.33 5.55 4.44 14
CP % 21.68 34.06 11.63 18
NDF% 25.55 24.44 17.77 30.13
ADF % 15.55 15.55 8.88 23.64
ADL % 4.44 6.66 3.33 13.04
Table 2: Proportion of ingredients used in formulating diets for the experiment ration (%)
Diet T1 T2 T3 T4 T5
composition Starter Finisher Starter Finisher Starter Finisher Starter Finisher Starter Finisher
Maize 56 60 54 57 52 54 44 51 39 52
Soybean 28 21 21 16 14 12 7 8 0 0
Pigeon pea 0 0 8 8 16 15 24 22 32 29
Wheat Bran 15.4 18.4 16.4 18.4 17.4 18.4 24.4 18.4 28.4 18.4
Salt 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
Min.vit 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
Nutrient content
DM 89 89 89 89 89 90 90 89 89 89
CP 21.3 20.04 21.7 20.43 21.01 20.22 20.98 20.29 21.03 19.53
Ash 21.37 11.23 19.01 10.11 10.11 14.60 11.23 10.11 10.11 10.11
NDF 12.22 20.00 14.44 16.67 14.44 17.78 13.33 21.11 15.56 11.11
Processing and Formulating of Feeds
The pigeon pea and soya bean seeds were boiled in an aluminum pot using dried firewood for 30
minute. At the end of the cooking period, water was drained off and the grains were sun-dried
until it was dry. After boiling, the grains were poured out on a clean plastic sheet and allowed to
cool. The pigeon pea and soybean seeds were thereafter ground to the desired particle size using
a grinding mill. Five iso-energetic and iso-nitrogenous diets were formulated using boiled pigeon
pea meal as the test ingredient to replace soybean meal protein at 0%, 5%, 10%, 15% and 20%.
The diets were compounded manually by weighing the components separately using a sensitive
scale at pre-determined percentages (kg/100 kg). The diets were mixed thoroughly to avoid
selective feeding by birds. The ingredients used include maize, soybean meal, boiled pigeon pea
meal, premix, and salt. The starter diets were fed for 3 weeks, while the finisher diets were fed
27
for the next 4 weeks. The test diets, starter, and finisher were, respectively fed ad libitum from
the 2nd to 4th week and from the 5th to the 8th week in a deep litter house.
Health Management
The birds were given vitality soluble powder against stress conditions. On the second day, they
have vaccinated the Newcastle disease vaccine (1/0). On the 7th and 14th days, Newcastle
(Lasota) and Gumboro vaccines were administrated to all experimental chicks. The number of
chicks died during the experimental period was insignificant.
Data Collection
Feed intake: The weights of the feeds offered and refusal were collected and weighed and daily
per pen. To obtain the consumption per day feed intake was divided by the number of birds in
each replicate to get consumption per day per bird. Bodyweight and weight gain are the weights
of the birds in different replicates were taken weekly and weights gained for the week were
obtained by difference. Feed consumed/weight gain ratio was calculated as the ratio of the feed
consumed to the weight gained. Carcass characterization is the last day of the trial, 2 chickens
per replicate were randomly selected, weighed, slaughtered, dressed, eviscerated and dissected
into thigh, chest, etc. The feed conversion ratio (FCR) was determined as total feed consumption
divided by change in BW (Ensminger et al., 1990).
Data Analysis
All the data collected were subjected to a one-way analysis of variance and Duncan's multiple
range tests were applied for the separation of the means, where significant differences were
noted among the treatment means.
The CP content of boiled pigeon pea used in the current study was lower than other studies
27.34% (Amaefule et al., 2006); however, it was in the range of 21-30% (Udedibie and Igwe,
1989; Amaefule and Onwudike, 2000) reported for the plant. Growth performance and carcass
response data of the broiler chickens are showed in the tables below. Growth performance of the
28
experimental of broiler chickens fed Pigeon Pea Seed Meal (PPM) at varying levels of dietary
inclusion are presented in Table 4. There were no significant differences (p<0.05) in total weight
gain at both starter and finisher phases. This result agrees with that of Ani and Okeke (2003) that
there was no significant (p<0.05) difference in weight gain among birds fed diets containing 0 to
20% roasted pigeon pea seed meal.
Table 3: Effect pigeon pea on birds feed consumption, body weight, and feed conversion ratio
Treatments
Variables T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 SEM
Daily feed consumption (g) 87.73 96.26 96.17 99.47 100.31 1.46
Total feed consumption (g) 4298.8 4717.0 4712.3 4874.3 4915.2 71.9
Initial body weight (g) 160.2 166.3 152.6 156.1 159.9 2.9
Starters final body weight(g) 497.5 457.6 491.6 477.4 470.6 6.9
Starters ABG (g/day) 23.7 21.8 23.4 22.7 22.4 0.32
Starters FCR (g/g) 1.63 1.70 1.67 1.83 1.84 0.36
Final body weight gain(g) 1678.2 1698.9 1738.4 1644.2 1680.6 33.73
Final ABG (g/day) 36.01 35.76 37.51 34.96 36.02 0.60
Final FCR (g/g) 2.56 2.77 2.71 2.96 2.92 0.38
Body Weight Change
Though there was no significant difference in body weight change parameters among treatment
groups, initial (1 week) recorded 166.3g weight were higher than the result of (Igene, Isika,
Oboh and Ekundayo, 2006) 80.81g. Final body weight (1738.4) was higher 2141g than reported
by (Amaefule et al., 2011).
Table 4: Effect pigeon pea on body weight and body parts

Treatments
Body parts T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 SEM
Dressed weight(g) 1399.9 1418.3 1496.7 1363.7 1427.6 35.9
Eviscerated weight (g) 1195.06 1202.0 1238.6 1187.1 1167.8 23.79
Leg and tight(g) 685.9 694.0 709.0 678.9 653.6 35.9
Chest(g) 197.1 196.3 196.8 203.1 194.9 4.2
29
Results of the present study are in line with the findings of Ciftci et al. (2005), who recorded
nonsignificant differences regarding feed intake and different levels of processed Pigeon pea
seed meal in broiler diets. The findings of the present study are also supported by Aniand Okeke
(2011), who reported that feed intake, was not affected by dietary inclusion of processed Pigeon
pea seeds. The results of the present study were not in line with the findings of Onu and
Okongwu (2006), who found significant differences in feed intake among the groups fed diets
containing processed Pp (raw, boiled, and toasted) seeds.
Feed Intake and FCR
Though there was no significant difference in feed intake and FCR parameters among treatment
groups. FCR (1.84) was in line with other results 1.82 (Yagoub, 1993). However, the FCR in the
starter phase (1.84) is lower than the report of Amaefule et al. (2011) which was 2.86 it may be
due to the inclusion of Amino acid in the formulation.
CONCLUSION
According to the results of this study pigeon pea seed meal can be used as a substitute for
soybean seed meal up to 20% in the broilers diet. However, to be efficient, the inclusion of 10%
boiled pigeon pea in broilers ration improves the performance of the bird. In addition to efficient
feed conversion replacement of soybean by 10% pigeon pea seed meal easily accessible and less
costly. There was no palatability problem and defected observed in all treatment groups. Thus
pigeon pea seed can be used as an alternative homegrown protein source in broiler feed.
Generally, the study showed that pigeon pea seed meal (PSM) could be a good protein source for
broilers, which can be incorporated into the diet at 10% of the whole diet.
RECOMMENDATIONS
The result of the study revealed that pigeon seed has a potential feed for broilers feed-in pigeon
pea growing areas. So, based on its accessibility and ease of production inclusion of processed
pigeon pea seed mill up to 20% improves the weight of broiler chicken without adverse effect on
its health.
30
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors are greatly indebted to Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research (EIAR) poultry
case team for funding and Amhara Agricultural Research Institute (ARARI) and for allowing
time and facility for this research
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Silver Anniversary Conference, Nigerian Society for Animal Production. Gateway Hotel,
Abeokuta.21-26 March 1998, pp. 538-539.
Adeparusi E.O. 1994. Evaluation of the nutritive potential of cooked pigeon pea (Cajanuscajan)
meal as a plant protein source for Clariasgariepinus fingerlings.J Agric Tech 1994; 2: 48-
57.
Amaefule K.U. and F.C. Obioha. 2006. Performance of pullet chicks fed raw or processed
pigeon pea (Cajanuscajan) seed meal diets. Livestock Research for Rural Development.
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Ani AO, Okeke G.C. 2011. The performance of broiler birds fed varying levels of roasted
pigeon pea (Cajanuscajan) seed meal. Pakistan Journal of Nutrition 2011; 10: 1036-1040.
Central Statistical Authority (CSA). 2007. Livelihood profile of north wollo zone, Amhara
region, Ethiopia.Available at online http://www.csa.gov.et/docs/Livelihood-2011-12
Report. pdf.
CSA (Central Statistical Agency). 2016. Agricultural Sample Survey. Report on Livestock and
livestock characteristics (Private peasant holdings). Statistical Bulletin 583.Central
Statistical Agency Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, Addis Ababa. Vol. II: pp. 194.
Ciftci M., Guler T., Dalkilic B. and Ertas O.N. 2005. The effect of anise oil (Pimpinellaanisum
L.) on broiler performance. International Journal of Poultry Sciences 2005; 4: 851-855.
Grace D. 2003. Taking Stock: Stakeholder Assessment of Community-based Trypanosomosis
Control.Working Paper 6, International Livestock Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya.
Jari Agricultural Sub-center. 2015. Socio-economical profile of Tehuledere district of Jari;
(Unpublished).
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Jotes C.C., Mariner, J.C., Roeder, P.L., Sawitri, E., Macgregor-Skinner, G.J. 2007. Participatory
epidemiology in disease surveillance and research. Review Science Technical Office
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Mariner J.C., Hendrickx S., Pfeiffer D.U., Costard S., Knopf I., Okuthe D. Chibeu D., Parmley
J., Musenero M., Pisang C., J. Zingeser B.A. Jones S.N., Ali B., Bett M. M., Araba F.A
Mehta P., and Jost C.C. 2011. Integration of participatory approaches into surveillance
systems. Review Science Technical Office International des Epizootics, 3, 653-659.
Morton J. F. 1976. “The pigeon pea (C. cajanL.millsp) a high protein”, tropical legume. Hort.
Sci., 11: 11-19.
Musa I, Waziri K. and Bilkisu. 2014. Participatory methods in the profiling of livestock diseases
in the Jos-Plateau, Nigeria.journal of animal and veterinary sciences. Vol. 2:155.
Onu PN, Okongwu S.N. 2006. Performance characteristics and nutrient utilization of starter
broilers fed raw and processed pigeon pea (Cajanuscajan) seed meal. International Journal
of Poultry Sciences 2006; 5: 693-697.
Richa K.M. and Perry B.D. 2011. The economic and poverty impacts of animal diseases in
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Preventive Veterinary Medicine, 101, 133-147.
Udedibie A.B.I. and F.O. Igwe. 1989. Dry matter yield and chemical composition of pigeon pea
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32
Evaluation of Different Levels of Dried Brewery Grain Byproduct as Replacement of

Toasted Soybean in Broiler Diet
Kegne Yismaw1, Firiew Tegegne2, Likawent Yeheyis3, Zeleke Jumber1 and Birhan Kassa1
1
Andassa Livestock Research Center, P.O.Box 27, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia
2
Bahir Dar University, P.O.Box 5501, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia
3
Amhara Agricultural Research Institute, P.O.Box 527, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia
ABSTRACT
This feeding trial was conducted to evaluate the effect of replacing different levels of brewery
dried grain (BDG) for toasted soybean (TSB) on dry matter intake (DMI), growth performance
and to determine the economical and optimum inclusion level of BDG on commercial broiler
chicks’ diet. Three hundred fifteen (315) day-old (Cobb-500) unsexed commercial chicks with
average initial body weight of 44.69 ± 0.26 g were used for the experiment. Chicks were equally
and randomly distributed in five dietary treatment groups in a completely randomized design.
Each dietary treatment group consisted of 63 broiler chicken distributed in three replication pens
with 21 chicks in each replicate. Treatments were Iso-nitrogenous and Iso-caloric with the
replacement of BDG for TSB with 0% (T1), 46.5 (T2), 64.5 (T3), 82 (T4), and 100% (T5).
Fasting chicken weight was taken at the starting of the experiment and onweekly interval
throughout the experimental period. Feed intake of birds was taken on daily bases and daily and
total weight gain of birds and mortality were recorded. All the data collected were analyzed
using GLM procedure with SAS computer software SAS 9 (2004). Significant difference
between treatments means were separated with tukey test with 5% significance level. Daily DM
intake during starter finisher and entire period was not significantly different among treatments.
The total and daily body weight gains at entire period were 1369.4, 1336.9, 1283.3, 1240.6 and
1054.0 g and 32.6, 31.8, 30.6, 29.5 and 25.1g for T1, T2, T3, T4, and T5, respectively. In the
starter and entire period, total body weight gain and daily weight gain were significantly reduced
at T5 (100%) substitution while no significant difference at the finisher phase in final body
weight gain. The FCR during starter phase and entire experimental period showed significant
difference among treatment groups while no significant differences during finisher phase inFCR.
33
At entire period, FCR was significantly higher atT4 and T5 as compared to T1. Total mortality
was 2.54%. The highest benefit cost ratio was observed at T4.In general; the results indicated
that BDG can replace TSB safely up to 82% with 23% level of inclusion with reduced cost
except, the higher FCR, which could be compensated by lower cost of production. Therefore,
BDG can be used as protein supplement for commercial poultry production in urban and peri-
urban areas where brewery industries are planted. Moreover, further research is required to
improve the digestibility of high fiber available in BDG.
Keywords: Body weight gain, Broiler chicken, Feeding, Substitution
INTRODUCTION
Ethiopia has huge chicken population which is estimated to be 60.51 million and from this
number, 94.33%, 3.21% and 2.47% are indigenous, hybrid and exotic, respectively (CSA, 2016).
Even though the country’s chicken population is large, the national income derived from this
sector of livestock farming and the per capita consumption of egg and chicken meat is extremely
low which is about 43.3 eggs and 1.9 kg of chicken meat/year (GAIN, 2015) as compared to
developed countries having 191 eggs and 44.8kg chicken meat in Brazil (Hans, 2017).
Shapiro et al. (2015) suggested that, if no investment is made in raising livestock productivity,
the livestock Sector Analysis (LSA) for 2028 showed a deficit of 1,213,000 ton or 42% of the
meat demand for all types of meat sources. However, successful investment in poultry
improvement both in genetics and environment can help to increase chicken meat production
from 48,900 tons in the year 2014/2015 to 164,000 tons in the year 2020, a 235% increase.
Among the poultry improvement inputs, the availability and quality of feed which is the main
challenge considered in the Ethiopian livestock road map to achieve the plan (Shapiro et al.
(2015). In poultry feed production and supply, there is an ever-rising prices of formulated feeds
and ingredients that determine the profit margins in poultry farming in Ethiopia as reported by
Zewdu and Birhan (2014). Hence, it is necessary to look for alternative feed stuffs that
cansubstitute for imported conventional feed stuffs like soybean.
34
Brewers dried grain (BDG) is the one among those alternatives feed ingredients that is presumed
to substitute high cost feed ingredients like soybean. A large proportion of BDG is produced as a
byproduct in brewery factory which comprises 85% of the total by products on dry matter bases
(Jovanka et al., 2010). According to NRC (1994), brewer´s dried grain contain 25.3% protein,
6.3% fat, 92% dry matter and approximately 2080 kcal/kg metabolizable energy (ME). Brewery
dried grain is fairly rich in essential amino acids like, 0.9% lysine, 0.4% methionine, 0.4%
tryptophan, 1.3% phenylalanine, 1.3% threonine and 1.6% valine (ARNAB, 1989).
Reza et al. (2013) reported that birds fed diets containing up to 20% BSG at the grower phase
approached to the control birds. Amsalu et al. (2004), reported that the inclusion rate of BDG up
to 30% did not have significant effect on the dry matter feed intake while, higher feed conversion
ratio has observed at ≥ 25% inclusion rate of BDG on RIR chicken.
Brewery factories are increasing in number in Amhara region as well as Ethiopia those results in
substantial quantity of byproducts which can be a potential feed for chicken. Although there
were research efforts on feeding of BDG for chicken, there were no specific research works in
substituting of BDG for toasted soybean and about the level of substitution on broiler diet.
Therefore, this experiment was conducted focusing on the following specific objectives.
Objectives
 To investigate the performance of broilers fed on different levels of brewery dried grain
ration.
 To determine the substitution level of BDG for toasted soybean in the broiler’sration.
 To determine the economic feasibility of BDG on the broiler’sration.
The study was conducted at Andassa Livestock Research Center (ALRC) in the poultry
experimental house. ALRC is found in latitude and longitude, 11ᵒ29̍ N and 37ᵒ29̍ E, respectively
with an altitude of 1730 meter above sea level (based on GPS reading).
35
Research Design and Feed Formulation
The research designin the current study was completely randomized design (CRD). Three
hundred fifteen (315) unsexed day old (Cobb 500) broiler chicken were purchased from Elere
private poultry farm at Debre Zeit and transported to ALRC. Chicks were equally and randomly
distributed in five dietary treatment groups. Each dietary treatment group consisted of 63 broiler
chicken, distributed in three replication pens with 21 chicks in each replica.
Table 1: Feed formulation for broiler starter ration with different levels of BDG
Feed ingredients T1 (Ctrl. G) T2 T3 T4 T5
BDG 0 13 18 23 28
DL-Methionine 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20
Lysine 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6
Lime stone 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.6 0.6
Maize 58.5 56.1 54.7 52.4 52
Meat and Bone meal 8.5 8.5 8.5 8.5 8.5
Noug seed cake 8 8 8 8.5 8.5
Vitaminpremix 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
Soybean toasted 20 10.7 7.1 3.6 0
Wheat middling 2.8 1.5 1.5 2 1
Salt 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
Total (100 kg) 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
T= Treatment; Ctrl. G = Control Group; BDG = Brewery Dried Grain; T1 = 0% BDG and 20%
TSB; T2 = 13% BDG and 10.7% TSB; T3 = 18% BDG and 7.1% TSB; T4 = 23% BDG and
3.6% TSB; T5 = 28% BDG and 0% TSB.
The wet brewery grain was purchased from Dashen brewery Factor at Gondar and it was dried
with sun drying by spreading on the ground using polythene sheet for five subsequent days with
frequent turning of the spent grain.
The other feed ingredients were purchased at Bahir Dar local market. Lysine, Methionine and
vitamin premix were purchased from GASCO trading, Addis Ababa. Five nearly iso-nitrogenous
and iso-caloric diets were formulated by substitution of BDG for TSB for the starter and finisher
chicken diets. The substitution level was based on the calculation of their CP content. The
treatment diet combinations were; T1 = 0% BDG & 20% TSB (control); T2 = 13% BDG &
10.7% TSB; T3 = 18% BDG & 7.1% TSB; T4 = 23% BDG & 3.6% TSB; T5 = 28% BDG & 0%
TSB. The diet formulation for broiler starter and finisher were shown in Table 1 and 2.
36
Table 2: Feed formulation for broiler finisher ration with different levels of BDG
Feed ingredients T1 (Ctrl. G) T2 T3 T4 T5
BDG 0 13 18 23 28
DL meth 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
Lysine 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
Lime stone 1.2 1.1 1.2 1.2 1
Maize 65.4 62.4 61.8 58.9 58.3
Meat and Bone meal 6.5 6.5 6.5 6.5 6.5
Nougseed cake 4 4 4 4.5 4.5
Vitamin Premix 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
Soybean toasted 20 10.7 7.1 3.6 0
Wheat middling 1.6 1 0.1 1 0.4
Salt 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
Total (100 kg) 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
T= Treatment; Ctrl. G= Control Group; BDG= Brewery Dried Grain; T1= 0% BDG and 20%
TSB; T2= 13% BDG and 10.7% TSB; T3= 18% BDG and 7.1% TSB; T4= 23% BDG and 3.6%
TSB; T5= 28% BDG and 0% TSB.
Chicken Management
The experimental pens were cleaned and the floor was covered with a litter of well dried natural
pasture hay with 12 to 15 centimetre thickness. The house was disinfected with disinfectant
using formalin before placement of birds. One infra-red lamp with 150 watt was fitted for each
pen as a source of light and heat. Feeders and waterers were placed in the pens one day before
the entrance of chicks. Chicks were raised on deep litter system.
The feeding experiment was conducted for 6 weeks (42 days). Birds were fed with the broiler
starter ration up to the 4th week of age and followed by a finisher ration up to 6th week of age.
Clean and cool water was available all the time though out the experimental period. The daily
weighted quantity of ration was given three times a day. The feed refusals were recorded every
morning for the calculation of feed consumption. Routine vaccines against Newcastle and
Gumboro diseases were given as per the manufacturers. Anti-stress in form of vitamins
(Vitachick) was given to the birds subsequently and majorly after each vaccination period.
Feed Analysis
Representative feed samples were taken from each of the feed ingredients and analyzed at Debre
Birhan Agricultural Research Center. Feed samples were analyzed for DM, N, EE, CF, NFE and
37
ash using the procedure of AOAC (1990). The metabolizable energy (ME) contents of feed
ingredients were calculated using the formula, ME (kcal/kg DM) = 3951 + 54.4 EE - 88.7 CF -
40.8 Ash (Wiseman, 1987).Ca and P were analyzed at Bahir Dar University food and chemical
engineering laboratory using UV visible spectrophotometric method with the procedure of
AOAC (1990).
Total and average daily dry matter intake/bird (g), daily intake of CP and ME, initial weight and
weekly base weight were recorded with sensitive balance 0.01 sensitivity. Total and average
daily weight gains (g), mortality and any abnormalities were recorded. Feed cost, purchasing and
selling price of chicks were recorded.
The data collected was analyzed using GLM procedure of SAS 9.0 (2004). Significant difference
among treatments was determined using Tukey test at a significance level of 5%. The statistical
comparison of the final body weight of the treatments at the finisher phase was done by using
initial weight as covariate variable. The following linear model was used for analysis of
quantitative data; Yij = μ + αi + еij; Where; Yij = the observation in ith treatment, μ = the overall
mean measurement across all treatments, αi = the effect of ith treatment and еij = the random
error.
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Feed Analysis
The proximate feed analysis result of the feed ingredients used in the diet formulation of the
study is shown in table 3. The CP content of the result was comparable with the report of
Solomon (2007), 24% CP. Similarly, Maertens et al. (1990), Celus et al. (2006) and Swain et al.
(2013) reported that 25%, 26% and 25% CP content, respectively for BDG in different parts of
the world. With respect to the total protein content, brewery dried grain most likely observed to
be good protein supplement feed for chicken as a whole.
38
The metabolizable energy content of BDG approached to the report of NRC (1994) which is
2080 kcal/kg ME and 2510 kcal/kg ME which is reported by Solomon (2007). The protein and
energy levels of the five dietary treatments used in the study were within the recommended
levels for starter and finisher broiler chicks. Specifically for this breed, Cobb 500 Broiler
Performance and Nutrition Supplement, (2015) put the protein requirement of broilers at 19 -
22% CP for starter and 18-19% CP for finisher and the energy requirements at 3008-3086 ME
kcal/kg for starter and 3167 ME kcal/kg for finisher phase.
Table 3: Proximate chemical composition of feed ingredients used for feed formulation in broiler
diet
Ingredients
Nutrients (% DM) TSB BDG Maize NSC WTMD
Dry matter 92 90 90 89 89
Crud protein 34.06 25.70 9.10 33.37 17.62
Ether extract 5.46 6.20 3.34 2.20 5.80
Crud fiber 6.78 19.77 3.33 18.00 3.33
Ash 5.56 10.00 4.44 16.71 5.61
Nitrogen free extract 48.14 46.99 79.79 21.06 67.64
Calcium 0.20 0.70 0.02 0.70 0.06
Phosphorus 0.28 0.37 0.22 0.16 0.16
ME (kcal/kg) 3419.78 2894.82 3656.18 1024.17 3742.26
DM = Dry matter; TSB = Toasted soybean; BDG = Brewery dried grain; NSC = Noug seed
cake; WTMD = Wheat middling
Nutrient Intake of Broilers
The daily feed intake per bird, ME kcal/bird/day and CP (g/bird/day) intake of birds at starter,
finisher and entire period of the study are presented below (Table 4). There was no significant
difference (P>0.05) among treatment groups in total and daily feed intake per bird and ME and
CP intake per bird per day both in the starter and finisher phase and during the entire period of
the study. This might be due to the fact that all treatment diets contain similar level of nutritive
value mainly energy and protein. Thus, BDG did not affect the DM intake of chicks.
39
Table 4: Feed intake of broilers at starter, finisher and entire period fed with different level of
brewery dried grain replacing toasted soybean
Treatments
Intake T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 SEM sig CV
Starter Phase
TDMI (g/bird) 1351.7 1369.9 1391.8 1372.3 1306.0 27.6 NS 3.5
Daily DMI (g/bird) 48.3 48.9 49.7 49.0 46.6 0.99 NS 3.5
ME (kcal/bird/d) 159.0 157.3 158.1 154.4 145.6 3.2 NS 5.7
Protein (g/bird/d) 10.0 10.0 10.2 10.1 9.5 0.2 NS 5.7
Finisher phase
TDMI (g/bird) 1676.3 1715.1 1747.8 1760.9 1620.7 56.2 NS 5.3
DMI (g/bird/d) 119.7 122.5 124.8 125.8 115.8 4.0 NS 5.3
ME (kcal/bird/d) 406.6 407.0 417.2 408.3 374.2 13.3 NS 10.3
Protein (g/bird/d) 22.3 22.6 23.8 23.2 21.2 0.74 NS 10.0
Entire period
TDMI (g/bird) 3028 3084.9 3139.6 3133.2 2926.8 78.5 NS 6.0
Daily DMI (g/bird) 72.1 73.5 74.8 74.6 69.7 1.9 NS 5.9
NS = Non-significant; TDMI = Total dry matter intake; DMI = Dry matter intake; g = Gram; d
= day SEM = standard error of mean; sig = significant level; TSB = Toasted soybean; BDG =
Brewery dried grain; T1 = 0% BDG and 20% TSB; T2 = 13% BDG and 10.7% TSB; T3 = 18%
BDG and 7.1% TSB; T4 = 23% BDG and 3.6% TSB; T5 = 28% BDG and 0% TSB.
This result was almost in line with the previous study reported by Amsalu et al. (2004) in which
the inclusion rate of BDG up to 30% for RIR chicks did not have significant effect on dry matter
feed intake of birds. Similarly, Zewdu and Birhan (2014) reported that the inclusion level of 0-
30% BDG and yeast mixture with (80:20) ratio in the leghorn chicken diet had no significant
difference in feed intake fed for 8 weeks.
However, this finding was not in line with Hussaini et al. (2010) who reported that, inclusion
rate of brewery dried grain at 15% on the broilers ration showed a significant difference in total
feed intake of birds at the starter phase. Similarly, this study was not in line with Swain et al.
(2012) who reported that the feed consumption of Vanaraja chicks increased significantly
(P<0.05) due to incorporation of BDG at 10 and 20% level fed during 4-9 weeks. This difference
might be related to differences in nutrient content of BDG used due to differences in barley
variety, time of harvest, malting, mashing conditions, adjuncts added and brewing technology
used during brewing and production of BDG and also might be due to chicken breed difference
used (Huige, 1994; Santos et al., 2003).
40
Growth Performance of Broilers
The initial and final body weight, total body weight gains and average daily gains per bird during
the starter, finisher and the entire experimental period are presented in Table 5. Significant
difference among treatment groups were observed in final body weight, total and daily weight
gains. At the starter phase and entire period, chicks in T5 (28% BDG + 0%TSB) showed lower
performance (p<0.05) compared to the control group T1 and other treatment means in final body
weight, average daily gain and total weight gains. In the finisher phase, significant difference
was observed between T5 and the other treatment groups in average daily gain and total body
weight gain. But there was no significant difference in treatment groups in final body weight.
The results showed that BDG can substitute TSB about more than 80% in the broilers’ diet with
the inclusion level of 23% without negative effect on the growth performance of birds.
This result was nearly comparable with the previous study (FAO, 2005) that reported inclusion
rate of BDG up to 20% did not inhibited weight gains during early growth (0-4 and 4-8 weeks)
for broilers. Similarly, BDG could be incorporated in the diet of RIR chicks from 1-8 weeks of
age up to a level of 20% without any adverse effect on their body weight gain and feed efficiency
(Swain et al., 2014).
In contrast, this result was not in agreement with the report of Hussaini et al. (2010) who
reported that the inclusion level of BDG at 15% does affected the broiler growth at the starter
phase. Similarly, Olomu (1984) had reported that with the addition of suitable fat, broiler starters
may be able to tolerate up to 30% BDG and broiler finishers up to 37% BDG without adverse
effects on growth performance.
As the inclusion level of BDG increased, fiber content could increase in the diets (Table 5). Fiber
has been known to have negative effects on the growth performance of broilers (Modupeola,
2014). High indigestible fiber content in a diet of broiler birds deprives nutrient availability for
maintenance and growth (Onifade and Babatunde, 1997). Excessive use of fiber sources in diet
may increase viscosity of the intestinal content, with a resulting decrease in bioavailability of
vitamin A and utilization of dietary fats, which adversely affects body weight gain and carcass
quality (Salah, 2012). These might be the reason for lower growth performance of broilers at T5.
41
Table 5: Performance of broilers at starter (1-4 week), finisher (5-6 week) and entire period (1-6
week) fed different levels of brewery dried grain with toasted soybean
Treatments
Parameters T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 SEM Sig. CV
Starter Phase (1-4 weeks)
Initial BW(g) 43.9 44.0 45.4 45.4 44.7 0.57 NS 2.1
a a a a b
Final BW(g) 696.2 721.2 664.2 643.3 521.0 26.93 ** 7.2
TBWG(g/b) 652.3 a 677.3 a 618.7 a 597.9 a 476.2 b 26.57 ** 7.6
a a a a b
ADG (g/b/day) 23.3 24.2 22.1 21.4 17.0 0.95 ** 7.6
Finisher phase (5-6 weeks)
Final BW(g) 1367.4 1310.4 1314.0 1291.7 1221.1 24.30 NS 2.6
TBWG(g/b) 717.2 a 659.6 a 664.7 a 642.7 a 557.8 b 18.83 ** 5.0
a a a ab b
ADG (g/b/day) 51.2 47.1 47.5 45.4 41.3 1.34 ** 5.0
Entire period (1-6 weeks)
Final BW(g) 1413.4a 1380.8 a 1328.7 a 1286.0 a 1098.7 b 33.8 *** 4.5
TBWG(g/b) 1369.4 a 1336.9 a 1283.3 a 1240.6 a 1054.0 b 33.43 ** 4.6
a a a a
ADG (g/b/day) 32.6 31.8 30.6 29.5 25.1 b 0.79 ** 4.6
a,ab,b
means with in a raw with different superscripts are significantly different; BW= Body
Weight; ADG= Average Daily Gain; TBWG= Total Body Weight Gain; TBW= Total body
weight; SEM= Standard error of Mean; SEM= Standard Error of Mean; NS= Non-Significant;
**= p<0.01;***= p<0.001; g/b= gram per bird; CV= Coefficient of variance; TSB= Toasted
Soybean; BDG= Brewery Dried Grain; T1= ration containing 0% BDG and 20% TSB; T2=
ration containing 13% BDG and 10.7% TSB; T3= ration containing 18% BDG and 7.1% TSB;
T4= ration containing 23% BDG and 3.6% TSB; T5= ration containing 28% BDG and 0% TSB.
Feed Conversion Ratio of Birds
The feed conversion ratio (FCR) at the starter, finisher and entire period are shown below (Table
6). Significant difference was recordedin FCR at the starter and entire period of the experimental
period. In the starter phase, T5 had significantly (P<0.05) higher FCR compared to the control
group (T1). However, there was no any significant difference between T1 (control), T2, T3 and
T4 in FCR at the starter phase. During the entire period, T5 and T4 showed significantly higher
FCR compared to T1 (control). However, there was no significant difference observed in FCR at
the finisher phase of the study among chicks in all treatment groups.
This result was almost in line with FAO (2005) reported that inclusion rate of BDG up to 20%
for broiler chicken did not inhibited feed conversion or weight gains during early growth (0-4
42
and 4-8 weeks). Reza et al. (2013) reported that the FCR increased significantly when increasing
levels of BDG toward greater than 20% in the grower phase of broilers. Denstadli et al. (2010)
reported that significant difference was not observed (P>0.05) at 0, 10 and 20% inclusion level
of BDG on the broilers ration in FCR at the entire period.
However, the result not agreed to the previous study of Hussaini et al. (2010) reported that feed
conversion ratio is affected at the level of15% brewery dried grain at the starter phase of broilers.
This difference might be related to differences in barley and grain variety, time of harvesting,
malting, mashing conditions, adjuncts added and brewing technology used during beer
production (Huige, 1994 and Santos et al., 2003).
Table 6: Feed conversion ratio of broils at starter, finisher and entire period fed with different
levels of brewery dried grain and toasted soybean
Treatments
FCR T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 SEM Sig. CV
b b ab ab a
FCR (starter phase) 2.08 2.02 2.26 2.29 2.78 0.14 * 10.2
FCR (finisher phase) 2.34 2.60 2.64 2.74 2.81 0.09 NS 6.3
FCR at entire period 2.21 c 2.31cb 2.45cb 2.53ab 2.78a 0.55 *** 3.9
FCR = Feed conversion ratio; SEM = Standard error of mean; Sig = significant level; CV =
coefficient of variation; NS = Nonsignificant;* p<0.05; ***p<0.0001;TSB = toasted soybean;
BDG = brewery dried grain; T1 = 0% BDG and 20% TSB; T2 = 13% BDG and 10% TSB; T3 =
18% BDG and 7.1% TSB; T4 = 23% BDG and 3.6% TSB; T5 = 28% BDG and 0% TSB.
The higher FCR of birds’ in T4 and T5 at entire period might be due to higher fiber content of
the diets. Sorghum BDG inclusion beyond 20% in the diet brought about corresponding increase
in crude fiber levels of the diet and brought a significant decline in digestibility coefficient of
both dry matter and other nutrients (Adama et al., 2007). Hussaini et al. (2010), reported that
BDG is rich in cellulose and non-cellulosic poly saccharides mainly arabinoxylans (39%). B-
glucan content decreased with malting but amount of arabinoxylans increased extremely which
are known to have anti-nutritive effect on broilers and to decrease energy and nitrogen
availability (Celus et al., 2006; Hussaini et al., 2010).
43
Mortality of Birds
The total mortality percentage of broilers in the entire period of the study was 2.54. All the
recorded mortality of birds occurred at the first week of rearing. There was no any mortality
recorded in the remaining rearing weeks of the study except lameness of some birds. The main
reasons for the mortality of chicks was stress during transportation as chicks were transported
longer distance (˃ 600 km). There was no any disease occurrence observed on chicks during the
entire rearing period.
Partial Budget Analysis
The partial budget analysis of chicken fed with brewery dried grain and toasted soybean is
presented in Table 7. In the partial budget analysis the benefit cost ratio showed that the
maximum return in raising broilers was obtained in chicken fed the diet at T4, containing 23%
BDG + 3.6% TSB (82% of substitution for TSB), followed by T3, T2, respectively. Therefore
this study revealed that T4 had better economic benefit in all economic parameters (chick sells to
feed cost ratio and feed cost/kg of total weight gain).
This result was in line with the report of Swain et al. (2012) who reported that brewers’ dried
grain could be incorporated up to a level of 20% in the diet of Vanaraja chicks for better carcass
traits and higher profit margin without affecting growth performance (Swain et al., 2012). The
partial budget analysis result confirmed the report of Modupeola (2014) who stated as
supplementation of broiler diets with medium energy and protein products such as sorghum
brewery waste is a practical approach for reducing the high cost of feeding livestock, especially
poultry. In general, inclusion of BDG in diets more than 82% as a substitute for TSB did not
have any cost advantage over the control diet.
44
Table 7: Partial budget analysis of broilers fed on brewery dried grain and toasted soybean
Treatments
Variables T1 T2 T3 T4 T5
Selling price (ETB) 72 67 64 63 52
Purchasing price (ETB) 20.01 20.01 20.01 20.01 20.01
Feed cost/bird (ETB) 32.75 26.4 24.17 21.44 17.58
Total variable cost (ETB) 52.76 46.41 44.18 41.45 37.59
Total Benefit (ETB) 72 67 64 63 52
Net benefit 20.76 20.59 19.82 21.55 14.41
Benefit cost ratio (ETB) 1.36 1.44 1.45 1.52 1.38
Chick sell to feed cost ratio 2.20 2.54 2.65 2.94 2.96
Feed cost/kg TLWG 23.91 19.70 18.88 17.29 15.98
ETB = Ethiopian Birr; LWG = Live weight gain; T 1= 0% BDG and 20% TSB; T2= 13% BDG
and 10.7% TSB; T3 = 18% BDG and 7.1% TSB; T4 = 23% BDG and 3.6% TSB; T5 = 28%
BDG and 0% TSB.
In general, the results indicated that BDG can be replaced TSB safely up to 82% with 23% level
of inclusion with reduced feed cost without affecting the broilers performance. The higher FCR
at this level of inclusion could be compensated by lower cost of production. Therefore BDG can
be used as protein supplement for commercial poultry production in urban and peri-urban areas
where brewery factories are planted. Moreover, further research is required to improve the
digestibility of high fiber in BDG and searching of simple and economical drying methods for
this bulky byproduct for ease of transportation.
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47
Comparative Growth and Carcass Characteristics of Central Highland and Boer x Central
Highland Crossbred Goats under Different Levels of Supplementation
Zeleke Tesema1, Mekonnen Tilahun2, Liuel Yizengaw1, Asres Zegeye1, Asfaw Bisrat3 and Ayele
Abebe3
1
2
Andasa Livestock Research Center, P.O.Box 27, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia
3
ABSTRACT
This study evaluated growth, carcass and non-carcass characteristics of Central Highland goats and
their cross with Boer goats supplemented with different levels of concentrate mix on native pasture
as basal diet. Nine month old intact male Central Highland (n=24) and Boer x Central Highland
crossbred goats (n=24) with 18.2±0.35 kg and 23.7±0.97kg initial weight respectively were used.
The experiment utilized a 2×4 factorial arrangement (2 breeds and 4 supplementation levels), in
which goats were randomly allocated to the different treatments. The supplementation level included:
grazing/browsing only on native pasture as control, grazing/browsing + 200g, +400g, and + 600g of
concentrate mix. Average daily gain was increased with supplementation levels for crossbred Boer
goats than for pure Central Highland goats. Carcass traits except total edible proportion as percentage
of slaughter weight and fat thickness were higher for crossbred Boer goats than for pure Central
Highland goats. Supplementation increases most of carcass traits for both genotypes and the weight
of these traits increased with supplementation level for crossbred Boer goat but not for Central
Highland goat. Supplementation of pure Central Highland on pasture above 0.78% of their body
weight had no significant improvement on growth rate, carcass weight, and primal cuts. In contrast,
supplementation of grazing Boer crossbred goats up to 1.29% of their body weight significantly
improved growth, carcass, and primal cuts. The performance benefit from crossbred Boer goat was
realized with moderate to high nutritional planes. However, under grazing only; growth rate, carcass,
non carcass traits, and primal cuts for Boer crossbred goats were not superior to Central Highland
goats. Based on the partial budget analysis supplementation of grazing/browsing Central Highland
and crossbred Boer goat with 200g concentrate mix was profitable.
Keywords: Crossbred Boer goat, carcass traits, Central Highland goat, feed conversion ratio,
genotype-nutrition interaction
48
INTRODUCTION
Ethiopia has about 29.70 million goats (CSA, 2016) and goats play important roles in
communities by improving the livelihood of resource challenged farmers by creating alternative
employment opportunities, enhancing family income by sale of live animals, skin, manure etc.
Apart from contributing to human nutrition in the form of meat and milk, they also act as an
income buffer to the risks associated with erratic climatic changes (Rumosa et al., 2009).
Despite the huge goat resource and their vital potential contribution for the improvement of the
livelihood of smallholder farmers, the productivity per unit of animal and the contribution of this
sector to the national economy is relatively low (Solomon et al., 2010) due to technical and non-
technical constraints. Meat productivity is estimated 8-10 kg per sheep and goats slaughtered
(Ameha, 2008). Therefore, increasing the current level of productivity is essential to provide
meat to the ever increasing human population, to increase export earnings and household income
thereby improving the living standard of smallholders.
An animal’s performances are not only determined by its own genetic potential but also by
environmental effects such as feed shortage and poor quality of the available feedstuffs. Natural
pasture is the major feed sources for livestock in many parts of Ethiopia. However, productivity
and availability of pasture is gradually decreasing because of increased cultivation area,
overstocking and resultant overgrazing. Ben-Salem and Smith (2008) and Kawas et al. (2010)
noted that supplementation of grazing goats significantly increases feed intake and digestibility
of feeds with subsequent increase in growth rates and meat yield. However, the exact levels of
additional concentrates needs for grazing Central Highland and crossbred Boer goat has not been
fully explored in goat production systems and needs to be evaluated.
Therefore, the objective of this study was to evaluate the growth and carcass characteristics of
yearling Central Highland and crossbred Boer goats supplemented with different levels of
concentrate mix on native pasture as basal diet.
49
The study was conducted from December, 2016 to March, 2017 at Sirinka Agricultural Research
Center which is located 508 km away from Addis Abeba. The site is located at an altitude of
1850 m.a.s.l. The rainfall pattern is bimodal, with two-rainfall season, Belg (Feb./Mar.- April)
and Meher (July– Oct./Nov.) and the mean annual rainfall amount is on average about 950 mm.
The area is a moderate warm temperature zone with mean daily temperature ranging from 16 to
21oC.
Experimental Animals and Their Management
Twenty four Central Highland goats with age of nine months, as estimated by dentition and
information obtained from the owners, were purchased from local market and twenty four
crossbred Boer goats with 50% blood level were selected from Sirinka and Ataye station. Totally
48 intact male goats, nine months old with mean initial body weight of 18.2 kg for local and 23.7
kg for crossbreeds were used for this study. Experimental animals were quarantined for 21 days
in isolated holding yard at station and goats were treated for internal and external parasites and
were vaccinated against pasteurellosis, sheep and goat pox, and anthrax before the experiment.
Following quarantine, the experimental animals were placed in experimental house partitioned
into individual pens (1.25×0.9 m) that is equipped with feeding trough and watering bucket.
Animals were ear tagged and adapted to the experimental procedures and feeds for 15 days
before the commencement of the trial. The trial lasted for 105 days including adaptation period.
A 2 x 4 factorial design was used to randomly allocate 48 goats; 24 pure Central Highland and
24 Boer x Central Highland crossbred goats, to the four supplementation levels. Six animals
from each genotype (totally 12 animals) were assigned to each supplementation levels. Goats
assigned in level 1(control) allowed to browse/graze only for 6:00 hours while kids in level 2, 3
and 4 were supplemented with 200g, 400g, and 600g commercial concentrate mixture in addition
to browsing/ grazing respectively.
50
Goats in the control group stayed in the field during the day time while during the night they
were sheltered in their individual pens. Goats in the treatment groups were placed in their
respective supplemental feed after 6:00 hour browsing/grazing and throughout the night in their
individual feeding pens.
Measurements of Intake and Growth Traits
The amount of feed offered and refused by each animal was weighed and recorded each morning
using sensitive balance with 1g precision. Daily feed intake for each animal was calculated as the
difference between daily feed offer and leftover. Representative samples of feeds were taken
from feed offered and leftover from each animal, pooled per treatment and sub sampled for
chemical analysis. The body weight of each experimental animal was measured at the beginning
of the experiment and at 15 days intervals during the experimental period. Body weight was
measured after overnight fasting to account for differences in gut fill. Average daily body weight
gain was calculated as a difference between final and initial body weight of the goats divided by
the number of experimental days. Feed conversion ratio of the animal was determined as the total
daily dry matter intake (DM) to the proportion of daily body weight gain.
Slaughtering Procedure and Carcass Trait Measurements
After 90 day performance evaluation a total of 24 yearling goats (six goats from each treatment
and 12 from each genotype) were randomly selected. Animals were fasted for 16 hours before
slaughtering but had access to water (Mekonnen et al., 2014). Body weight was determined
immediately before slaughter, followed by severing jugular veins and carotid arteries, skin
removal and decapitation at the atlanto-occipital joint. The blood was drained into bucket and
weighed. Prior to skinning and the removal of the visceral organs from the carcass, the
oesophagus was tied with nylon string to prevent contamination of carcass by the gut contents.
After slaughter, the heads were removed at the atlanto-occipital joint, while the fore and hind
legs were removed at the carpal and tarsal joints, respectively.
The goats were skinned while suspended by their Achilles tendon. Fasting loss was computed as
the difference between final live weight at the farm and slaughter live weight. Hot carcass
weights were taken immediately after slaughter and removal of non carcass components.
51
Weight of non carcass components recorded include head, skin with hocks, heart, lungs with
trachea, kidney, liver, full and empty stomach (rumen, reticulum, omasum and abomasum) and
intestines (full and empty). After weighting, carcasses were fabricated into five primal cuts: leg,
loin, ribs, thin cut and foreleg + shoulder+ neck. Gut fill was calculated as the difference
between full and empty stomach and intestines. Empty body weight (EBW) excluded the gastro-
intestinal tract contents. Dressing percentage (DP) was defined as the hot carcass weight
expressed as a percentage of slaughter body weight (SBW). The total edible proportion (TEP)
was the SBW minus the contents of gastro-intestinal tract, skin, head, feet and lungs and trachea.
All carcass measurements except fat thickness and rib-eye muscle area were measured from hot
carcass. Fat thickness and total tissue depths were measured at the 12th rib, 11 cm from the spinal
cord on the left side of the carcass (Ponnampalam et al., 2003). The rib- eye muscle area of each
animal was determined by tracing the cross sectional area of the 12th and 13th ribs after cutting
perpendicular to the back bone. The left and right eye muscle area was traced on a transparent
water proof paper and the area was measured by using planimeter. The mean of the right and left
cross section area was taken as a rib-eye muscle area.
Chemical Analysis of Feed
Feed samples were analyzed for DM by drying at 105 °C for 24 hour, ash by ignition in a muffle
furnace at 600 °C for 6 hour, CP by the Kjeldahl procedure (AOAC 2006), and neutral detergent
fiber (NDF) and acid detergent fiber (ADF) according to procedures of Decruyenaere et al.
(2009).
Partial budget measures profit or losses, which are the net benefits or differences between gains
and losses for the proposed change: NI = TR-TVC. Total return (TR) was calculated as total
weight change * dressing percentage of each treatment* current price of goat meat which was the
average of three markets. Feed cost, labor cost, and medical costs were considered as variable
costs. The change in net income (ΔNI) was calculated as the difference between the change in
total return (Δ TR) and the change in total variable cost (Δ TVC) as follows: ΔNI = ΔTR- ΔTVC.
The marginal rate of return (MRR) measures the increase in net income (Δ NI) associated with
each additional unit of expenditure (Δ TVC) and was calculated as: MRR = (Δ NI/ Δ TVC) X
100.
52
Table 1: Ingredient and chemical compositions of concentrate mix

Items Value, % of DM
Ingredients
Wheat bran 55.7
Noug cake 40
Limestone 3
Salt 1.3
Chemical composition
DM,% as fed 89
Ash,% of DM 8.98
OM,% of DM 91.02
CP,% of DM 30
NFC,% of DM 45.67
TDN % of DM 86.16
Ether extract % 5.6
NDF,% of DM 12.3
ADF,% of DM 8.86
ADL,% of DM 2.34
DM, dry matter; CP, crude protine; OM, organic matter; NDF, neutral detergent fiber; NFC,
non fiber carbohydrate; TDN, total digestable nutrient; ADF, acid detergent fiber; ADL, acid
detergent lignine
Statistical Analysis
The data was analyzed using the General Linear Model procedures of SAS (SAS, 2002)
according to a 2 x 4 factorial arrangement with breed and supplementation levels as main effects
in a completely randomized block design. Factors included in the model were genotype,
supplementation levels, and genotype and supplementation levels interactions in a factorial
structure. Although, initial weight was used as covariate variable, it had no significant effect on
parameters.
The model used was: Yijk = μ + Ti + Gj + Ti × Gj + εijk
Where Yijk is the dependent variables measured in the experimental unit “k”; μ is the population
mean; Ti is the effect of supplementation levels “i”; Gj is the effect of genotype “j”; Ti × Gj is the
interaction between effects of supplementation levels “i” and genotype “j”; and ɛijk is the random
error. Estimates of least-squares means (LSM) procedures and standard errors (SE) for
dependent variable in each level of the fixed factors were separated statistically using the PDIFF
option and declared significant at P<0.05.
53
Intake and Efficiency
DM intake (kg/day) and its constituent was higher (p<0.0001) for Boer crossbred than for
Central Highland goats (Table 2). As a consequence, CP, EE, NDF, and ADF intake was also
greater (p<0.0001) for crossbred goats and it increases (p<0.0001) with supplementation levels
for both genotypes. The higher concentrate DM intake of Boer crossbreds was in agreement with
Asizua et al. (2014) and Cameron et al. (2001). Preston and Leng (1987) noted that in the
absence of environmental and nutritional constraints, DM intake is determined by genetic
potential of the animal. This might have been thecase for the supplemented goats in this
experiment. However, relative to their body weight and metabolic weight the intake of Central
Highland goat was higher than that of crossbred goats. The average total CP intake of goats in
the present study is in line with the recommended requirements of 65-70 g/day CP for goats
weighing 20-25 kg (Kearl, 1982).The efficiency of concentrate utilization among genotypes was
similar (p>0.05). This result agrees with report of Asizua et al. (2014) for Mubende and Boer x
Mubende goats.
Growth Characteristics
The study exhibited that the growth rate of grazing Central Highland goats and their crossbred
with the Boer can be considerably improved through supplementation, with greater responses for
the latter breed (Table 3). ADG of Boer crossbreds increases linearly with supplementation
levels whereas, increment of supplementation level above 200 g/day did not improve (p>0.05)
ADG of pure Central Highland goats (Table 2). This exhibited that Central Highland goat could
not respond to high level of supplementation than crossbred Boer goat and this confirms the
suitability of Central Highland goat for low-input production system. Greater ADG for crossbred
Boer goat was observed in 400 and 600 g/day supplementation.
However, under grazing only the performance of crossbred Boer goat was not superior to pure
Central Highland goats (Table 2). This result is consistent with other studies (Joemat et al. 2004;
Negesse et al., 2007; Ngwa et al., 2009) who reported performance has been greater for
crossbreed Boer goats compared with other genotypes when diet quality was high and similar
54
with low to moderate quality diet. This demonstrated that performance benefits from Boer
crossbreeding may be realized with moderate to high nutritional planes and thus crossbred Boer
goat could be suitable for moderate to high input production system. This result suggested that
selection for improved goat performance should be done in conditions harsher than expected in
commercial production environment. Animals selected for increased growth rates in a good,
nutrient-rich environment could lose fitness and experience performance problems when placed
in a challenging, nutrient-restricted environment (James, 2009; Wilson, 2009).
The growth rates of supplemented goats in this study were higher than those earlier reported by
Mekonnen et al. (2014) for the 50% Boer x Central Highland goat (52.5 g/day), for 25% Boer
crossbred (32.0g/day), and for Central Highland (32.1g/day) evaluated intensively. Likewise,
Mohammed et al. (2012) reported 36.6 g/day for Boer x Arsi Bale goat and 20.8 g/day for pure
Arsi Bale goat which was lower than the results of this study. This was probably because goats in
this study managed semi-intensively whereas goats in previous studies managed intensively. This
finding supports the report of Getahun et al. (2005) and Mesfin (2007) who pointed out semi-
intensive system is more suitable for goat than intensive management system. Legesse et al.
(2006) noted that the quantity of digestible nutrients from forage consumed by semi-intensive
goats was greater than derived by intensive goats from hay.
Carcass Characteristics
Carcass traits except total edible proportion as percentage of slaughter weight and fat thickness
were higher for crossbred Boer goats than for pure Central Highland goats (Table 3). The
observed higher slaughter live weight, empty body weight and carcass weight of the Boer
crossbreds were in agreement with results from other studies (Cameron et al., 2001; Herold et
al., 2007; Asizua et al., 2014; Mekonnen et al., 2014). Slaughter components generally followed
live weight differences between genotypes and were higher in the crossbreds.
Dressing percentage is both a yield and value determining factor and is therefore an important
yardstick in assessing performance of meat producing animals (Yusuf et al., 2014). Dressing
percentage for Boer crossbreds was greater than for pure Central Highland goat. The value of DP
(SBW) in this study was higher than the value 41.1% for Arsi Bale and their cross with Boer
55
goat (Mohammed et al., 2012) and the value for Central Highland (42.8%), 25% Boer crossbred
(45.6%) and 50% Boer crossbred (44.4%) as reported by Mekonnen et al. (2014). The overall
mean carcass weight for crossbred Boer and pure Central Highland goat (14 kg vs 10.75kg) was
higher than the result 9.23 kg for Boer x Arsi Bale goat and 6.23 kg for Arsi Bale goat as
reported by Mohammed et al. (2012). Carcass weight of crossbred Boer goat in this study was
also higher than the result reported by Mekonnen et al. (2014) which was 10.9 kg and 12.8 kg for
25% and 50% crossbred Boer goat, respectively.
Carcass traits for crossbred Boer goat increased linearly as the supplementation level increased
except fat thickness. Similarly, increased carcass weights resulting from different levels of
concentrate supplementation have been reported by Ryan et al. (2007) in Boer goats, Hango et
al. (2007) in Small East African goats, Mushi et al. (2009) and Safari et al. (2009) in the Small
East African goats and their crossbreds with Norwegian goats.However, for carcass traits of
Central Highland goat, non-significant difference (p>0.05) was observed among
supplementation levels 200, 400, and 600 g/day. This signifies that Central Highland goat could
explain their genetic potential with low level of supplementation than crossbred Boer goat and
suitable for the existing low-input production system.
According to the report of Wolf et al. (1980), larger rib-eye muscle area is associated with higher
production of lean in the carcass and higher lean to bone ratio. The rib eye muscle area for
crossbred Boer goat higher than pure Central highland goat and the values for both genotypes in
this study were greater than the result 6.4 to 8.3 cm2 for Central Highland, Long eared Somali
and Afar goats with similar age (Ameha et al., 2007). This superiority may not be surprising as
Boer goat is selected meat type goat breed.
56
Table 2: Effects of genotype and supplementation level on nutrient intake, growth rate and efficiency of concentrate utilization
CHG CHG x Boer Significance
Traits 0200 400 600 0 200 400 600 SEM G F GxF
Concentrate intake
DMI(kg/day) 0 0.200e 0.385d 0.573b 0 0.198f 0.399c 0.599a 0.02 <.0001 <.0001 <.0001
%BW 0 0.78d 1.47c 2.14a 0 0.65d 1.29c 1.76b 0.09 0.0005 <.0001 0.214
%BW 0.75 0 1.76d 3.32c 4.87a 0 1.52d 3.04c 4.25b 0.20 0.0008 <.0001 0.2678
CP (g/day) 0 55.0e 106d 157.8b 0 54.6f 110c 165a 7.35 <.0001 <.0001 <.0001
OM (g/day) 0 182e 350d 522b 0 180f 364c 545a 24.3 <.0001 <.0001 <.0001
EE (g/day) 0 11.2e 21.5d 32.1b 0 11.1f 22.4c 33.5a 1.49 <.0001 <.0001 <.0001
NDF (g/day) 0 24.7e 47.8d 70.8b 0 24.5f 49.3c 73.9a 3.30 <.0001 <.0001 <.0001
ADF (g/day) 0 17.7e 34.1d 50.8b 0 17.6f 35.4c 53.1a 2.37 <.0001 <.0001 <.0001
Weight gain
Initial weight 17.3b 18.7b 18.4b 18.5b 23.70a 23.9a 23.5a 23.7a 0.64 <.0001 0.956 0.969
Final weight 19.8d 25.5c 26.5c 26.9bc 23.77c 31.1ab 31.9a 34.3a 0.81 <.0001 <.0001 0.795
TWG (kg) 2.12c 6.80b 8.10b 8.40ab 0.06c 7.20b 8.46ab 10.5a 0.37 0.696 <.0001 0.089
ADG (g/day) 23.5c 75.5b 90.0b 93.3ab 0.74c 80.0b 94.0ab 117a 4.18 0.696 <.0001 0.089
FCR(kg DM/kg gain) 0 2.83c 4.86b 6.34a 0 2.57c 4.40b 5.20ab 0.27 0.100 <.0001 0.596
CHG, Central Highland goat; SEM, standared error of mean; G, genotype; F, supplementation levels. DMI, dry matter intake; BW,
body weight; BW 0.75, metabolic weight; CP, crude protine; OM, organic matter; NDF, neutral detergent fiber; ADF, acid detergent
fiber. TWG, total weight gain; ADG, average daily gain; FCR, feed conversion ratio.a b c d e f Means within a row followed by different
superscripts differ statistically (p < 0.05)
57
Table 3: Effect of feeding on carcass characteristics of CHG and CHG x Boer crossbred goat
CHG CH x Boer Significance
Traits 0 200 400 600 0 200 400 600 SEM G F GxF
e
PSBW(kg) 19.3 24.6cd 27.0 cb
27.3 cb
21.8 ed
30.4 b
31.9 b
37.4 a
1.22 <.0001 <.0001 0.1490
SBW(kg) 18.1f 23.7cde 22.8 de
25.5 cd
20.9 ef
27.7 cb
30.1 ab
34.2 a
1.08 <.0001 <.0001 0.1592
Fasting loss (%) 1.13 0.86 4.26 1.73 0.93 2.73 1.80 3.26 0.34 0.756 0.124 0.066
e
EBW(kg) 16.7 21.8cd 21.7 cd
23.5 c
18.8 ed
25.4 cb
27.6 b
32.2 a
1.03 <.0001 <.0001 0.096
HC (kg) 8.33d 11.2c 11.6 c
11.8 c
9.63 cd
13.9 b
14.8 b
17.6 a
0.61 <.0001 <.0001 0.026
DP (SBW)% 45.8d 47.5cd 50.8 ab
46.2 d
45.9 d
50.1 ab
49.1 bc
51.7 a
0.49 0.0019 <.0001 .0001
DP (EBW)% 49.8b 51.6ab 53.4 ab
50.2 b
51.3 ab
54.6 a
53.5 ab
54.9 a
0.51 0.011 0.085 0.246
TEP (SBW)% 59.0bc 60.5abc 61.6 abc
61.7 abc
58.6 c
62.1 abc
63.4 ab
64.7 a
0.57 0.145 0.027 0.671
REA (cm2) 7.56c 9.26c 9.96 c
11.6 abc
10.7 bc
11.5 abc
14.2 ab
15.1 a
0.61 0.002 0.017 0.880
FT(mm) 2.16 3.51 2.33 3.33 2.83 3.83 3.50 3.0 0.22 0.350 0.399 0.730
FQ (kg) 5.03d 6.90c 7.10c 6.76c 5.83cd 8.56b 9.10b 11.0a 0.40 <.0001 <.0001 0.014
HQ(kg) 3.55e 4.43de 4.56d 4.66cd 3.90de 5.46cb 5.73b 6.76a 0.22 <.0001 <.0001 0.053
CHG, Central Highland goat; SEM, standard error of mean; G, genotype; F, supplementation levels; PSBW, pre slaughter body
weight; SBW, slaughter body weight; EBW, empty body weight; HC, hot carcass; DP, dressing percentage; TEP, total edible
abcdef
proportion; REA, rib eye muscle area; FT, fat thickness; FQ, fore quarter; HQ, hind quarter. Means followed by different
letters differ between treatments (p < 0.05)
58
Carcass Primal Cuts
The increase in carcass weight as supplementation levels increased reflected in increase in the
weight of primal cuts (thin cut, fore leg+ shoulder+ neck, ribs, loin and leg) for crossbred Boer
goat. Weight of primal cuts for crossbred Boer goat was higher than for pure Central Highland
goat. Weight of primal cuts for crossbred Boer goat was increased with supplementation levels.
Although supplementation improved the weight of primal cuts for Central Highland goats, the
difference among supplementation level (200, 400, and 600 g/day) was not statistically
significantly different (p>0.05). However, the proportional yield as percentage of EBW of the
primal cuts were similar for both genotypes and all supplementation levels, except for the thin
cut, which increased as supplementation increased (p = 0.003) and higher (p<0.0001) for
crossbred Boer goats (Table 4). Foreleg+ neck+ shoulder takes the highest proportion as
percentage of empty body weight than the other cuts.
59
Table 4: Effect of feeding on carcass primal cuts of CHG and CHG x Boer crossbred goat
Carcass cuts 0 200 400 600 0 200 400 600 SEM G F GxF
Cuts (kg)
Thin cuts (kg) 0.33e 0.57d 0.48de 0.62cd 0.48de 0.75bc 0.82b 1.09a 0.04 <..0001 <..0001 0.065
FSN (kg) 3.08d 4.13cd 4.36cb 4.26cb 3.51cd 5.33ab 5.53a 6.23a 0.23 0.0002 0.0002 0.228
Rib (kg) 1.70e 2.20cd 2.48cb 2.31cd 1.90de 2.63bc 2.93b 3.63a 0.12 <..0001 <..0001 0.007
Loin (kg) 0.59e 0.77cde 0.78cde 0.90bcd 0.68de 0.96bc 1.08b 1.30a 0.04 0.0002 <..0001 0.214
Leg (kg) 2.86e 3.63cde 3.76bcd 3.73bcd 3.03de 4.33bc 4.50b 5.36a 0.17 0.0003 <..0001 0.056
PY(EBW) %
Thin cuts 1.99d 2.61bc 2.22cd 2.65bc 2.57bc 2.95ab 2.99ab 3.27a 0.09 <..0001 0.003 0.584
FSN 18.4 18.8 20.1 18.2 18.7 20.9 20.0 19.2 0.30 0.138 0.162 0.527
Rib 10.1 10.1 11.4 9.86 10.1 10.3 10.6 11.3 0.16 0.409 0.134 0.066
Loin 3.55 3.53 3.63 3.84 3.60 3.80 3.90 4.03 0.08 0.155 0.276 0.932
Leg 17.1 16.6 17.3 15.8 16.0 17.0 16.3 16.6 0.16 0.461 0.660 0.174
CHG, Central Highland goat; SEM, standard error of mean; G, genotype; F, supplementation levels; FSN, fore leg + shoulder +
neck; PY, proportional yield.a b c d e f Means followed by different letters differ between treatments (p < 0.05)
60
Non-Carcass Characteristics
In Ethiopia dishes are made from non-carcass components such as liver, kidney, intestines,
tongue and others which are commonly available in the country (Ewunetu et al., 1998). Non-
carcass components such as; testicle, spleen, heart, mesenteric fat, empty intestine and empty
stomach did not vary among genotypes (Table 5). Kidney fat for Central Highland goat was
higher (p = 0.043) than for crossbred Boer goats and also numerically higher mesenteric fat was
observed in the pure Central Highland goats. Kidney, liver, lung and trachea, skin, head and leg
with feet were greater for crossbred Boer goat than for Central Highland goat. Supplementation
improves skin, liver, spleen, empty intestine, and tail weight for both genotypes. For crossbred
Boer goat, head, carcass components such as: head, skin, liver, spleen, lung and trachea, and
empty intestine weight increases linearly with supplementation levels (Table 5).
However, non-significant improvement was observed between supplementation levels for non-
carcass components of pure Central Highland goats. Fat is nearly water free and high in energy
density. It has enormous energy storage, with low slaughter value but very important as energy
storage for the goat (Asizua et al., 2014). Increase in internal and carcass fat in goats due to
increasing intake of energy in diets has been reported by various authors (Goetsch et al., 2011;
Zervas and Tsiplakou, 2011). Similarly, in this study mesenteric fat for crossbred Boer goat was
increased numerically with supplementation levels and higher than control (grazing only).
Partial budget analysis for two genotypes was presented in Table 6. Rearing both genotypes in
grazing/ browsing only was not profitable and the profit penalty was higher for crossbred Boer
goat. For every 1 ETB invested for feeding goats with 200g, farmers can expect to recover the 1
ETB and obtain an additional 2.22 ETB from Central Highland goat and 4.03ETB from
crossbred Boer goat.
61
Table 5: Effect of feeding on non carcass traits of CHG and CHG x Boer crossbred goat
Traits 0 200 400 600 0 200 400 600 SEM G F GxF
Head (kg) 1.38e 1.46de 1.58de 1.50de 1.65cd 1.86bc 1.91b 2.23a 0.06 <.0001 0.003 0.042
Feet and leg (kg) 0.75 0.87 0.87 0.85 0.83 0.98 0.91 1.13 0.03 0.023 0.073 0.378
d c cd bc d bc
Skin (kg) 1.88 2.50 2.35 2.73 1.93 2.78 3.10ab 3.53a 0.12 0.002 <.0001 0.144
c b b b bc ab
Tail (kg) 0.03 0.05 0.05 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.05b 0.07a .002 0.014 0.004 0.192
Testicles (kg) 0.18 0.18 0.22 0.23 0.18 0.26 0.22 0.26 .008 0.086 0.045 0.199
Digestive tract (kg)
Empty stomach 0.81b 1.01ab 1.33a 1.10ab 0.83b 0.96ab 0.93b 1.16ab 0.04 0.273 0.047 0.206
Empty intestines 0.80c 1.15ab 1.12ab 1.11ab 0.88bc 1.10ab 1.13ab 1.30a 0.04 0.411 0.007 0.650
Pluck (kg)
Liver 0.45d 0.57bcd 0.58bcd 0.66bc 0.53cd 0.68bc 0.73ab 0.87a 0.02 0.001 0.006 0.620
c c c c c b
Lungs & trachea 0.34 0.41 0.36 0.41 0.36 0.50 0.54b 0.69a 0.02 <.0001 <.0001 0.001
Spleen 0.05d 0.08abc 0.06bcd 0.09ab 0.05cd 0.07bcd 0.08abc 0.11a .004 0.220 0.001 0.377
Heart 0.12 0.15 0.16 0.16 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.19 .006 0.080 0.067 0.903
d bcd bc bcd cd ab
Kidney 0.07 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.08 0.10 0.11a 0.12a .003 <.0001 0.0008 0.278
Internal fat (kg)
Kidney fat 0.02b 0.07a 0.03b 0.05ab 0.02b 0.04b 0.03b 0.03b .004 0.043 0.015 0.441
Mesenteric fat 0.01d 0.17a 0.14ab 0.15ab 0.03cd 0.08bcd 0.10abc 0.14ab 0.01 0.096 0.0004 0.212
abcdef
Means followed by different letters differ between treatments (p < 0.05)
Table 6: Partial budget analysis

CHG CH x Boer Significance
Parameter 0 200 400 600 0 200 400 600 SEM G F GxF
TWG (kg) 2.12c 6.80b 8.10b 8.40ab 0.06c 7.20b 8.46ab 10.5a 0.37 0.6959 <.0001 0.0888
TR (ETB) 174.7c 581.4b 740.6b 698.5b 5.52c 648.0b 776.7b 983.3a 49.6 0.3484 <.0001 0.0240
f e d b f e c
TVC (ETB) 188.5 314.5 432.6 550.0 188.5 316.0 441.9 565.8a 20.1 <.0001 <.0001 <.0001
cd ab ab bc d ab ab a
NI (ETB) -13.7 266.9 308.0 148.5 -182.9 331.9 334.8 417.4 36.0 0.4212 <.0001 0.0311
MRR % - 222.7 34.8% -135.8 - 403.8 2.26 90.8
MRR, Marginal rate of return; TWG, Total weight gain; TR, Total revenue; TVC, Total variable cost; NI, Net income. a b c d e f Means
followed by different letters differ between treatments (p < 0.05)
62
The study exhibited that the growth rate and carcass traits of grazing Central Highland goats and
their crossbred with the Boer can be considerably improved through supplementation, with
greater responses for the latter breed. Supplementation of pure Central Highland goat with 0.78%
of their body weight and supplementation of Boer crossbred goat with 1.29% of their body
weight on pasture significantly improved growth rate, carcass traits, and primal cuts. The
performance benefit from crossbred Boer goat was realized with moderate to high nutritional
planes. However, average daily gain, carcass traits, and carcass primal cuts for Boer crossbred
goats were not superior to Central Highland goat under grazing/browsing only. Therefore,
crossbreeding together with supplementation can considerably ameliorate goat meat production.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We would like to thank all the livestock research directorate staff of Sirinka Agricultural
Research Center. We are grateful for the financial support we got from Ethiopian Institute of
Agricultural Research and Amhara Regional Agricultural Research Institute.
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Doe Reproductive Performance and Kid Survivability of Boer and Its Crosses with Central
Highland Goats Reared at Ataye Farm, North Shoa, Ethiopia
Amine Mustefa1, Sandip Banerjee2, Solomon Gizaw3, Mestawet Taye2, Alemnew Areaya1,
Shanbel Besufekad1, Ayele Abebe1 and Tesfaye Getachew4
1
Debre Birhan Agricultural Research Center, P. O. Box 112, Debre-Birhan, Ethiopia
2
Hawassa University College of agriculture, Hawassa, Ethiopia
3
International Livestock Research Institute, P. O. Box 5689, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
4
International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
ABSTRACT
The study was conducted at Ataye site of Debre Birhan Agricultural Research Center. Data from
381 kidding of Boer does (B), Central Highland does (CHG), and their F1 cross does (B X CHG)
were collected within the period of 2012 and 2017. The objective of the study was to access the
effects of genetic and non-genetic factors affecting the reproductive and survival performances
of the above genotypes. The data on reproductive performances was analyzed using GLM
procedure and non-parametric tests of SAS (9.0), while proportional hazard model was used to
investigate genetic and non-genetic factors affecting kid survival. Chi square was used to
separate means. The overall conception, kidding and abortion (%) of the does were recorded to
be 48.75, 77.05 and 20.49 respectively. The overall least-squares means for litter size at birth, at
weaning, litter weight (kg) at birth and at weaning were1.40±0.03, 0.67±0.03, 3.63±0.07 and
10.68±0.28 respectively. The overall survival (%) of the kids at day 4, 90, 180 and 365 were
73.99, 53.57, 47.98 and 40.27 respectively. Genetic and non-genetic factors influence the studied
traits. So from this study we can conclude that the overall reproductive and survivability
performances of the studied genotypes were quit low which indicates their sub-optimal
adaptability to the study area.
Keywords: Conception, Cross-breeding, Litter size, Risk Ratio, Weibull
67
INTRODUCTION
Corresponding to the diverse geographical location and the ethnic communities, the country has
a diverse goat population of about 12 goat types in four major groups, i.e. Nubian, Rift Valley,
Somali and Small East African family (FARM-Africa, 1996 and Tesfaye, 2004). Central
Highland goats within the Small East African family are predominantly found in the central and
northern part of Ethiopia. Due to the poor performance of the indigenous goat resources different
genetic improvement programs including within breed selection and crossbreeding have been
launched in different parts of the country. Among the genetic improvement programs
crossbreeding of goats can lead to their rapid improvement by enhancing their genetic
performance (Cunningham and Syrstad, 1987). However, the exotic breeds are well adapted to
the climate of the region where they are expected to perform (Mestawet et al., 2014). Technically
the process of crossbreeding needs to be initiated only after understanding the nicking and
complementariness for the different productive, reproductive and adaptation parameters of both
the breeds involved in the process of cross breeding. Introduction of the exotic genotypes need to
be carefully assessed for the adaptive traits prior to initiation of any crossbreeding experiments
(Moses, 2006).
Among the recently conceived crossbreeding projects aiming productivity improvement,

ESGPIP (Ethiopia Sheep and Goat Productivity Improvement Program) was initiated under the
USAID program aimed at improving the carcass yield from the native goat breeds by crossing
them with Boer bucks which were imported from South Africa (Alemu and Merkel, 2008). Boer
goats (bucks and does) were imported under the project at different locations in the country
which also included certain locations in the Amhara region. There was different breeding,
evaluations and distribution (BED) sites in Amhara region where these Boer goats were
introduced, among them Ataye site of Debre Birhan Agricultural Research Center is the one.
It has been reported that the Boer goats are less susceptible to heat stress and tolerate heat better
than many of the other temperate goat breeds (Lu, 1989). They are also moderately tolerant to
drought and tannins, and are efficient fiber digesters and they can adapt to various ambient
temperature and have lower water turnover rate (Erasmus, 2000). Because of their browsing
habit, Boer goats are considered less susceptible to infestation by internal parasites (Casey and
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Van Niekerk, 1988). Boer goats are thought to have exceptional ability to withstand and resist
diseases such as blue tongue, prussic acid poisoning, and enterotoxaemia (http://studbook.co.za/
boergoat/value.html). Hence, this study was done to evaluate the reproductive and survivability
of Boer and their crosses with Central Highland Goats under some non-genetic factors reared at
Ataye farm.
Description of the Study Area and the Genotypes
The study was conducted on-station at Ataye site of Debre Birhan Agricultural Research Center,
North Shoa zone, Ethiopia which is located at 285 km North of Addis Ababa along the way to
Dessie. The geographical location of the area is 1491 m above sea level, 10o 35’ N latitude and
39o 93’E longitude. The climate of the area is warm with annual minimum and maximum
temperatures of 12.6 °C and 30.1°C, respectively. The area receives an average annual rain fall
of 969.3 mm. The dominant soil type of the area is deep, clay with shallow water table in low
lying areas (Girma and Desta, 2007). The native breed to the study area is the Central Highland
goat which belongs to the Small East African family which is characterized as medium-sized,
broad-faced with thick horn and predominantly reddish-brown in colour.
Goat Management
The Central Highland Goats were allowed to browse twice a day (morning and afternoon), with
ad libitum grass hay and commercial concentrate (200-300 g/h/d based on their body weight)
once in the afternoon and they walked to the nearby river (twice a day) to quench their thirst. On
the other hand, the Boer goats and their crossbred kids most of the time, were kept in-door being
offered ad libitum grass hay, Chopped pasture (Napier grass, Desmodium spp. and vetch) and
Commercially prepared concentrate (300 - 500 g/h/d to the adults and 100 – 200 g/h/d to the kids
based on their body weight and the feed availability across the year). Water fetched (from a
nearby river) was provided twice a day to the Boer goats. The health care of all the goats was
ensured by a qualified veterinarian who provided strategic deworming and regular follow-up of
treatments on case to case basis. The goats and the barns were regularly sprayed with acaricides
so as to make them free from external parasites.
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The bucks were selected for joining the does for breeding purpose and the does which were
considered pregnant were regularly taken away to a separate pen, while those which were still
barren were still allowed to be joined with the buck. The mating was so ensured to minimise
inbreeding among the flocks. The average buck to doe ratio was 1:20/25, the breeding (pure and
crossbreeding) were arranged in separate pens mostly for a period of one to three months, during
which it was considered that all the does were covered.
Data Collection
The study was carried out on the data collected encompassing 2012 till 2017 on 381 kiddings
from Boer does (B), Central Highland Goat does (CHG) and their F1 cross does (B X CHG).
Data on body weights were recorded in the morning prior to grazing and watering. The recorded
data pertained to the reproductive performance include litter size, litter and weight at birth and at
weaning, pre-mating and post-partum doe body weight, conception, kidding, abortion and
stillbirth. Data on birth and mortality dates were also collected for the survival analysis purpose.
Based on the period of joining and covering of the does the period was categorised into short
mating (less than one month), medium (one to three months) and long (prolonged over three
months). Pre-mating weights (weight of the does prior to joining the buck) were also categorized
as suggested by Delgadillo et al. (1999). During the period of the study the average pre-mating
weight of the does (Mean± SD) was recorded to be 26 ± 6 Kg. Thus, based on the body weight
the does were blocked in three categories viz. light (below 20 kg), average (20.1 – 30 kg) and
heavy (above ≥30 kg). Similarly, the parity of the does was categorized as 1st, 2nd, 3rd and ≥ 4th.
Parities above 4th were merged together. The data were recorded/ calculated as follows:
Litter size at birth = Numbers of kids born per doe per time, Litter weight at birth = weight of
kids born per doe per time, Pre-mating weight = weight of the doe just before joining the buck,
Post-partum weight = weight of the doe after kidding (taken within 24 hours of kidding), Change
= Doe weight at kidding – Doe weight at mating, Litter size at weaning = number of kids reached
weaning age per doe per time, Litter weight at weaning = weight of kids reached weaning per
doe per time, Conception rate = number of does conceived / number of does joined, Kidding rate
= number of does kidded / number of does conceived, Abortion rate = numbers of does aborted /
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number of does conceived, Number of does conceived = number of does kidded + aborted +
stillborn.
The data on reproductive performances (litter size and weight at birth and at weaning) were
analyzed using the GLM procedure of SAS 9.0 software. Means were compared using Tukey-
Kramer (SAS, 2002). Some of the reproductive traits (conception, kidding and abortion rate)
were analyzed using the non-parametric test procedure of SAS 9.0 (SAS, 2002). Means were
compared using the chi square procedure of SAS 9.0 (SAS, 2002).The data on the survivability
at different ages (survival at the fourth day, at weaning, at six months and at yearling) were
analyzed using the WEIBULL® proportional hazard model using survival kit version 6.0
(Ducrocq et al 2010). Means were compared using the chi square procedure of SAS 9.0 (SAS
2002). The model used for the analysis of conception, kidding and abortion rates was
Yijklm = μ + Ai + Bj + Ck +Dl + Em + e ijklm
Where, Y ijklm is an observation, μ is the overall mean, Ai is the fixed effect of the ith doe
genotype (i = Boer, CHG or Boer 50%_F1), Bj is the fixed effect of the jth year of mating (j =
2012, 2013, 2014, 2015 or 2016), Ck is the fixed effect of the kth season of mating (k = Wet or
Dry), Dl is the fixed effect of the lth length of joining of the does to the bucks (l = short, medium
or long), Em is the fixed effectofbody weight of the doe at joining the bucks (m = light, medium
orheavy) and eijklm is the random error attributed to the nth kid.
The model used for the analysis of litter size and weight at birth and at weaning was
Yijklm = μ + Ai + Bj + Ck +Dl + Em + e ijklm
Where, Yijklm is an observation, μ is the overall mean, Ai is the fixed effect of the ith doe
genotype (i = Boer, CHG or Boer 50%_F1), Bj is the fixed effect of the jth type of birth (j = single
or multiple), Ck is the fixed effect of the kth doe parity (k = 1st, 2nd, 3rd or 4th & above parities), Dl
is the fixed effect of the lth year of kidding (l = 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016 or 2017), Em is the
fixed effect of the mth season of kidding (m = Wet or Dry) and eijklm is the random error attributed
to the nth kid.
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The model used for the analysis of kid survival was
λ (t) = λ0 (t) exp (gni + sexj + tbk +prl+yrm+snn+ errijklmn)
Where, λ (t) is the hazard function (probability of a kid being died) at time t, λ0 (t) is the baseline
hazard function which is assumed to follow the WEIBULL distribution, gni is the fixed effect of
kid genotype, sexj is the fixed effect of kid sex, tbk is the fixed effect of type of birth, prl is the
fixed effect of doe parity, yrm is the fixed effect of year of birth, snn is the fixed effect of season
of birth and errijklmn is the random error attributed to nth kid.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Conception, Kidding and Abortion Percentages
The effects of doe genotype, mating year and season, length of exposure to bucks and weight at
mating on conception, kidding and abortion percentages are presented in Table 1.The findings
show that genotype influenced all the traits studied; the conception (%) the F1 does was
significantly (p<0.001) highest (p<0.001) among the F1does followed by those among the
central highland does (CHG). The kidding (%) was the lowest (p<0.001) among the Boer does,
while no differences were observed in the other two genotypes, while the reverse was true for the
abortion (%). This can be attributable to the heterosis effect (Gosey, 1991). The above traits were
also lower among the Boer does which is in line with the findings of Khanal (2016) who reported
that Kiko, Spanish and their cross-breddoes have higher kidding rate when compared to the
purebreds. Higher abortion among the Boer does can be ascribed to their adaptation (biotic and
abiotic stress related factors). The findings are in close accordance with the reports of Unanian
and Silva (1989) who reported that incidences of abortions rates were higher in stressed/ exotic
breeds than in native.
The effect of year and season too showed significant differences (p<0.001) in all the traits
studied, which can be due to the adaptation of the does to the agro climatic variations across the
years and seasons. Conception was recorded to be highest in the wet season where the does had
ample amount of green fodder, which is contrary with the findings of Mellado et al. (2006) who
report that conception was higher in the dry than in the fall. The results related to the length of
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exposure of the doe to the buck indicated that longer and shorter duration of exposure resulted in
lower conception, kidding and higher incidences of abortion percentages. Does exposed for
longer duration also performs lower than the does which are exposed for shorter period in the
above studied traits which might be ascribed to unnecessary butting by the bucks which can lead
to higher incidences of abortion at early stages of conception (Browning, 2014).
Table 1: Conception, kidding and abortion percentages of Boer, CHG and their cross F1
Conception Kidding Abortion
Source of Variation N Percentage N Percentage N Percentage
Overall 488 48.75 376 77.05 100 20.49
Doe Breed *** *** ***
Boer 162 37.41c 95 58.64b 65 40.12a
CHG 261 54.38b 228 87.36a 27 10.34b
F1 65 73.86a 53 81.54a 8 12.31b
Mating Year *** *** ***
2012 129 39.94c 79 61.24c 46 35.66a
2013 86 33.99c 63 73.26bc 23 26.74ab
2014 105 68.18a 93 88.57a 9 8.57c
2015 93 57.41b 73 78.49ab 16 17.20bc
2016 75 68.81a 68 90.67a 6 8.00c
Mating Season *** NS NS
Wet 326 54.61 255 78.22 64 19.63
Dry 162 40.10 121 74.69 36 22.22
Length of exposure to breeding
bucks * *** ***
Short 52 43.33ab 37 71.15b 12 23.08b
Medium 287 52.37a 247 86.06a 31 10.80c
b
Long 149 44.74 92 61.74b 57 38.26a
Mating weight NS *** ***
Light 73 41.71 55 75.34b 16 21.92a
Medium 273 49.37 233 85.35a 33 12.09c
Heavy 142 52.01 88 61.97c 51 14.79b
Values within each sub-class are significantly different at *=P<0.05, **P<0.01, *** =
P<0.0001.N= number of does. CHG= Central Highland Goats and F1= (Boer buck x CHG
doe).Short length of exposure is < 1 month, medium length of exposure is 1 – 3 months and long
length of exposure is > 3 months. Light weight at mating is < 20 kg, medium is 20.1 – 30 kg and
heavy is >30 kg.
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The findings also indicate that low kidding and high abortion and similar conception percentages
among the light and heavy animals were observed when compared to those does with optimum
body weight. These reports are in close accordance with those of Mellado et al. (2004). The
differences as observed may be ascribed due to body reserves of the does. Does with lower
weight cannot provide adequate nutrition to the growing embryo leading to higher incidences of
abortion (Mellado et al., 2004).
Litter Size and Weight at Birth and at Weaning
The results pertaining to the effect of doe genotypes, type of birth, parity, year and season of
kidding on litter size and weight are presented in Table 2. The results show that the litter weight
at birth and weaning varied across genotypes which can be ascribed to the birth weight of the
kids and the effect of their genetic makeup. The results pertaining to the litter weight at birth
indicates that it was higher among the kids born as multiple births which is in line with the
results of Mellado et al. (2011) and Marzouk et al. (2000) who reported that litter size and
weight are correlated. Increase the former would invariably lead to increase in the later. These
observations are in accordance with that of Dadi et al. (2008) among for the Arsi-Bale goats.
Year and season of kidding significantly affects litter weight at birth and at weaning which is
also affected by the growth performance of the kids (which in turn is affected by the kid
genotype and non-genetic factors). Year of kidding also significantly affects litter size at
weaning which can be due to the survivability of the kids (which in turn is affected by the kid
genotype and non-genetic factors). These results are in line with the reports of Hamed et al.
(2009) among the Zaraibi goats.
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Table 2: Litter size and weight at birth and at weaning of Boer, CHG and their cross
Source of Litter size Litter weight
Variation At birth At weaning At birth At weaning
N LSM±SE N LSM±SE N LSM±SE N LSM±SE
Overall mean 381 1.40±0.03 381 0.67±0.03 377 3.63±0.07 219 10.68±0.28
CV (%) 3.69 91.97 25.43 34.88
Doe Breed NS NS *** **
Boer 96 1.50±0.01 96 0.60±0.07 96 4.28±0.10a 50 12.46±0.61a
CHG 230 1.50±0.00 230 0.69±0.05 226 3.62±0.07b 141 10.36±0.37b
F1 55 1.50±0.01 55 0.72±0.13 55 3.68±0.19b 28 10.06±0.95ab
Type of kidding * *** NS
Single 228 0.59±0.06 226 3.19±0.09 136 10.56±0.46
Multiple 153 0.75±0.07 55 4.53±0.11 83 11.36±0.56
Doe Parity NS NS NS NS
1st 156 1.50±0.01 156 0.68±0.06 154 3.67±0.09 86 11.06±0.49
2nd 102 1.50±0.01 102 0.64±0.07 100 3.74±0.11 64 11.06±0.60
3rd 70 1.50±0.01 70 0.61±0.10 70 3.92±0.15 39 11.08±0.76
4th&above 53 1.50±0.01 53 0.75±0.11 53 4.12±0.17 30 10.63±0.87
Year of kidding NS *** *** ***
ab
2012 73 1.50±0.01 73 0.61±0.12 71 3.57±0.18 39 9.01±0.98c
b
2013 24 1.50±0.01 24 0.85±0.15a 23 3.39±0.22b 16 9.14±1.10bc

2014 55 1.50±0.01 55 0.68±0.10ab 55 3.53±0.15b 31 7.96±0.81c
2015 93 1.49±0.01 93 0.92±0.08a 92 4.33±0.12a 69 12.32±0.66ab
2016 72 1.50±0.01 72 0.66±0.08a 72 3.64±0.12b 42 12.65±0.62a
2017 64 1.50±0.01 64 0.30±0.09b 64 4.71±0.13a 22 14.68±0.93a
Season of kidding NS NS ** *
Wet 136 1.50±0.01 136 0.60±0.07 135 4.05±0.11 75 11.90±0.63
Dry 245 1.50±0.01 245 0.74±0.06 242 3.67±0.10 144 10.02±0.50
Values within each sub-class are significantly different at *=P<0.05, **P<0.01,
***=P<0.0001.N = number of does. CHG = Central Highland Goats and F1= (Boer buck x
CHG doe).
Kid Survival
Censored and uncensored records of kids with mean, minimum and maximum number of days
are presented in Table 3. All censored kids were those that were alive at the end of observation
period. Every failure was associated with death due to different diseases. The proportion of
censored kids until weaning and yearling was 53.57% and 40.27% respectively. This study
revealed that survival at pre-weaning period was lower than the post-weaning period. This study
also shows that 26% of the kids’ loss was occurred before reaching their fourth day after birth.
75
High kid mortality rate was observed in this study, which is much higher than the findings of
Debele et al. (2015) and Zeleke et al. (2017) among the Boer x Arsi bale, Boer x CHG. This
study also shows that relatively high (26%) kids’ loss was occurred before reaching their fourth
day after birth. Therefore, kid management at their earlier age should be focused in order to have
better survival.
Table 3: Number of censored and uncensored (failure) records of kids from birth to yearling age
Category No of kids Mean Minimum Maximum
At 4th day
Censored 384 (73.99%) 4 4 4
Uncensored 135 1.5 1 3
At weaning
Censored 278 (53.57%) 90 34 90
At six month
Censored 249 (47.98) 180 34 180
At yearling
Censored 209 (40.27%) 365 34 365
Censored animals are live animals at the censoring time.
The results of relative risk ratio and survival percentages for effect of kid breed groups, kid sex,
doe parity, type of birth, year of birth and season of birth are presented in Table 4. Type of birth,
year of birth and season of birth had effects (p<0.05) on kid survival at fourth day while survival
at weaning was affected by type of birth and year of birth only. On the other hand, survival was
not affected by kid breed group, doe parity and kid sex. Multiple born kids had higher risk than
the single born kids over the studied ages. Years 2016 and 2017 showed highest risk ratio till the
fourth day with 2.47 and 2.53 times to the year 2012 respectively, while kids born in year 2015
were lowly at risk than the kids born in the other years over the pre-weaning period.
76
Table 4: Chi-square probability for Survival and risk ratio of the kids at different ages
Source of At 4th day At weaning At six month At yearling
Variation N S %age RR± SE S %age RR± SE S %age RR± SE S %age RR± SE
Kid Breed NS NS NS NS
Boer 129 82.17 1.00 55.81 1.00 46.51 1.00 32.56 1.00
F1 321 71.03 1.85±0.24 53.89 1.06±0.16 49.22 0.94±0.15 43.93 0.82±0.14
F2(a) 44 68.18 1.88±0.45 47.73 1.37±0.33 45.45 1.21±0.31 38.64 1.28±0.29
F2(b) 25 80.00 0.88±0.56 48.00 1.02±0.36 44.00 0.97±0.34 36.00 1.04±0.31
Kid Sex NS NS NS NS
Male 256 73.05 1.01±0.18 53.91 0.96±0.13 48.05 0.98±0.12 38.28 1.06±0.12
Female 263 74.90 1.00 53.23 1.00 47.91 1.00 42.21 1.00
Type of Birth *** *** *** ***
Single 229 82.97 1.00 66.81 1.00 60.26 1.00 51.09 1.00
Multiple 290 66.90 2.65±0.21 43.10 2.50±0.15 38.28 2.29±0.14 31.72 2.10±0.13
1 197 78.68 1.00 54.82 1.00 47.21 1.00 38.58 1.00
2 141 74.47 1.14±0.28 55.32 1.03±0.21 49.65 0.98±0.19 42.55 1.07±0.18
3 98 66.33 1.18±0.35 48.98 1.10±0.26 45.92 1.06±0.24 36.73 1.21±0.22
4 83 71.08 0.66±0.38 53.01 0.77±0.28 49.40 0.78±0.26 44.58 0.88±0.25
Year of Birth ** * NS *
2012 95 80.00a 1.00 55.79ab 1.00 47.37 1.00 33.68b 1.00
ab ab ab
2013 29 75.86 1.86±0.52 62.07 1.06±0.39 55.17 1.09±0.36 44.83 0.97±0.33
2014 69 75.36ab 2.30±0.40 47.83b 1.64±0.28 40.58 1.60±0.26 28.99b 1.40±0.24
a a a
2015 133 84.21 0.50±0.37 65.41 0.60±0.26 55.64 0.69±0.24 51.13 0.58±0.22
2016 105 61.90b 2.47±0.42 45.71b 1.47±0.31 44.76 1.32±0.29 35.24b 1.13±0.27
2017 88 64.77b 2.53±0.42 44.32b 2.04±0.31
Season of Birth * NS NS NS
Wet 180 80.00 1.00± 55.00 1.00 49.44 1.00 38.89 1.00
Dry 339 70.80 2.37±0.25 52.80 1.32±0.17 47.20 1.30±0.16 41.00 1.21±0.15
Means within a column bearing different superscripts are significantly different. Values within each sub-class are significantly
different at *=P<0.05, **P<0.01, ***=P<0.0001, N = number of kids born, S %age= Survival percentage, RR= Risk Ratio,
SE=Standard Error, F1= (Boer buck x CHG doe), F2 (a) = (50% F1 buck x 50% F1 doe) and F2 (b) = (Boer buck x 50% F1 doe).
77
Even if there were some numerical differences, the results of the chi-square probability of
survivability indicates that there were no differences (p>0.05) in survivability among the breed
groups studied. Similarly, the results (Table 4) showed that the survivability of the kids
(irrespective of sexes) were more or less similar. At the early age stage, kids born during the dry
season had higher risk than kids born in wet season.
The results indicate some numerical differences among the breed groups studied, even if it was
not statistically significant, showing Boer kids had lower risk ratio at the early age and higher
risk ratio at the later age in comparison to the F1s. Similarly, F1 yearlings had lower risk ratio
which is in line with the findings of Jönsson (2015) and Khanal (2016) who reported that the
crossbreds were better in survival than the purebreds among dairy cows and Boer goat crosses
respectively. This may be ascribed to the heterosis effect (Gosey, 1991). The results also show
that the Boer kids had lower survivability which is in line with the findings of Davendra and
Burns (1983), who reported that the Boer goats have a lower adaptability under the East African
conditions.
The single born kids’ higher survivability from this study is in close accordance with the findings
of Getachew et al. (2015) and Devendra and Burns (1983). This may further be ascribed to the
low body weight of the kids born as multiple births when compared to those born single (Naude
and Hofmeyr, 1981). It may also be due to poor nursing of the dam and improper management
practices to the multiple (Al-Najjar et al., 2010).
The year of birth too influenced (p<0.05) the survivability of the kids which may be due to the
availability of feed and concentrate to the kids and the does over the study years, these results are
in line with the findings of Getachew et al. (2015); Perez-Razo et al. (1998); Al-Najjar et al.
(2010) and Vatankhah and Talebi (2009) who reported that, effect of year of birth is significant
due to different factors changing over the years. Effect of year of birth is because of variation in
incidences of diseases, parasites, climatic conditions, rearing methods and managerial systems
(Vatankhah and Talebi, 2009; Al-Najjar et al., 2010).
The season of birth only influenced the survivability of the kids at 4th day with the same being
higher (p<0.01) among the kids born during the wet season. Effect of season can be attributable
78
to the nutrient availability to the dam thereby influencing the lactal yield (Mukasa-Mugerwa et
al., 2000; Vatankhah and Talebi, 2009). The effect of the season weans off as the animals mature
and adapt to the surrounding agro climate (Al-Najjar et al., 2010).
Differences were however not recorded across sexes of the kids and the parity of the dam for
survivability across all the age categories. The findings are in line with the study of Perez-Razo
et al. (1998) and partially with Getachew et al. (2015) who reported that ewe parity did not affect
lamb survival in Menz sheep. While it was contrary to the study by Al-Najjar et al. (2010) who
reported that parity affects survivability due to an age effect; as dams increased in maturity the
survival rate of kids improved, due to the maternal instincts and lactal secretions of the does.
The Kaplan – Maier survivor curves of kids from birth to yearling age is presented in Figure 1.
The curve was steeper for the first 25 days, thereafter, the curve showed some stability.
Similarly, the cumulative hazard goes the opposite direction and reaches its climax when the
kids’ age increased to yearling. This shows there is high probability of losing the kids depending
on the whole data trend.
KAPLAN - MAIER CHART

SURVIVOR FUNCTION CUMULATIVE HAZARD
1.00
0.90
0.80
0.70
Proportion
0.60
0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
0.00
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300 325 350 375
Time in Days
Fig. 1: Kaplan-Maier survival function and cumulative hazard curve of kids from birth to
yearling age
79
Kaplan – Maier survivor curve of kids by breed group from birth to yearling age is presented in
Figure 2. The survivability among the Boer kids declined/ decreased rapidly as the age
progressed, however there was a stabilizing effect among the F1 kids which may be due to the
adaptation ability gained from the maternal line.
KID SURVIVAL
Boer F2 (a) F2 (b) F1
1.00 1.00
0.90 0.90
0.80 0.80
0.70 0.70
SURVIVOR FUNCTION
0.60 0.60
0.50 0.50
0.40 0.40
0.30 0.30
0.20 0.20
0.10 0.10
0.00 0.00
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300 325 350 375
Days
F1= (Boer buck x CHG doe), F2 (a) = (50% F1 buck x 50% F1 doe) and F2 (b) = (Boer buck x
50% F1 doe).
Fig. 2: Kaplan – Maier survival curve by kid breed from birth to yearling age.
The findings of Figures 1 and 2 indicate that the survivability and cumulative hazard are
negatively correlated. These observations are in close accordance with the findings of Getachew
et al. (2015) among the Menz, Wollo and their crossbreds with Awassi sheep who indicated that
the heritability of survivability is low and survivability in an animal is influenced largely by non-
genetic parameters. By minimizing the effect of the genetic and non-genetic factors we can
control the risk of losing the whole flock.
80
CONCLUSION
 Genotype and non-genetic factors partially affects the studied traits.

 Crossbreds perform better than either of the pure breeds in the studied traits.
 Planning a mating at wet season with medium weight does and medium length of exposure to
the buck can produce fruitful reproductive performances.
 About 26 % and 46 % of the total kids’ loss occurred before the fourth day and weaning
period with more or less stability till the yearling age.
 The study further indicates that the overall reproductive and survivability performances of
the studied genotypes was quite low and below expectation, which indicates their sub-
optimal adaptability to the study area.
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83
Performance Evaluation and Genetic Parameters Estimate of Growth Traits in Boer and
Their Crosses with Central Highland Goats Reared at Ataye Farm, North Shoa, Ethiopia
Amine Mustefa1, Sandip Banerjee2, Solomon Gizaw3, Mestawet Taye2, Ayele Abebe1, Alemnew
Areaya1, Shanbel Besufekad1 and Tesfaye Getachew4
1
2
Hawassa University, P.O.Box 5, Hawassa, Ethiopia
2
International Livestock Research Institute, P. O. Box 5689, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
4
International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
ABSTRACT
Data on 381 kiddings, performance and pedigree records of 512 Boer and their crosses with
Central Highland Goats CHG (Boer (B), F1 (B X CHG), F2 (a) (F1 X F1), F2 (b) (B X F1))
maintained at Ataye site of Debre Birhan Agricultural Research Center during the period 2012-
2017 were utilized to estimate genetic parameters and evaluate performances of growth traits.
GLM procedure of SAS (9.0) was used to analyze growth performances while the genetic
parameters were estimated using Animal model of WOMBAT®. The overall least-squares means
in kg for birth weight (BW), weaning weight (WW), six-month weight (6MW), yearling weight
(YW) and body weight gain in grams to weaning, weaning to six-months and six months to
yearling were 2.68±0.04, 9.11±0.19, 11.69±0.26, 16.41±0.38, 69.73±1.89, 30.48±1.54 and
24.33±1.21, respectively. Genotype and all the studied non-genetic factors affected the body
weight and weight gain from birth to yearling age. However, parity of the doe only influenced
body weight gainsat six-months to yearling. WW were not affected by sex of the kids. YW were
not affected by breed and season of birth. Similarly season of birth did not affect 6MW. The
genetic parameter estimates were slightly over estimated due to small sample size. The h2 among
the (B and F1) for body weight at birth, at weaning, at six-months and at yearling ages were
(0.43±0.28 and 0.73±0.17), (0.78±0.50 and 0.67±0.27), (0.75±0.52 and 0.65±0.27) and
(0.23±0.70 and 0.65±0.27). This study revealed that improvement in growth performances is
possible by minimizing the effect of non-genetic factors and within breed selection.
Keywords: Correlation, Cross-breeding, Growth performance, Heritability
84
INTRODUCTION
Ethiopia houses 12 recognized indigenous goat breeds including Central Highland Goats
(Tesfaye, 2004). Like all Ethiopian indigenous goats CHG have low body weight and sub-
optimal growth when compared to some tropical and temperate breeds (Dereje et al., 2015). In
order to optimize the production from the flocks both the genotype (of the flock) and the
environment (where they are reared) need to be improved (Falconer, 1989). As Crossbreeding of
goats can lead to their rapid improvement by enhancing their genetic performance (Cunningham
and Syrstad, 1987), it was taken as a useful and an option of choice.
Over the years several goat breeds including Saanen, Anglo-Nubian, Toggenburg and Boer goats
have been introduced in the country under some project or the other (Alemu and Merkel, 2008).
Among the recently conceived crossbreeding project, ESGPIP (Ethiopia Sheep and Goat
Productivity Improvement Program) was initiated under USAID program which imported Boer
goats to different locations in the country. There was different breeding, evaluations and
distribution (BED) sites in Amhara region where these Boer goats were introduced including
Ataye site of Debre Birhan Agricultural Research Center under Amhara Agricultural Research
Institute in 2012.
Boer goats are considered to be one of the most desirable mutton type breeds globally with the
highest mature weight of (100-110 kg). It has been reported that the Boer goats can improve
productive performance of many indigenous breeds where the crossbreds have outperformed the
native breeds at many aspects (Erasmus, 2000). The traits which showed significant
improvement among the crossbreds were birth weight, and growth related traits (weaning weight,
weight at mating, mature body weight), prolificacy and fecundity besides the carcass quality
(Cameron et al., 2001). Thus this study was aimed to estimate genetic parameters and evaluate
performances of growth traits of Boer and their crosses with Central Highland Goats reared at
Ataye farm before they are widely disseminated to the farmers.
85
Area Description
The study was conducted on-station at Ataye site of Debre Birhan Agricultural Research Center,
North Shoa zone, Ethiopia which is located at 285 km North of Addis Ababa. The geographical
location of the area is 1491 m above sea level, 10o 35’ N latitude and 39o 93’E longitude. The
climate of the area is warm with annual minimum and maximum temperatures of 12.6 °C and
30.1°C respectively. The area receives an average annual rain fall of 969.3 mm (Girma and
Desta, 2007).
Animal Management
Most of the time the Boer goats and their crossbred kids were kept in-door being offered ad
libitum grass hay and fresh chopped pastures (Napier grass, Desmodium spp. and vetch) with the
supplement of commercial concentrate (300 - 500 g/h/d to the adults and 100 – 200 g/h/d to the
kids based on their body weight and the feed availability across the year). On the other hand, the
Central Highland Goats were allowed to browse twice a day (morning and afternoon), with ad
libitum grass hay and commercial concentrate (200-300 g/h/d based on their body weight) once
in the afternoon. Fetched water (from a nearby river) was provided twice a day while, the CHG
walked to the nearby river (twice a day) to quench their thirst. The healths care of all the goats
were ensured by a qualified veterinarian who provided strategic deworming and regular follow-
up of treatments on case to case basis. The goats and the barns were regularly sprayed with
acaricides so as to make them free from external parasites.
The bucks were selected for joining the does for breeding purpose and the does which were
considered pregnant were regularly taken away to a separate pen, while those which were still
barren were still allowed to be joined with the buck. The mating was so ensured to minimise
inbreeding among the flocks. The average buck to doe ratio was 1:20/25, the breeding (pure and
crossbreeding) were arranged in separate pens mostly for a period of one to three months, during
which it was considered that all the does were covered.
86
Data available on pedigree and performance records of Boer (B), F1 (Boer x CHG), F2 50% (F1 x
F1) and F2 75% (Boer x F1) collected from 2012-2017 on 512 kids from 381 kidding was used
for the analysis. The data on growth performances birth weight (BW), weaning weight (WW),
six-month weight (6MW), yearling weight (YW) and average daily weight gains at different
ages) were analyzed using the GLM procedure of SAS 9.0 software. Means were compared
using Tukey-Kramer (SAS, 2002). The data were adjusted using the standard adjustment
formula. Similarly, the genetic parameter estimates (heritability, genetic and phenotypic
correlation and breeding value estimates (BVE) of the growth traits were analyzed using the
Animal model of WOMBAT: a program for mixed model analyses by restricted maximum
likelihood (REML) procedure by fitting an individual Animal Model (Meyer, 2012).
The data on growth performances were analyzed using the following model
Yijklmn = μ + Ai + B j + C k +Dl + E m + F n + e ijklmn
Where: Yijklmn is an observation, μ is the overall mean, Ai is the fixed effect of the kid sex, Bj is
the fixed effect of the kid genotype, Ck is the fixed effect doeparity, Dl is the fixed effect type of
birth, Em is the fixed effect of year of birth, Fn is the fixed effect of season of birth and eijklmn is
the random error attributed to the nth kid.
Due to the non-significant effects of the interactions among the above factors, it was removed
from the analysis and results.
The genetic parameters were estimated using the following animal model
Yi = Xibi + Ziai + ei
Where: Yi is a vector of observations, bi is a vector of fixed effects for trait i (sex, type of birth,
doe parity, year of birth and season of birth), ai is a vector of random animal effects for trait i and
ei is a vector of residual effects for trait i.
Note: 1. Genetic parameters were estimated separately for the pure and cross-breeds. 2. All (512)
kids born in the site had full pedigree information
87
Growth Performance
The results of the effects of genotypes, sex, parity of the doe, type of birth, year and season of
birth on growth performances of Boer goats and their crosses with CHG (F1, F2(a) and backcross
F2(b) are presented in Table 1 and 2. Male kid were significantly higher (p<0.01) than female kid
in most growth traits which follows the Rensch's rule (Rensch, 1950) where the males of a
particular species are usually larger than the females; which may be due to the testosterone
hormones secreted by the buck kids results in enhancement of muscle mass and skeletal
development (Baneh and Hafezian, 2009). The sexual dimorphism of the kids may be ascribed to
the differences in the endocrine system of the two sexes; estrogen hormone has a limited effect
for growth in females (Baneh and Hafezian, 2009). Similar observations among the goats of
Arsi-Bale, Boer x Woyito-Guji 25 % and Tunisian local goat breed were reported by Dadi et al.
(2008); Girma et al. (2016) and Mabrouk et al. (2010), respectively. Contrary to the present
findings Derib et al. (2015) reported no significant differences in the weight of yearling bucks
and does of Boer x CHG crossbreds.
The results also indicated that the Boer kids were better in most growth traits with kids of F2(b)
and F1 crosses followed the Boer observation. This can be ascribed to the higher proportion of
paternal genes (from the Boers). The findings are in agreement with the findings of Sanchez et
al. (1994) who also reported that the higher crosses with exotic breeds have more than
intermediate body weight at all ages. Care has to be taken to rear the higher crosses especially
under the farmers’ condition as they may perform poorly than the local breeds due to some
adaptation problems, thereby the overall performance can be lower than the F1 crosses (Lipson
et al., 2011).
88
Table 1: Least squares means and standard errors of body weight from birth to yearling of Boer
goat and its crosses with CHG
Source of Birth weight (kg) Weaning weight (kg) 6 month weight (kg) Yearling weight (kg)
Variation N LSM±SE N LSM±SE N LSM±SE N LSM±SE
Overall mean 512 2.68±0.04 254 9.11±0.19 197 11.69±0.26 162 16.41±0.38
CV (%) 512 23.65 254 25.99 25.41 25.08
Kid Sex ** NS ** **
Male 252 2.86±0.07 125 9.45±0.35 95 11.34±0.63 74 17.80±1.03
Female 260 2.69±0.07 129 9.48±0.36 102 9.86±0.62 88 15.41±1.00
Kid Breed *** *** * NS
Boer 128 3.05±0.06a 57 10.87±0.36a 42 12.47±0.51 28 18.30±0.88
F1 315 2.62±0.04bc 166 8.80±0.22b 141 11.15±0.31 125 16.73±0.48
F2(a) 44 2.50±0.13c 18 8.37±0.74b - - - -
F2(b) 25 2.94±0.15ab 13 9.80±0.75ab - - - -
1st 193 2.66±0.06 98 9.15±0.31 75 10.38±0.53 61 15.46±0.86
2nd 138 2.76±0.07 77 9.27±0.40 62 10.49±0.69 54 17.00±1.08
3rd 98 2.79±0.10 43 9.95±0.52 35 11.20±0.83 26 16.83±1.34
4th&above 83 2.90±0.11 36 9.47±0.58 25 10.33±0.92 21 17.12±1.47
Type of birth *** *** *** **
Single 227 3.15±0.07 136 10.62±0.34 106 11.95±0.59 89 17.84±0.96
Multiple 285 2.40±0.07 118 8.30±0.38 91 9.25±0.67 73 15.37±1.07
Year of birth *** *** *** **
2012 90 2.57±0.12cd 45 8.09±0.66c 39 9.72±0.97bc 31 14.21±1.50b
2013 28 2.43±0.15cd 18 7.43±0.70c 16 8.47±1.00c 13 15.08±1.56ab
2014 68 2.44±0.10d 33 6.80±0.56c 28 9.07±0.83c 20 18.39±1.41a
2015 133 3.07±0.08b 87 10.18±0.43b 74 11.50±0.67b 68 16.04±1.08ab
2016 105 2.78±0.07c 48 11.07±0.41b 40 14.25±0.63a 30 19.28±1.00a
2017 88 3.37±0.08a 23 13.18±0.56a - - - -
Season of birth *** *** NS NS
Wet 178 2.97±0.07 84 10.42±0.42 72 11.17±0.67 56 17.43±1.08
Dry 334 2.59±0.07 170 8.50±0.36 125 10.03±0.64 106 15.78±1.05
Values within each sub-class are significantly different at *P<0.05, **P<0.01, ***P<0.0001. F1
= (Boer buck x CHG doe), F2 (a) = (50% F1 buck x 50% F1 doe) and F2 (b) = (Boer buck x
50% F1 doe). Wet season = (Mar, Apr, Jul, Aug, Sep and Oct) and Dry season = (Jan, Feb,
May, Jun, Nov and Dec).
There were no significant differences across the parities for most of the traits which may be
ascribed to above average lacteal yield of the dams which satisfies the need of the kids.The
results are partially in line with the reports of Dadi et al. (2008) who worked on Arsi-Bale goats.
However, they are contrary to the observations of Hoque et al. (2002) Otuma and Onu (2013)
and Thiruvenkadan (2009) on different Goat breeds.
89
It is expected that lactation yield be lower in the first parity which shows an increase in the
subsequent lactations thereafter decreasing as the doe ages (Zhang et al., 2009). Similarly, effect
of parities was expected due to differences in maternal effects, nursing and maternal behaviour
of dam in different ages (King, 2009). The differences due to parity in the later age daily weight
gain may be ascribed to the effect of long term weaning shock among the kids (Abebe, 2008).
This may also be because all the kidding may have not taken place in the same season thereby
influencing the weaning shock (Abebe, 2008).
The results further indicated that kids born single weighed more than the multiple births. This
difference can be due to limited uterine space during pregnancy for multiple birth and
competition for milk suckling between the multiple born kids during birth to weaning (Al-
Shorepy et al., 2002). Similarly, as the number of foetuses increases, the number of caruncles
attached to each foetus decrease thus resulting in the reduction of feed supply to the foetus and
hence the birth weight of those kids decreases in multiple births (Robinson et al., 1977). These
observations are in close accordance with the reports of Hasan et al. (2014) and Alemu (2015)
among the different goat breeds.
The effect of year of birth has significant effect on the studied traits with no clear trend as the
year of birth proceed, with higher birth and weaning weights recorded among the kids born in
2017 while those born in 2016 had highest six-month weight and yearling weight (this is because
of non-availability of the data for 2017). These results are in close accordance with the reports of
Mabrouk et al. (2010), Al-Najjar et al. (2010); Otuma and Onu (2013); Zhang et al. (2008); King
(2009); Schoeman et al. (1997) and Zhang et al. (2002) who reported body weight of different
breed of goats and their crosses differed across different years of birth. This can be due to
temporary environmental effects like variations in incidences of diseases, availability of fodder,
management, sample size and climate (differences of rainfall which in turn influenced grass
production and feed availability) (Gunawan and Noor, 2006; Zhang et al., 2008; Gebrelul et al.,
1994; Al-Shorepy et al., 2002). The effect of year may also be ascribed to the global climate
change viz. El Nino and/or La Nina effect (Rust & Rust, 2013). Better weights were recorded
with in the year and season of better feed availability.
90
Table 2: Least squares means and standard errors of gain to 90, 90-180 and 180-365 days of Boer
and their crosses with CHG (g/d)
Gain weaning to six Gain six month to yearling
Source of Gain to weaning (g/d) month (g/d) (g/d)
Variation N LSM±SE N LSM±SE N LSM±SE
Overall mean 253 69.73±1.89 197 30.48±1.54 162 24.33±1.21
Kid Sex NS *** *
Male 124 73.24±3.66 95 30.81±4.02 74 32.22±3.14
Female 129 75.42±3.77 102 17.99±4.01 88 27.58±3.07
Kid Breed ** NS NS
Boer 57 83.94±3.76a 42 25.57±3.29 28 27.62±2.69
F1 165 67.05±2.26b 141 31.46±2.00 125 28.40±1.46
F2 (a) 18 67.65±7.66ab 10 15.62±7.58 6 33.03±6.49
F3 (b) 13 78.70±7.74ab 4 24.94±10.22 3 30.55±7.69
Doe Parity NS NS *
1st parity 97 71.30±3.23 75 25.84±3.41 61 25.44±2.63b
2nd parity 77 72.03±4.16 62 26.09±4.39 54 32.16±3.31a
3rd Parity 43 80.49±5.32 35 24.70±5.30 26 27.31±4.11ab
4th& above 36 73.51±5.98 25 20.95±5.92 21 34.68±4.51a
Birth type *** NS NS
Single 136 82.80±3.48 106 25.56±3.76 89 29.72±2.95
Multiple 117 65.86±3.98 91 23.24±4.29 73 30.07±3.29
Year of Birth *** *** ***
2012 44 63.50±6.84cd 39 21.74±6.21b 31 20.09±4.59b
2013 18 56.40±7.28d 16 13.56±6.41b 13 33.08±4.77b
2014 33 49.48±5.77d 28 25.50±5.31b 20 46.53±4.33a
2015 87 79.88±4.49bc 74 17.50±4.27b 68 24.68±3.30b
2016 48 90.76±4.19ab 40 43.68±4.02a 30 25.12±3.07b
2017 23 105.97±5.80a - - - -
Season of Birth ** NS NS
Wet 83 83.04±4.34 72 22.24±4.32 56 31.73
Dry 170 65.63±3.73 125 26.55±4.14 106 28.07
Values within each sub-class are significantly different at *P<0.05, **P<0.01, ***P<0.0001.
F1= (Boer buck x CHG doe), F2(a) = (50% F1 buck x 50% F1 doe) and F2 (b) = (Boer buck x 50%
F1 doe). Wet season = (Mar, Apr, Jul, Aug, Sep and Oct) and Dry season = (Jan, Feb, May, Jun,
Nov and Dec).
Furthermore, the season of birth influenced (p<0.0001) the early age growth traits with kids born
in the wet season weighing the heaviest and so were they at the weaning weight. This can be due
to the maternal effect (milk yield variation), as it can be associated with variations for rainfall
that in turn affected pasture production and feed availability (Al-Shorepy et al., 2002; Gunawan
and Noor, 2006; Otuma and Onu, 2013). The findings are in close accordance with the findings
of Andries (2013) at Frankfort Kentucky. Season of birth did not affect the later age growth traits
as the effect of season is generally low among animals reared under intensive/semi intensive
91
management when compared to those reared under extensive management (Lipson et al., 2011).
Similarly, the limited effect of season of birth on the later age growth traits may be due to the
reason that the effect of the season weans off as the animals mature and adapt to the surrounding
agro climate (Al-Najjar et al., 2010). It has also been suggested that the effect of season on
growth is higher among the animals reared in the temperate climate whereas effect of season is
generally low among the animals reared in the equatorial zone (Lipson et al., 2011).
The findings (Table 2) also indicate that pre-weaning daily weight gain was similar across both
the sexes while the buck kids gained more (p<0.001) at the post-weaning period. Pre-weaning
daily weight gain differences across the genotypes too were observed with Boer kids gained
more (p<0.01) when compared to their counterparts from other genotypes followed by those of
F2 genotypes. But no significant post-weaning weight gain difference was observed among the
genotypes.
Doe parity did not influence (p>0.05) the pre and post-weaning daily weight gains except the
daily gain six-month to yearling age in which kids from 4th and 2nd parities gained more. On the
other hand, the single born kids gained more weight till weaning with no differences recorded
thereafter in the trait. Birth year too significantly (p<0.0001) affects pre and post-weaning daily
weight gains; with kids born in 2017 gained more pre-weaning daily weight gain followed by
those kids born in 2016. At the post-weaning period (with lack of information on kids born in
2017) kid born in 2016 and 2014 gained more than the kids born from the other years. Season of
birth only influenced the pre-weaning daily weight gain significantly (p<0.01) with kids born at
wet season gained more, while no post-weaning daily weight gain differences were observed due
to season of birth.
Birth weight of the Boer kids as recorded in this study were in close accordance with the reports
of Abd-Allah et al. (2015) while the other growth traits were lower than the reports of Abd-Allah
et al. (2015), and Hasan et al. (2014) among Boer, Saanen and Ettawa kids. Similarly, the birth
weights of the crossbred kids in this study were in close accordance with the reports of Deribe et
al. (2015) and Deribe and Taye (2013) for CHG. However, the other growth traits were lower
than the reports of Deribe et al. (2015) and Girma et al. (2016) among the Boer x Arsi bale, Boer
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x CHG and Boer x Woyito-Guji 25 % crossbreds. On the other hand, lower weights have also
been reported by Ssewannyana et al. (2004) for Boer crosses.
Genetic Parameter Estimates
Heritability, genetic and phenotypic correlation and their respective standard errors of the body
weight traits are presented in table 3 and 4. The findings indicate that the values are moderate to
high showing the viability of within breed selection for further genetic improvement.
Table 3: Heritability on the diagonal, genetic correlations below diagonal and phenotypic
correlations above diagonal among the body weight traits of Boer goats
Traits Birth weight Weaning weight Six month weight Yearling weight
Birth weight 0.43 ± 0.28 0.31 ± 0.16 0.49 ± 0.14 0.47 ± 0.21
Weaning weight 0.23 ± 0.52 0.78 ± 0.50 0.85 ± 0.07 0.65 ± 0.17
Six month weight 0.53 ± 0.47 0.95 ± 0.18 0.75 ± 0.52 0.83 ± 0.11
Yearling weight 0.24 1.00 0.95 ± 0.85 0.23 ± 0.70
Among the Boer and 50% F1 goats’ yearling weight was highly correlated (genetically and
phenotypically) with weight at weaning and six-month age. The correlations (phenotypic) can be
due to fallout of genetic similarity/dissimilarity due to common environments (Falconer, 1989).
Thus the values of phenotypic correlations are usually higher than the genetic correlations.
However, the values can be otherwise if the environmental correlation values are negative which
the genetic correlation values are positive or vice versa (Falconer, 1989).
Table 4: Heritability on the diagonal, genetic correlations below diagonal and phenotypic
correlations above diagonal among the body weight traits of the cross 50% F1 goats
Traits Birth weight Weaning weight Six month weight Yearling weight
Birth weight 0.73 ± 0.17 0.20 ± 0.10 0.27 ± 0.10 0.30 ± 0.10
Weaning weight 0.32 ± 0.27 0.67 ± 0.27 0.83 ± 0.04 0.69 ± 0.06
Six month weight 0.57 ± 0.25 0.93 ± 0.09 0.65 ± 0.27 0.84 ± 0.03
Yearling weight 0.69 ± 0.23 0.64 ± 0.22 0.87 ± 0.11 0.65 ± 0.27
CONCLUSION AND RECOMENDATION
Generally, the Boer goats outperformed the crossbreds at early age. While no significant
differences were observed as the age progressed. Based on this study the overall growth
performances of the Boer goats were below expectation, which indicates their sub-optimal
93
adaptability to the study area. Therefore, in terms of conserving our indigenous animal genetic
resource it is recommended to bring improvement through within breed selection. The
heritability of the traits studied was more or less high indicating the viability of within breed
selection. Genetic and phenotypic correlations irrespective of the genotypes indicated that their
values at weaning and six months and thereafter at yearling were accessed to be significantly
higher, indicating that weaning weight can be considered as trait for selecting animals at six
months of age and thereafter body weight at yearling. So in order to make general conclusions/
recommendations, evaluating them based on large sample size across different locations with
different management regime should be done.
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Estrus Synchronization Using PGF2α and PMSG Protocols on Abergelle Goat during
Lower Breeding Season in Waghemira, Ethiopia
Bekahgn Wondim, Mulatu Gobeze and Adane Bahiru

Sekota Dryland Agricultural Research Center, P.O.Box 62, Sekota, Ethiopia
ABSTRACT
The experiment was conducted from 2016-2017 to investigate the effect of pregnant mare serum
gonadatropins (PMSG) and prostaglandin (PGF2α) hormones on estrus response, conception rate
and kidding rate during lower breeding season of Abergelle goat breed. A total of 77 Abergelle
does (25 for PMSG and 52 for PGF2α protocols) were used for the experiment during April;
which is considered as lower breading season at the area. Experimental animals were allowed for
grazing (Does) for about 8hr and (Bucks) for about 4 hrs dally followed by supplementation of
mixture of 300-350g cowpea hay and wheat bran per day with equal proportion for about one
month before the actual experimental time. Bucks were kept by another attendant and
supplemented with the above specified rations for about one and half month prior to the actual
experiment as spermatogenesis takes about 47 days. After the removal of vaginal sponge
impregnated with progesterone hormone for 12 days, 2ml (400 IU) of PMSG hormone was
injected for 25 does and exposed for selected bucks after 48 hrs for the first protocol while a
single injection of PGF2α hormone was administered for 52 does and allowed for mating after 4
days of estrus detection. The percentage of estrus response, conception rate and kidding rate for
the two protocols were compared by using chi-square test and list square means for dependent
variable (onset and duration of estrus, litter size and birth weight) were computed by the GLM
procedure of the Statistical Analysis System SAS (9.0). Each means were separated with Tukey
karmers test and significant differences was test at α = 0.05. The result of the current study
revealed that PMSG and PGF2α protocol resulted in estrus response of 96% and 86.5%
respectively. The conception and kidding rates were higher in the PGF2α protocol (57.7% and
55.8%) than the PMSG protocol (60% and 28%) respectively. It was concluded that for better
conception efficiency, kidding rate and easily of application, PGF2α protocol was found to be
efficient for synchronizing Abergele does during lower breeding season.
Keywords: Abergelle goat, Conception, Estrus response, Synchronization, PGF2α, PMSG
96
INTRODUCTION
Goats, known as the “poor man's cow” are the most prolific of all domesticated ruminants under
tropical and subtropical conditions which are able to breed year round have an important
livelihood contribution for the resource poor farmers (Mamabolo and Webb, 2005). The goat
population of Ethiopia is estimated to be more than 29 million (CSA, 2015) which has increased
by 30% in the last 12 years (Solomon et al., 2014) are raised at a large proportion (58%) found in
the lowlands of the country raised in large flocks by pastoralists while, 42% of the total are found
in the highlands where there is a strong complementary relationship between small ruminant
keeping and cropping (ESGPIP, 2008) and (Tibbo, 2006). Goats comprise 5.32% of the total
tropical livestock units of Ethiopia, contribute an estimated 12 to 14% of annual meat products,
10.5% of milk production, 47% of the agricultural GDP (Behnke, 2010), 30% of all domestic
meat consumption (Zelalem and Fletcher, 1991; Belay and Mengistie, 2013) and 6% of all
animals exported (Solomon et al., 2014). Together with sheep, goats contribute about 90% of the
live animal/meat and 92% of the total skin export trade value (FAO, 2004).
Goat production has promising potential in Wag-himra area as goats can thrive and reproduce in
the arid areas where cropping activity could not be possible and used as insurance during crop
failure, means of cultural and ceremonial functions and source of different animal products in the
traditional management systems of the area. According to CSA (2015) survey report there are
about 416,551 goat population in Wag-himra Zone from which about 70% of household liquid
cash income is generated from animal sale especially from goats in the mid and lowland areas of
Wag-himra (Bekahgn et al., 2018).
Despite the considerable contribution of goats to the traditional smallholder as well as to the
national economy and better adaptive features to the harsh environment at the area, little effort
has been undertaken to improve their reproductive performance and the sector is generally
constrained by several factors at the area. Among other factors, poor reproduction management
of goats takes the most important component for lower productivity of the breed in the area as
reproduction is believed to be the primary factor affecting the profitability of any animal
breeding enterprise. Smallholder livestock production in general is commonly unplanned and
births are thinly spread throughout the year which made reproduction management to be
97
complicated and hamper overall livestock genetic improvement (Gizaw and Tegegne, 2017). In
response to limited feed availability, prolonged dry season and overall ecological degradation at
the area, goats (Abergelle) are becoming seasonal breeders. In most cases, they bred during
active rainy seasons while some birth (35%) (2013-2017 monitoring data) existed during dry
seasons otherwise they stayed long season anestrous. The main active breeding season in the
lowlands of Wag-himra zone covers starting from the beginning of June to the end of July. The
remaining long time is considered as lower or mostly non breeding seasons.
Synchronization of estrous assisted with other reproductive tools such as artificial insemination;
then will allow the producers to control the overall reproductive management procedures in their
flocks. Some of the benefits include; kidding at desired time of the year meeting religious and
social occasions, utilization of limited feed resources during peak available seasons, fixed time
breeding for meeting domestic markets, year round demand fulfillment and more other
reproductive technology tools (Rahman, 2008; Martinez et al., 2015; Gizaw and Tegegne, 2017).
Thus, this study was carried out with the following objectives;
 To evaluate the estrus response of Abergelle goat breed for different estrus synchronization
protocols
 To evaluate the conception efficiency and kidding rate of synchronized does served with
natural mating
The study was conducted at Aybra main trial site of Sekota Dryland Agricultural Research
Center (SDARC) which is found at about 17 Km from Sekota town and 797 Km North West of
Addis Ababa. Geographically the area is located at 12o 43’ 651’’N and to 39º02'027’’E with an
altitude of 2258 m above sea level. The area receives an annual average rain fall from 400-780ml
and higher rainfall recorded during the main rainy season between Julys to August (Kiremt). The
mean annual temperature varies from 9.1-31.560C with an average temperature of 20.330C
(Metrology data, 2014). The production system of the area is mixed crop-livestock system with
Livestock dominance. Map of the study area is presented in figure 1.
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Figure 1: Map of the study area
Experimental Animal Selection and Management
A total of 77 Abergelle does (25 for PMSG and 52 for PGF2α protocols) age ranging from 2 to
4 years, minimum of first parity, body condition score of 2.5-3.5, with normal health condition
and fit from different morphological criterions were selected for the experiment. The only
limiting factor for varying the sample size between the two protocols was availability of the
hormone. 10 bucks (4 for PMSG and 6 for PGF2α protocols) age ranging from 3 – 5 years, with
normal health condition, uniform body size, normal and uniform testicle size and fit for different
morphological criterions were also used for the experiment to make the variability of the bucks
potential to mate very minimal or similar. Does were allowed to graze/browse daily for 8 hrs at
the natural pasture with dominantly abundant acacia and other browse species around the
research site kept by separate attendant and equal proportion of a mixture of 300-350g cowpea
hay and wheat bran were supplemented per day for each animal according to their boy condition
for about one month before the actual experimental time while Bucks were graze/browse and
exercise around the research station for about 4 hrs per day in separate from Does, kept by
another attendant and supplemented with the above specified rations for about one and half
month prior to the actual experiment as spermatogenesis takes about 47 days. Prior to the
experiment, animals were quarantined and vaccinated against anthrax which was common to the
area during the experiment time.
99
Experiment Procedures and Execution
Protocol one: Pregnant Mare Serum Gonadothropin (PMSG) hormone
Pregnancy was checked before hormone administration with physical observation since there
was no ultrasound scanner during the experiment period followed by vaginal insertion of
progesterone impregnated sponge (Syncro-part ®; CEVA laboratories, Libourne, France) were
applied for 25 doe’s for 12 days and intramuscularly injected 2ml (400 IU) of PMSG hormone
immediately after sponge removal as gonadotrophin has a function of increasing ovulation rate
(Mahmoud and Abu, 2010) which can be used in conjunction with progesterone or progestagen
intra vaginal sponges before or after removal of the sponge in anoestrous and cycling goats.
Estrus record was taken for about 72 hr from PMSG injection as estrus duration is from 24- 72 hrs
(Kharche and Justin, 2015). After 48 hrs from PMSG injection, four selected and flushed bucks
were introduced to doe’s and stayed for about four days. Mating data, conception rate, abortion
and other important data were collected as a routine follow up activities.
Protocol two: Prostaglandin F2 Alpha (PGF2α) hormone
For this protocol, 52 Does were used and pregnancy was checked very seriously before hormone
administration with physical observation since there was no ultrasound scanner during the
experiment period as prostaglandin analogs causes’ immediate abortion for pregnant does. None
pregnant does were intramuscularly administered with 1ml Enzaprost®assingle injection so that
this hormone has an effect of regression of the corpus lutem and induce estrus in cyclic females.
Estrus record was taken for about 72 hrs from PGF2α injection and after 48 hrs from PGF2α
injection, six selected and flushed bucks were introduced to doe’s and stayed for about four days.
Mating data, conception rate, abortion and other important data were collected as a routine
follow up activities.
Heat Detection
After the end of the treatments attendants were assigned to follow the signs of estrus like tail
wagging, bleating, searching of the male, frequent urination, contraction of the vulva, vaginal
mucus discharge and mounting (Martemucci and D'Alessandro, 2011) were monitored four times
100
daily for 1 hrs by visual observation for 4 days as duration of estrus is from 24- 72 hrs (Kharche
and Justin, 2015).
Data Collected
Body condition score, parity, date of sponge inserted, date of sponge removal and PMSG
administered, date of PGF2α, date of estrus sign, mating date, conception, kidding and birth
weight were collected.
Data Analysis
The collected data was coded and entered into the Microsoft excel of 2007 software program for
further analysis. Preliminary data analysis like normality and consistency test were employed.
List square means for dependent variable (onset and duration of estrus, litter size, birth weight)
were computed by the GLM procedure of the Statistical Analysis System SAS (9.0). Each means
were separated with Tukey karmers test and significant differences was test at α = 0.05. The
frequency procedure of SPSS version 16 were used to calculate the percentage of estrus
response, conception and kidding rate for the two protocols with consideration of the formula:
Estrous response = 100

/
Conception rate = 100
Kidding rate = /
100
Estrus Response
As illustrated in table 1, estrus response was higher for PMSG hormone treated does 24 (96%)
compared with those treated with PGF2α 44 (84.6%). The distribution of the onset of estrus after
the end of PMSG and PGF2α treatment was significantly earlier in case of PMSG hormone
treated does (8.5±0.65hr) in comparison with those treated with PGF2α (10.5± 0.53hr). In
parallel, estrus duration was longer for the does treated with PGF2α (40.6±1.24hr) in comparison
with the does treated with PMSG (38.6±1.64hr) with insignificant variation.
101
From the does treated with PMSG protocol (fig 3), n = 22 (91%) of the does had estrus duration
from32 hr up to 48 hr where as for the case of PGF2α protocol (Fig 3), n=36 (81%) of the does
were accounted for those which had estrus duration from 32 hr up to 48 hr.
Table 1: Effect of hormone on estrus response (%), onset of estrus (LSM±SE), and duration of
estrus (LSM±SE) of Abergele goats
Onset of estrus Duration of estrus
Protocols N Estrus response (%) ( LSM±SE) (LSM±SE)
Treatments * NS
PMSG 25 24(96) 8.5±0.65b 38.6±1.64
PGF2α 52 44(84.6) 10.5±0.53a 40.6±1.24
Over all 77 90.3 9.8 ±0.43 39.9±0.99
CV 35 20
Where: PMSG = Pregnant mare serum gonadatropins hormone, PGF2α = Prostaglandin f2α, N
= total population, LSM = least square means and SE = standard error, * = p<0.05, *** =
p<0.001
60
50
40
30
PMSG
% of Does
20 PGF2α
10
0
4 8 12 16 20 Hr
Time (Hr)
Figure 2: Distribution of onset of estrus /hr for Abergelle does synchronized with PMSG and
PGF2α hormones
102
40
35
30
25
20
PMSG
15
% of Does
PGF2α
10
5
0
24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 Hr
Time (Hr)
Figure 3: Distribution of estrus duration/hr for Abergelle does synchronized with PMSG and
PGF2α hormones
Does of 2nd and 3rd parity treated with PGF2α had significantly higher estrus response (38.6%)
and (36.6%) respectively in comparison with 4th parity does (25%) of estrus response treated
with same protocol. Does with 2.5 body condition score show higher estrus response (81.8%)
compared with 3 and 3.5 of body condition score of estrus response (15.9%) and (2.3%)
respectively. Similarly, 2nd parity Does synchronized with PMSG hormone show significantly
higher estrus response (54.1%) compared with 1st and 3rd parity does (37.5% and 8.3%)
respectively. In significant variation were observed in both of the protocols for the time for onset
of estrus and estrus duration except the significantly longer estrus duration was observed at the
3rd parity does (46.8±1.1hr) compared with 2nd (38.9± 2.0hr) and 4th parity does (40.0± 2.7hr) for
the PGF2α groups.
103
Table 2: Effect of parity and BCS on estrus response (%), onset of estrus (LSM±SE) and
duration of estrus (LSM±SE) of Abergelle goats synchronized with PGF2α and PMSG protocols
Estrus Onset of estrus Estrus duration

Protocol Variables N response (%) (LSM± SE) (LSM ± SE )
Parity Ns *
2 17 38.6 9.2.±1.0 38.9± 2.0b
3 16 36.6 10.2±0.6 46.8± 1.1a
4 11 25 11.0±1.1 40.0± 2.7b
BCS Ns Ns
PGF2α
2.5 36 81.8 10.6±0.5 40.8±1.3
3 7 15.9 10.8±1.8 37.9±3.6
3.5 1 2.3 8.9±0.0 47.0±0.0
Over all 33.3 10.5±0.5 40.6±1.2
CV 34 18
Parity Ns Ns
1 9 37.5 9.4 ± 1.2 41.2±2.3
2 13 54.1 9.0± 0.7 37.7±2.4
3 2 8.3 6.6± 2.0 34.8±2.0
BCS Ns Ns
PMSG
2.5 18 75 7.7±0.7 37.1±1.9
3 4 16.6 8.0±1.9 42.5±3.0
3.5 2 8.3 9.3±2.0 34.1±2.0
Overall 33.3 8.5±0.6 38±1.6
CV 39 20
Where: PMSG = Pregnant mare serum gonadatropins hormone, PGF2α = Prostaglandin f2α, N
= total population, LSM = least square means and SE = standard error, * = p<0.05
Conception Rate and Related Reproductive Parameters
Does synchronized with PGF2α hormone was showed significantly higher 29 (65.9 %) at p<0.05
conception rate and kidding rate (25 (86.2)) compared with these synchronized with PMSG
hormone 9 (37.5%) of conception and 6 (66.6) kidding rate. Significantly higher litter size at
p<0.001 was revealed in the PMSG group (1.5± 0.2) compared with PGF2α group which had
litter size of (1.0±0.0) with insignificant variation observed for birth weight from both of the
protocols.
104
Table 3: Conception rate (%), kidding rate (%), and litter size (LSM±SE) and Birth weight
(LSM±SE) of Abergele goat synchronized with PMSG and PGF2α protocol
Litter size Birth weight
Protocol N Mating (%) Conception (%) Kidding (%) (LSM±SE) ( LSM±SE)
Treatments *** *
PMSG 24 15(62.5) 9(37.5) 6(66.6) 1.5±0.20 1.8±0.04
PGF2α 44 44(100) 29(65.9) 25(86.2) 1.0± 0.03 2.1±0.04
Overall 81.25 51.7 76.4 1.1± 0.05 2.0±0.03
CV 24 10
Where: PMSG=Pregnant mare serum gonadatropins hormone, PGF2α=Prostaglandin f2α,
N=total population, LSM=least square means and SE=standard error, *=p<0.05, ***=p<0.001
DISCUSSION
Both of the synchronization protocols (PMSG and PGF2α) injections were effective in inducing
estrus in Abergele does. The percentage of does exhibiting estrus in this experiment was
exceeded than 75% response from PGF-eCG protocol in Iranian downy goats reported by (Majid
and Mazaher, 2017) even if there was hormonal change from PMSG to eCG between the two
studies together with breed and agro ecology differences. However, the current result was
comparable with the result 94.4% reported by (Bukar et al., 2012) in boar does with same
protocol. In the present study, estrus response of injecting PMSG hormone (96%) was slightly
higher than the estrus response of PGF2α hormone (84.6%) observed and the response of PGF2α
from this study was higher than the findings of others reported (75%) estrus response of using
PGF on Persian downy does (Majid and Mazaher, 2017) and lower than the reports (95%) found
in indigenous Greek goats (Amarantidis et al., 2004) and the (97%) in Nadooshani goats (Bitaraf
et al., 2007). The conception rate in this study in both of the protocols was relatively higher than
the results reported 29.4% using natural mating and (44%) using AI on Rawa goats (Abid
Mehmood, 2011) and lower than the research findings reported by (Amarantidis et al., 2004,
Bitaraf et al., 2007 and Majid and Mazaher, 2017). However in comparison with the above
reports, relatively lower result was investigated for kidding rate in this study in the case of
PMSG protocol. This might be associated with due to the reason that prolonged dry season
during the experiment leading for serious early abortion. The proportion between estrus response
and conception rate and kidding rate were lower in the case of two of the protocols with higher
proportion in case of PMSG and the practical reason might be associated with presence of estrus
105
detection problem since there was no serum analysis conducted for FSH and LH level rather only
physical expressions were considered during estrus detection, and bucks efficiency to mate all of
the does come to heat; bucks were unable to mate all estrus does effectively on time rather they
stay longer time on a single doe. In this experiment we observed for incompatibility of this
protocol with natural mating and this protocol is thought to be very effective for timed artificial
insemination. The current result also revealed that shorter on set of estrus and duration was
showed from PMSG hormone which calls breeders for either fixed time AI or enough and ready
bucks to cover the mating process with the available time.
The current result also revealed that, 2nd and 3rd parity does with body condition score of 2.5 up
to 3 were found to be more responsive for estrus and conception which were in agreement with
the finding reported that body condition score of ewes had a significant effect on kilogram lambs
born per ewes, birth weight of lambs and FSH concentration of ewes at (P<0.05) in Sanjabi ewes
(Muhammad et al., 2013). The above author also reported that Ewes with body condition score
of 3 had normal estrous while ewes with lower body condition score had shorter estrous period.
Positive relationship between body condition score and plasma leptin and FSH concentrations in
Iranian fat tail ewes at mating time (Towhidi et al., 2007) was also anther finding which
strengthened the current study.
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
In the situations where there are enough feed supplementation programs, estrus follow up,
pregnancy diagnosis prior to the administration of hormones and overall improved animal
husbandry practice, the value of estrus synchronization following natural mating in goats during
lower breeding season can be used as an alternative in areas where applying AI is difficult as the
duration of both estrous cycle and estrus is variable and estrus detection cannot be accomplished
safely without a buck. Results of the present study summarized that using PMSG and PGF2α
protocols for estrus induction and synchronization for Abergele does during the dry season could
increase estrus percentage, with medium conception and lower kidding rate especially in the case
of PMSG protocol. Thus with the above results the following are the recommendations.
106
For the reason of better conception efficiency, kidding rate and easily of application, PGF2α
protocol was found to be better responsive and effective on synchronizing Abergele does during
lower breeding season as the overall kidding rate for the breed during low breeding season is not
beyond 35% at natural breeding condition as referred in the background part of this manuscript.
Strong pregnancy diagnosis activities should strengthen prior to the administration of PGF2α as
it can lead for serious abortion.
Improving the body condition of the experimental animals, estrus followup and use of efficient
bucks can improve the estrus response, conception and kidding rates in Abergele does.
Strengthened further study on the evaluation of different estrus synchronization protocols with
strengthened heat detection programs like conducting serum analysis for FSH and LH level
following AI on indigenous goats should become an important research area.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The national Goat commodity under Ethiopian Agriculture Research Institute (EIAR) for
funding and International Center for Agricultural Research in Dry Areas (ICARDA) for hormone
and other material provision are gratefully acknowledged
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109
Open Nucleus Breeding Strategy for Fogera Cattle Breed in Ethiopia: Achievements and
Future Directions
Assemu Tesfa, Mekonnen Tilahun, Zelalem Asmare, Demelash Kassahun, Tewodros Bimerew,
Eyasu Lakew and Addisu Bitew
ABSTRACT
The objective of this paper was to evaluate the performance of nucleus herd at Andassa livestock
research center and to evaluate and summarize the result of first term community based breed
productivity improvement (CBBPI) done under open nucleus herd breeding scheme. The work
was done in two purposively selected districts (Gondar Zuria and Fogera). The collected data
was analysed by GLM procedure of SAS (2002). Genetic parameters estimate was made by
Wombat software for heritability and correlation. The overall milk yield of the nucleus herd was
2.26±0.794 litter. From the total herd, best 10% and 25% of them give a respective milk yield of
3.31 and 2.87 litter; and some elite cows give an average of 5.45±0.73 litter with a maximum
yield of eight litters per day. The overall birth and weaning weight of nucleus herd calves was
21.30±0.06 and 103.66±0.59kg, respectively. For CBBPI program, 17 pure Fogera bulls were
distributed to the two districts. Heritability for birth and weaning weight was 0.24±0.09 and
0.18±0.05, respectively. The phenotypic and genotypic correlation with their respective standard
error between birth and weaning weight was 0.0613±0.0075 and 0.0712±0.0343, respectively.
The birth and weaning weight of the village calves was 23.77±0.21 and 85.89±1.07, respectively.
Through the program, above 1000 households were benefiting through the breeding program,
health, forage development and grazing land management. To share the achievements of the
results in CBBPI program, popularization through filed days and innovation platforms; and
documentation of each stepvia publications, videos and pictures was done. From the result, it can
be concluded that the strategy implemented for the breed conservation “open nucleus breeding
scheme” had shown better results and improvement was recorded. To widen the result and
improve the livelihood of the farmer, scaling up of the activity should better be planned with
integrated approach of different stakeholders and strong linkage and follow up of the community
should be done.
Keywords: Community based, Fogera cattle, Nucleus herd, Selection response
110
INTRODUCTION
Indigenous cattle breeds constitute an important reservoir of genetic material which developing
nations have failed to give adequate recognition. Changes in economic situation, the changing
consumer preference and therefore the need for change in production methods to comply with
these are the major forces dictating the future of indigenous cattle breeding (Assan, 2012).
Today, a large number of indigenous breeds or varieties in the developing world are at risk of
becoming extinct; likewise, at the moment breeds like Sheko cattle, are highly threatened as a
result of interbreeding; others like Fogera, Begayit, Ogaden and Borena cattle breeds of Ethiopia
are also facing various degrees of threat (IBC, 2004). These breeds are decreasing and
deteriorating in terms of both population size and genetic quality due to paradigm shift in the
existing farming system and production system, and farm size dynamics of the native habitat
and in turn the subsequent genetic dilution (IBC, 2012; Adebabay et al., 2013), those directs a
need for genetic conservation.
Fogera cattle are one of the promising milk type local breed of Ethiopia that is widely adapted
around Lake Tana of Amhara region. The breed in known for its relatively higher milk yield and
traction power, better resistance to internal parasites infestation, and sound adaptability to water
logged Fogera plain attributed to its long legs (Assemu, 2015). On top this, milk production and
draught power merits of the breed arefarmer’s preferable traits (Zewdu, 2004; Addisu et al.,
2007). Currently the breed is used as Dam line for milk yield improvement (with Holsten Frisian
bull) and Sire line to improve the considerable milk yield and better growth rate for rural areas
and water logged areas (Assemu et al., 2017).
Andassa livestock research center had exerted an improvement and conservation effort both on-
station and on-farm level to safeguard the breed from extinction and decrement in its
productivity. The center keep the breed for above 40 years as a conservation effort and
improvement activity both in-situ and ex-situ for the past 20 years through open nucleus
breeding scheme. The on-farm conservation and improvement effort was done both by own
animal selection for 10 years and by back crossing with pure Fogera bull since 2013. The final
objective of the breeding scheme was restocking the declining village Fogera cattle population
and improving the livelihood of the farmer. Therefore, the objectives of this paper were:
111
 To evaluate the performance of nucleus herd at Andassa livestock research center

 To evaluate and summarize the result of first term community based breed productivity
improvement done under nucleus herd breeding scheme of Fogera cattle.
Description of Working Sites
Andassa Livestock Research Center (ALRC): is found at 587 km Northwest of Addis Ababa, and
22 km South of Bahir Dar city (capital of Amhara region), on the way to Blue Nile fall. The total
area of the center is about 360 hectares out of which 310 are covered by pasture land and the rest
50 hectares is covered with bushes and different constructions. The center was established to
conserve Fogera breed both in-situ and ex-situ approach. The center had above 600 nucleus herd
animals for conservation and improvement strategy. Community based breed improvement
program was implementing at two districts; those are known to have true-to-type Fogera cattle
breed. These are:
Gondar Zuria district: the district is found in North Gondar of Amhara regional state. It is
located 12° 39' N latitude and 37° 19' E longitude. The altitude of the district is 1982 masl and
the average annual rainfall range between 950 to1035mm. The annual temperature ranges from
27oc to 33oc. The total area coverage of the district is 114,983ha. The cattle population was
estimated to be 212,164 (AGADO, 2014).
Fogera district: the district is found in South Gondar of Amhara regional state. It locates 11°46
to 11°59 latitude and 37°33 to 37°52 longitudes. The altitude ranges from 1774 to 2410 masl,
and receives mean annual rainfall of 1216.3 mm (ranging from 1103 to 1336 mm). The average
minimum and maximum temperature of the district vary between 10.3°C to 27.2°C. It has an
estimated cattle population of 182729. The land, about 44.2% is arable and 20% is irrigated,
22.9% for pasture, 1.8% forest or shrub land, 3.7% is water, and the remaining 7.4% is
considered degraded land (Kefyalew et al., 2015).
112
Description of Fogera Breed
Fogera breed is characterized and well known by its pied coat of black-and-white
black white or black
black-and-
grey; short, stumpy, pointed horns; hump ranges from thoracic
thor to cervico-thoracic;
thoracic; dewlap is
folded and moderate to large in size; docile temperament; used for draught, milk and meat (Rege
and Tawah, 1999; DAGRIS 2007). It is highly tolerant or resistant to heat stress and solar
radiation which could be due to its
its light color and short hair. Additionally, the breed is known
for its tolerance to high altitudes, parasite and disease infestation, fly burden, wet soils or
swampy areas, low quality of feed and other unfavorable environmental conditions (Alberro and
Haile-Mariam, 1982).
Figure 1: Distribution of Fogera cattle (left) and working sites (right)
Breeding Strategy
The center follows open nucleus breeding scheme (figure 2), to improve milk yield of Fogera
cattle. In the strategy, improved bulls from the nucleus had transported to community (village)
herd and selected heifers to the nucleus herd. In the nucleus herd, animals are grouped based on
their milk yield and pedigree. A single herd had 40 to 50 cows with one bull and mating is
natural. Calves had free
ree access to suckle their dams for the first four days to ensure that they
consume enough colostrum; they were then separated from their dams and allowed to partially
suckle (two teats) at milking times until weaning.
113
Figure 2: Open nucleus breeding scheme
Community Based Breed Productivity Improvement (CBBPI)
As a part of open nucleus breeding strategy, community based breed productivity improvement
is the implementation program of the strategy at the village herd. For the implementation,
through participation of researchers and experts, two districts based on presence of true to type
Fogera cattle (50%), Accessibility and presence of knowledgeable farmers (25%) and others like
willingness of farmers, communal grazing land and enough land for feed development (25%)
was selected. After selection, community discussion was done on points like the importance and
productivity of the breed, its value for them and the need of the conservation and improvement
strategy. After the consensus built with the community, farmers were selected to hold the
breeding bull and serve the community. Those farmers were selected based on wealth status,
cattle management ability, and presence of better educational background. And the bull was
given based on written contractual agreement for four years’ service and after to make him own
property.
114
Data Analysis
The collected data was analysed by GLM procedure of SAS (2002) software. Milk yield
performance, and pre-weaning growth was considered as dependent variables; breeding period
and breeding group for nucleus data and sex, season, district and year for community based data
was used as independent factors.
Genetic parameter estimate was done by Wombat (Karin, 2006), a program for Mixed Model
Analyses by Restricted Maximum Likelihood. Genetic parameters were estimated for heritability
and correlation for birth and weaning weight. The fixed effects (sex, season and year) were
included in the mixed model after they are checked for their significance effect via GLM
procedure of SAS (SAS, 2002).
Table 1: Number of observation used for genetic parameter estimation

Genetic parameter estimation
Type of data Birth weight Weaning weight
Animals used 1497 1315
Progeny with unknown sires 164 141
Sire 55 53
Dam 742 742
The variance components and heritability were estimated using a uni-variate animal model using
three models which fitted direct additive, dam genetic and permanent environmental effect as a
random effect and the fixed effects.
The model equations used for the analysis of birth and weaning weight were:
Model1 Y= Xb + Z1a + e
Model2 Y= Xb + Z1a + Z2m + e (cova, m = 0)
Model3 Y= Xb + Z1a + Z2m + Z3c + e (cova, m = 0)
115
Part I: Nucleus Herd Achievements
Milk Yield Performance
The result of the data (Table 2) indicated that through the advancement of year, milk yield was
improved mainly since from 2008. The lowered milk yield during the period of 2005-2007 was
due to the recorded inbreeding in the herd. The gradual increment was due to culling and
restocking procedure done by the center. From the total herd, 10% and 25% of them had milked
a respective average milk yield of 3.31litter and 2.87 litter (Table 3); this result had an increment
compared with the average milk yield of 3.04 and 2.62 litter (Addisu et al., 2010) for best 10%
and 25% of the herd. As table 4 presents, the group herd had variations in milk yield
performance as they are group based on their milk yield performance. Among the entire herd,
some elite cows give an average of 5.45±0.73 with a maximum yield of eight litters; and this
indicated that the selection response of the breed is higher.
Table 2: Least square means of daily milk yield in different periods

Breeding period N Daily Milk Yield Standard Error
Period 1 (2002-2004) 13958 2.30 0.009
Period 2 (2005-2007) 8504 1.92 0.008
Period 3 (2008-2010) 31657 2.13 0.008
Period 4 (2011-2013) 10754 2.39 0.01
Period 5 (2014-2017) 10114 2.43 0.071
Table 3: Average daily milk yield performance and Predicted milk yield of Fogera cattle
Daily Predicted Milk Predicted Milk Predicted Milk
Parameters milk yield yield at 100days yield at 200days yield at 305days
Overall mean 2.03 242.82 430.18 578.26
Best 10% mean 3.31 380.44 669.89 883.64
Best 25% mean 2.87 326.75 585.32 772.83
Maximum 4.55 493.5 858 1194
Minimum 0.56 78.00 175 274
116
Table 4: Milk yield performance of the grouped herd

Milk yield (litter)
Breeding Herd type Mean SD Min Max
Group Overall 2.26 0.794 0.4 7.2
1 Fogera G 1 2.24 0.731 0.7 5.5
2 Fogera G II 2.52 0.863 0.6 6.1
3 Fogera G III 2.05 0.814 0.4 7.2
4 Fogera G IV 2.18 0.707 0.6 4.5
Birth and Weaning Weight Performance
The overall birth and weaning weight of nucleus herd calves was 21.30±0.06 and 103.66±0.59
kg, respectively. The result was comparable with the report of Giday (2003) and Assemu (2015).
As indicated in table 5, the result had shown an improvement from year to year which is the
response for selection of the breed.
Table 5: Least square means of birth and weaning weight

Parameters N Birth weight (kg) N 240 day weight
Overall 1975 21.30±0.06 1426 103.66±0.59
Sex * **
Female 1131 20.92±0.09 805 101.91±0.93
Male 1075 21.86±0.09 766 108.50±0.95
Year *** **
1997-2000 438 21.67±0.14b 408 107.87±1.11b
2001-2004 385 21.80±0.14b 340 102.76±1.21c
2005-2008 408 21.07±0.14c 271 94.73±1.36d
2009-2012 421 19.53±0.14d 337 104.53±1.22bc
2013-2015 323 22.88±0.16ab 70 116.14±2.67a
2016-2018 231 23.83±0.59a 145 101.45±1.71c
Genetic Parameter Estimate
Heritability for birth and weaning weight was 0.24±0.09 and 0.18±0.05, respectively. Higher
result for respective birth weight and weaning weight of 0.38 ± 0.32 and 0.22 ± 0.25 was
reported by Asheber (1991) at the same center. This difference might be due to management
difference that influences the environmental part of the estimated genetic parameter.The
phenotypic and genotypic correlation with their respective standard error between birth and
weaning weight was 0.0613±0.0075 and 0.0712±0.0343, respectively. A lower phenotype
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(0.05±0.02) and higher genotype (0.6±0.23) correlation was reported by Almaz (2012) for
Fogera cattle breed at Metekel Fogera cattle conservation site.
Part II: Community Based Breed Productivity Improvement (CBBPI)
The approach, CBBPI, enables to establish a linkage between ex-situ and in-situ conservation
strategies (nucleus herd and the village herd), allows to maximizes the retention and continued
evolution of the genetic qualities of farmers’ varieties, aims to avoid the loss of variation during
rejuvenation and maintenance in formal gene banks and finally its benefit was mainly due to
because of community is responsible for the decisions on definition, priority-setting and the
implementation of all aspects of its conservation and sustainable use.
Birth and Weaning Weight Achievements
Since 2012, the center had work on village breed improvement from the entire herd of the
community. Bus after 2013, the implementation of open nucleus breeding scheme was done and
selected bulls, based on their estimated breeding value and physical soundness, from nucleus
herd were distributed to the selected villages. Since then, 17 pure Fogera bulls were distributed
in two terms for both working districts. In firstterm (four year period), the mating bulls were
transferred to the keeping farmers based on the agreement. The birth and weaning weight (at 8
month age) of the village herds born from CBBPI was 23.77±0.21 and 85.89±1.07, respectively
(Table 6). The average weaning age was lowered from one year to 8 months. Based on the
monitoring data the average birth and weaning weight of calves born by local bull of the area
was 20.21 and 85.14kg (at one year age), respectively. From this it can be appreciated that, the
through the open nucleus breeding program, there was an improvement in productivity beyond
the conservation effort.
As a strategy, community based breed productivity improvement, includes different aspects of

activity besides the breeding program. These activities, done in relation of the breeding program
was strategic deworming and vaccination through flock monitoring strategy, grazing land
improvement and introduction of new water logged tolerant grass specious and fattening
technology demonstration; those all allow to improve the production improvement and the
livelihood of the farmers. Above 1000 households are benefiting in the strategy through the
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CBBPI. Through the first term of the breeding program, above 38 castrated bulls fattened; above
24,000 cattle covered by health treatment and Elephant grass, four water logging tolerant grass
cultivars were introduced to alleviate feed problem of the area.
Table 6: Least squares means (+SE)

Parameters N Birth weight N Weaning weight
Overall 567 23.77±0.21 293 85.89±1.07
District * **
Fogera 372 24.01±0.26 190 86.44±1.29
Gondar zuria 195 23.31±0.33 103 84.54±1.92
Year ** *
2015 207 23.08±0.33ab 108 86.16±1.53b
2016 158 24.17±0.34a 87 85.56±1.48b
2017 107 24.52±0.36a 98 87.49±3.05a
2018 95 21.75±0.62c - -
Sex * NS
Male 277 24.15±0.30 137 86.60±1.84
Female 290 23.45±0.27 156 85.30±1.24
Season NS *
Dry 388 23.27±0.35 209 84.27±2.35
Wet 179 23.75±0.56 84 87.51±1.05
Figure 3: Water logged tolerant grass (left) and fattening of castrated bull (demonstration)
Case report: second generation of the strategy had reported and age at first mating was reported
to be 25 month and 36 month as age at first calving. This result compared with the farmers calve
is improved by an average of one year, which indicates the positive response of selection done
on the breeding strategy. As traction power is the selective trait of the farmers, calves born
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through the CBBPI starts plowing in their 31 month while the farmers local bull do the same
work at its 41 months age.
Figure 4: A calve giving birth at three year (left) and second generation calve (right) born at
Fogera district
Popularization, Documentation Andfarmers Perception on CBBPI
To popularize the activity and increase the participant farmers and districts, field day with
different stakeholders of about 228 participants (BoA, Universities, IBC, zone to kebele offices,
farmers and NGO) was held mainly to indicate the efforts exerted on the breed improvement and
conservation; share tasks for “hands together” for the use of the resource; popularize the activity
and develop scaling up modality to other target areas.
As CBBPI activities are long lasting, documentations had been done in every and each journey
of the activity, which allow to see the drawbacks, identified challenges, take corrective measures,
and further developing guidelines to other users and share the experiences to other areas. In this
regard, CBBPI activity on Fogera cattle had documented in different forms viz. via videos,
photos, publications (journals and proceedings) and other written documents.
Participant farmers, getting calve from the improvement effort, had “acknowledged Almighty
GOD for having the cattle phenotype of their elder fathers”. Some farmers were reluctant to
show their calves to us due to their fear as we take off the calves to the center. All farmers are
well satisfied by the service delivered in relation to the conservation and improvement activity to
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improve the production environment. Non-participating farmers of neighboring gotes, PA’s and
districts requests the research center to expand the conservation and improvement work with
their vicinity.
Major Challenges of Cbbpi of Fogera Cattle
1. Over flooding of Lake Tana: the lake, always over flood to the grazing land and make
stagnant water for several months that lead disease outbreak and damage on the grazing land.
2. Invasive weeds: in both sites, the grazing land had covered by unpalatable weeds like
Amekela (Asracanthalongifolia) and water body invasive weeds (water hyacinth) share the
land and aggravates disease (mainly water hyacinth).
3. Shift of production system: the dominant livestock-crop mixed production system of the
areas was currently dominated by crop production and diversification that change the grazing
lands to crop production.
4. Genetic erosion: intact male Fogera bulls are currently get better price to the neighbouring
countries market. This, with absence of marketing policy for border live animals, challenges
both the conservation and improvement strategy.
Figure 5: Invasive weed (water hyacinth) (left) and intact Fogera bull for market (genetic
erosion) (left)
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CONCLUSION AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS
 In the current study, the result across year and period had shown an inconsistence result;
which might be attributed to the presence of variable management practices adopted by the
center.
 There is an improvement in the production performance of the breed that indicated the
potential for selection is higher in the breed.
 The community conservation and improvement strategy was a big entry point to assure the
conservation effort.
 Cumulative effort viz. breeding, forage, health and extension play a great role to sustain the
conservation and improvement effort.
FUTURE DIRECTIONS
With the above bold conclusions, the following recommendations are made to further strengthen
the conservation and improvement effort of the breed.
 Strong linkage and follow up of the community should be done.

 The production environment of the conservation and improvement sites should be improved
to improve the livelihood of the farmers through optional income generating activities
 Developing a reproductive technology and biotechnology unit to safe guard the breed from
extinction by natural and/or manmade hazards had better be planed and implemented.
 Scaling up of the activity should better be planned with integrated approach of different
stakeholders
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors had acknowledged district and kebele experts those are participating in the
conservation and improvement strategy of the breed. On top of this authors extend their gratitude
to partner organizations for their kind partnership and unreserved help for the effort made on the
center. The heart felt acknowledgement was for ENIDP and EIAR for their unlimited budget
support. Farmers participating on the conservation and improvement strategy and keeping the
breed are kindly acknowledged by the authors.
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REFERENCES
Addisu Bitew, Getinet Mekuriaw and Tezera Mulugeta. 2007. On-farm evaluation of
management practices and productivity of Fogera cattle in Northwest Ethiopia. Proceedings
of the 2nd annual regional conference on completed livestock research activities, Amhara
Regional Agricultural Research Institute (ARARI), Bahir Dar, Ethiopia.
Addisu Bitew, Adebabay Kebede, Bewuket Siraw, Solomon Gizaw and Tewodros Bimrew.
2010. Conservation-Based Breeding Program for Fogera Cattle.Working
Document.Amhara Regional Agricultural Research Institute Andassa Livestock research
center (unpublished papers).
Adebabaye Kebede, Likawent Yeheyes, Tekeba Eshetie, and Getnet Zeleke. 2013. Production
system shift and land fragmentation on livestock production in Fogera district: with special
emphasis to the indigenous Fogera cattle breed, in Proceedings of the International
Workshop on Farm Size Dynamics in East and Southern Africa, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia.
Albero M. and S. Haile-Mariam. 1982. The indigenous cattle of Ethiopia Part-II, World Animal
Review, 41-42: 27-34, 1982.
Assan N. 2012. Genetic improvement and utilization of indigenous cattle breeds for beef
production in Zimbabwe: Past, Present and Future Prospects.
Assemu Tesfa. 2015. Genetic parameter estimate for performance traits of Fogera cattle.LAP
LAMBERT Academic publishing.ISBN 978-3-659-76247-5.
Assemu Tesfa, Dilip Kumar, Solomon Abegaz and Getinet Mekuriaw. 2017. Conservation and
Improvement Strategy for Fogera Cattle: A Lesson for Ethiopia Ingenious Cattle Breed
Resource. Hindawi Publishing Corporation; Advances in Agriculture. Volume 2017,
Article ID 2149452,12 pages. https://doi.org/10.1155/2017/2149452.
DAGRIS 2007. Domestic Animal Genetic Resources Information System (DAGRIS). (eds. S.
Kemp, Y. Mamo, B. Asrat and T. Dessie). International Livestock Research Institute,
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.http://dagris.ilri.cgiar.org
Getinet Mekuriaw and Addisu Bitew. 2006. Fogera cattle breeding line/pedigree at Andassa
Livestock Research Center, Andassa livestock research center; May 16, 2006 (working
document).
123
Giday Yifter. 2001. Assessment of calf crop productivity and total herd life of Fogera cows at
Andassa ranch, Northwestern Ethiopia. M.Sc. Thesis. Alemaya University, Alemya,
Ethiopia.
IBC (Institute of Biodiversity Conservation). 2004. The state of Ethiopia’s farm animal genetic
resources: country report, A Contribution to the First Report on the State of the World’s
Animal Genetic Resources, IBC, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Kefyalew Alemayehu, Damitie Kebede, EndalkachewGirma. 2015. Survival and population
viability of Fogera cattle (Bosindicus, Zenga Type) in North West Amhara, Ethiopia.
Global Journal of Animal Breeding and Genetics. ISSN: 2408-5502 Vol. 3 (6), pp. 181-
187, September, 2015.
Rege JEO and Tawah LC., 1999. The state of Africa cattle genetic resource II.
Zewdu Wuletaw 2004. Indigenous cattle genetic resources, their husbandry practices and
breeding objectives in North-western Ethiopia.MSc Thesis, Alemaya University of
Agriculture, Dire Dawa, Ethiopia.
124
Adaptation and Characterization of Major Pollen and Nectar Source Plants in Wag-Lasta,
Amhara Region
Agazhe Tsegaye, Alemu Tsegaye, Addisu Bihonegn, Ayalew Girmay, Meresa Lema and Yesuf
Ibrahim
ABSTRACT
The study was conducted to screen and examine the best performing bee forage species in Wag-
Lasta areas. The experimental species were Leucas abyssinica; Hypoestustrifolia and
Plantagolanceolata, three of them are perennial types. The species were evaluated based on
emergency date, survival rate, the number of flowers per plants, foraging intensity of honeybees,
flowering length. As a result of this particular study, among the experimental planted
species Plantagolanceolata species has emerged in short time compared with Leucas abyssinica
and Hypoestustrifolia. All plant species were evaluated to have good survival and vegetative
growth. The mean time required to give and full flower was significantly different at (p<0.05 and
p<0.01, respectively) among the bloomed species. Hypoestustrifoliahas shorter time to give
flower and Leucas abyssinica has relatively long blooming duration which stayed up to 77.5 days
with a lot of flowers and 3 months. Average number of flowers per plant was highest (1826) for
Plantagolanceolata as compared to Leucas abyssinica and Hypoestustrifolia. The mean number
of honeybees visit in five minutes was not significantly different at (p<0.05) in the main
flowering time of bee forages. Foragers were highly attracted and prefer Leucas abyssinica
among the species and they were stayed from 6 AM and 6 pm in foraging. Therefore the study
confirms that Leucas abyssinica; Hypoestustrifolia and Plantagolanceolata were good bee forage
plants. Generally because of long flowering duration, honeybee visitation intensity and due to its
dearth period flowering, Leucas abyssinica plant species has been selected and its planting is
recommended to increase honey production. In addition integration with watershed development
is highly recommended as they are fast growth plants.
Keywords: Bee flora, Flowering duration, Foraging intensity
125
INTRODUCTION
Beekeeping is one of the most important farming activities in Ethiopia since ancient times
(Girma, 1998). Production of honey and other products of honeybees depend on availability of
floral resources (bee forage plants) and is a very important field for beekeepers (Amsalu et al.,
2004). Success in beekeeping depends upon many factors, among them availability of bee flora
is the fundamental one. Bees obtain nectar, pollen, or both from flowers, which are the mainstay
of honeybee’s life (Crane, 1984). Nevertheless, the bees and plants they depend on, like all
renewable natural resources, are constantly under threat from lack of knowledge and
appreciation of these endowments (Girma, 1998).
The current scenario of the Amhara region suggested that the principal resource base for
beekeeping, honeybee flora is becoming seriously degraded in the course of time. The increasing
human population and the high demand for farmlands are factors to put pressures on forest lands
and mountainous areas to be used for crop production and livestock grazing. Deteriorating
natural resources due to ecological degradation caused by soil erosion, overgrazing and
deforestation is the principal cause for the ever-declining productivity of honeybee flora. The
alarmingly dwindling natural vegetation and lack of beekeepers’ practice in planting bee forages
in turn results in weakening of honeybee colonies and their production.
Moreover, recurrent drought and the non-selective herbicide application are also the main factors
for the reduction of bee flora in the region (Kerealem, 2005). These are some of the challenges
for sustainable beekeeping development in Amhara region. At present, as the environmental
changes are very rapid, beekeeping couldn't remain sustainable as it was in the past unless some
efforts are made to improve bee forage availability of the region through finding promising bee
forage plant resources that could be adapted to the local condition.
Honeybee productivity can be promoted through the use of good quality bee forages. Bee
nutrition (which ultimately increases their population) can be improved through planting or
encouraging more-or-less permanently for the development, conservation and protection of bee
forage plants with high resource yielding capacity and could easily be adapted to the biotic and
abiotic environmental stress conditions (Equar et al., 2016). Depending on the fact that
differences in adaptability and agro ecology, every locality has a distinct type of bee forage
126
plants. Accordingly, Equar et al. (2016) report Hypoestes forskaolii and Leucas abyssinica were
the preferred nectar and pollen source bee forage plants in Tigray. Abebe et al. (2014) explained
that Guizotia abyssinica, Bidens spp., Acacia tortolis, Becium grandiflorum, Hypoestes trifolia
are the most important pollen source plants in Sekota district.
Therefore, examining and screening of the best performing bee forage species in Wag-Lasta area
had significance for sustainable beekeeping development in the study area. Hence, this study was
designed to evaluate the adaptation potential of annual bee forage plants in Wag-Lasta area.
The study was conducted at Sekota agricultural research center, Jinqaba bee research site.
Jinqaba is geographically located at 12040 N latitude and 3900 E longitude with an elevation of
2026 m.a.s.l. The site was selected based on accessibility to transport and to conduct the study
under its in-situ advantages.
Experimental Set Up and Materials
Seeds were sown and seedlings were raised in nursery beds. The seedlings were then
transplanted to plots of a 2m x 2m size, with 0.25m spacing between plants and 0.3m between
rows having a total of 48 seedlings per plot. Leucas abyssinica, Hypoestus trifolia and Plantago
lanceolata were used as planting materials.
Completely randomized block design was used with three replications. All necessary data such
as, emergency date, survival rate, flowering date, number of flowers per plant, and foraging
intensity of honeybees were recorded on a notebook until the end of data collection. At 50%
flowering, number of flower heads/plant was counted randomly from five plants. Foraging bee
intensity on flowers was counted starting from 6: 00 a.m. to 6: 00 p.m. for five minutes at every
1 hour interval. Finally, the collected data were coded and tabulated in Microsoft Excel
spreadsheet program used for data management. SAS version 9.1 was used to analyze the data
collected. A p-value <0.05 and p<0.01 were considered as a significant difference among
variables.
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RESULT AND DISCUSSIONS
Emergency date and survival rate: The mean emergency date was significantly different (P<
0.01) among the experimental plant species. Plantago lanceolata species has emerged in short
time (10.8 days) as compared with Leucas abyssinica and Hypoestus trifolia species (Table 1).
There was significant difference (P<0.05) in survival rate between bee forages under rain fed
condition. Plantago lanceolata has best survival rate (100%) than Leucas abyssinica and
Hypoestus trifolia species (Table 1).
Times to give and full flower: Generally, the flowering time of Leucas abyssinica, Hypoestus
trifolia and P.lanceolota were almost from October to December. The mean time required to
give and full flower was significantly different (p<0.05 and p<0.01 respectively) among the
bloomed species. However, Hypoestus trifolia has shorter time to give flower compared to
Leucas abyssinica and Plantago lanceolata (Table 1).
Blooming duration and flower biomass: The study revealed that among the studied plant species,
Leucas abyssinica has significant difference (p<0.05) having relatively long blooming duration
which stayed up to 77.5 days with a lot of flowers and up to 3 months with some flowers.
Whereas, Hypoestus trifolia and Plantago lanceolata stayed up to 64 days and 60.3 days
respectively (Table 1). Blooming starts from the branches close to the stems and goes to the end
of the branches. When the first bloomed flower gives seeds and the flower at the end of branches
have flowered and vice versa. Hence bee forage plants which take a long time from blooming to
shedding are very important for honey production whereas those which have short flower
shedding time is used for bee colony buildup.
Mean Number of Flower per Plants: Average number of flowers per plant of Plantago lanceolata
and Leucas abyssinica have no significant difference (p<0.01) having the highest about 1826 and
1805 flowers in one plant respectively (Table 1). This is due to its growing habit and crown size.
In line with this, Tura et al. (2014) also revealed that a plant with more branching produces more
flower heads per plant.
128
Table 1: Emergency Date (ED), Survival Rate (SR), Mean Number of Flower per Plants
(MFNP), Mean Time to Give flower (MTGF), Mean Time to Full Flower (MTFF), Blooming
Duration (BD), Mean Number of Bees Visited in 5 minutes (MNBV/5min), Mean Seed Yield
(MSY) of Leucas abyssinica, Hypoestus trifolia and Plantago lanceolata
MNBV MSY/g
Species ED SR (%) MTGF MTFF BD MFNP /5min m
a ab a a a a
Leucas abyssinica 16.3 95.8 57.8 103.3 77.5 1805.0 5.2 93c
Hypoestus trifolia 14.0b 89.9b 43.0b 84.2b 64.0b 1345.2b 2.9 181.5a
Plantago lanceolota 10.8c 100a 45.0b 84.3b 60.3b 1826.0a 3.8 150.5b
Mean 13.7 95.2 48.6 90.6 67.28 1658.72 3.18 141.7
CV 9.71 7.6 12.8 6.2 10.8 7.3 48.8 17.1
Sign (5%) ** * * *** * *** NS **
NB: Letters with different superscript denote significant differences at p<0.05, NS denotes no
significant differences at p>0.05
Foraging Intensity of honeybees: The mean number of honeybees visit in five minutes was not
significantly different at (p<0.05) in the main flowering time of bee forages. Foragers were
highly attracted and prefer Leucas abyssinica among the species and they stayed from 10 AM to
1 PM in foraging. (Figure1). The foraging time of honeybees was varying from species to
species based on nectar secretion time and pollen potentiality of plants with the peak foraging
time ranged from 12 AM – 2 PM on the foraging intensity of the honeybees for V.amygdalina, C.
citrinus and C.proliferus plant species (Tura et al., 2014). Therefore, the study showed that
visiting bees were few in the early morning and late in the evening, it may be due to the relative
cold weather condition of the area. Plantago lanceolota was highly foraged by bees 7:00 AM-
11:00 AM, while Hypoestus trifolia was highly foraged by bees from 1:00 PM to 3:00 PM.
129
Time and count of bee visit

14.00
No of bees visited flowers
12.00
10.00
8.00
6.00 Leucas abyssinica
4.00 Hypoestus trifolia
2.00 Planteago lanceolota
0.00
Figure 1: Foraging intensity of honeybees on the three different plant species
The mean number of bees visited the flowers within 5 minutes have no significant difference
(p<0.05) in this study. The variation in the number of bees counted foraging is associated with
different factors such as attractiveness of the flower, number of flower heads per plants, nectar
and pollen yield of plants and weather condition (Tura et al., 2014). The intensity of bee visit is
measure of potentiality of plants for nectar and pollen production. Generally, from beekeeping
point of view, it is economical to select plant species with higher bee foraging intensity which
may be associated with quality of pollen and/or nectar, availability of more flower heads, and
longer flowering period to provide continuous food source for the honeybee colonies (Tura et al.,
2014).
A) L. abyssinica
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B) H. trifolia C) P. lanceolata
Figure 2: Matured plants at time of flowering
In conclusion, this study investigated that all plant species in the study showed good survival rate
and vegetation growth performances to the local condition. All experimental bee forage plants
were visited by honeybees well upon their flower settings within their flowering time of from
October to December which coincides with honey production period of the area. So they can
provide a good amount of nectar and pollen for better honey production.
The peak foraging time is associated with nectar and pollen potentiality and floral preference of
honeybees. Therefore the study confirms that Leucas abyssinica, Hypoestus trifolia and Plantago
lanceolata were good bee forage plants. However, it requires further evaluation particularly on
nectar volume and sugar concentration for these plants.
Generally because of long flowering duration and mean number of flower per plants Leucas
abyssinica plant species has been selected and it is recommended to be plants in Wag-Lasta area
and similar agro-ecologies. In addition, integration with watershed development practices is
highly recommended as it is fast growing plant.
131
REFERENCES
Abebe Jenberie, Amssalu Bezabeh, & Kefelegn Kebede. 2014. Floral phenology and pollen
potential of honeybee plants in North- East dry land areas of Amhara region, Ethiopia.
IOSR Journal of Agriculture and Veterinary Science (IOSR-JAVS), 7(5), 36–49. Retrieved
from http://iosrjournals.org/iosr-javs/papers/vol7-issue5/Version-1/H07513649.pdf
Amssalu Bezabeh, Nuru Adgaba, Radloff, S. E., & Hepburn, H. R. 2004. Multivariate
morphometric analysis of honey bees (Apis mellifera) in the Ethiopian region. Apidologie,
35(1), 71–81. https://doi.org/10.1051/apido:2003066
Ayalew Kassaye. 2001. Bee Behaviour and Comparison of Hive Efficiency in Tigray. In Honey
bee flora and ecology in Tigray. BoANR (Bureau of Agriculture and Natural Resources).
Tigray, Ethiopia.
Crane, E. 1984. Bees, honey and pollen as indicators of metals in the environment. Bee World,
55, 47–49.
Equar Gebru, Birhanu Abraha, Lemma, Hayal, Amare Solomon and Asmelash Tsehaye. 2016.
Honeybee flora diversity and their impact on honey production in Tigray region of
Ethiopia.
Fichtl, R. and Admasu Adi. 1994. Honeybee flora of Ethiopia. The National Herbarium, Addis
Ababa University and Deutscher Entwicklungs Dieenst (DED).
Gezahegn Taddese. 2007. Adaptation trial of honey plants: adaptability trials of temperate
honey plants in Ethiopia. Ethiopian Beekeepers Association newsletter.5 (1): 16- 17.
Girma Deffar. 1998. Non-wood forest production in Ethiopia, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Available
from: ftp://ftp.fao.Org/decrep/fao/003/X6690E00.pdf.
Kerealem Ejigu. 2005. Honeybee Production System, Opportunities and Challenges in Enebse
Sar Midir Woreda (Amhara Region) and Amaro Special wereda (Southern Nations,
Nationalities and peoples Region). Alemaya University, Ethiopia. MSc. thesis
Tura Bareke Kifle, Kibebew Wakjira Hora, Admassu Addi Merti. 2014. Screening of Potential
Herbaceous Honey Plants for Beekeeping Development, Agriculture, Forestry and
Fisheries. 3(5)386-391. Doi: 10.11648/j.aff.20140305.19.
132
Identification and Characterization of Major Monofloral Honeys and Their Properties in

Wag-Lasta Area of the Amhara Region
Alemu Tsegaye, Agazhe Tsegaye, Addisu Bihonegn, Yesuf Ebrahim, Meressa Lemma and
Ayalew Girmay
Sekota Dryland Agricultural Research Center, P. O. Box 62, Sekota, Ethiopia
ABSTRACT
Nowadays, honey from a dominantly single flower is demanded due to its unique nature, flavor
and importance. Characterizing honey by its botanical and geographical origin increases its
commercial value. This study was designed to identify major mono-floral honey types found in
the study area and characterize their properties in relation to market demands. From three agro-
ecologically different four districts of the study area (Sekota, Ziquala, Gazgibla and Lasta), a kg
of honey samples in 5 replications each were collected and pollen spectrum of the honey samples
analyzed using honey pollen analysis procedures. Sensory analysis was also performed by 12
trained panelists using 30gm of honey in a sensory laboratory under sunlight. Moreover,
physico-chemical analysis of collected honey samples was executed using standard laboratory
procedures. Accordingly, four distinct mono-floral honeys (Acacia, Hypoestes, Sorghum and
Echinops) were identified to exist in the study area with a mean dominance level of 51.6 to
81.2%. All of the samples fulfill the national and international honey quality requirements.
Except echnops honey samples, the p-fund honey color grade and sensory analysis result showed
advanced overall acceptability. This study showed the possibility of producing monofloral honey
having acceptable attributes that can attract consumers’ demand and premium price in Wag-
Lasta area. Therefore, beekeepers are recommended to coincide their harvesting with the
blooming period of the specific plants. Moreover, market linkage, promotion and popularization
by government are crucial by labeling their own honey types brand name.
Keywords: Monofloral honey, Pollen analysis, Botanical origin, Honey color, Panel test, p-fund
133
INTRODUCTION
Honey is naturally produced from honeybees’ (Apismellifera) collected flower nectar and its
composition and quality vary greatly with the botanical sources of nectar as well as
environmental and climatic conditions (Manyi-loh et al., 2011). Currently, the international
market demands honey quality control protocol setup according to the botanical origin depending
on pollen content and sensory characteristics. Consumers and bulk importers prefer to buy
special monofloral honeys with distinct characteristics than multifloral honeys.
Monofloral honey, as the name indicates, is also known as uni-floral or single-flower honey or
single varietal honey is a honey made from the nectar of one dominant flower. However,
monofloral honeys aren’t exclusively made from one flower nectar, but from several and it has
the highest representation in the honey and dominates the flavor profile and appearance (CBI,
2015). There are more than 300 different types of honey in the world, each with a unique flavor
and color depending on the blossoms visited by the honey bees.
Monofloral honey become very popular and fetches premium price by its brand name with some
peculiarities. Manuka honey from New Zealand and Australia and Kurkura honey from Yemen
and also coffee honey of different geographical origins are exceptional. Characterizing honey by
its botanical origin and geographical location is used to promote the type of honeys (Crane et al.,
1984) and increases its commercial values (Malacalza et al., 2007).
Despite the presence of diverse honey types, there is high possibility of harvesting monofloral
honeys in different parts of the study area. In this regard, their types and properties in relation to
quality and market demands are not studied while the sensory characteristics are almost
unknown thus far. Therefore, this proposal was initiated to identify major monofloral honey
types found in the study area and characterize their physico-chemical properties in relation to
market demands.
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Honey Sample Collection
Honey sample collection was undertaken by considering existing agro-ecologies, major honey
plant types and flora distribution of wag-Lasta areas. During the study, honey sample was taken
from Sekota, Ziquala Gazgibla and Lasta districts. In all selected districts, 45 experienced
beekeepers, honey dealers and beekeeping experts of the area were interviewed and consulted to
get information on the types of honey, distribution of the major honey plants and the dominant
floras in the areas. Each of the honey types were collected at farm gates in 5 replications from
different localities. Moreover, 1kg of each honey samples was collected and a total of 25 honey
samples were purchased.
Pollen Analysis
The pollen spectrum of the honeys were analyzed to determine its botanical origin honey and
confirm whether the honey is represented by a dominant floral source or not, using procedures
for the honey pollen analysis (Levouex et al., 1978).
Monofloral honeys were identified using procedures demonstrated by Arrigoni et al. (2015) and
Ohe et al. (2004). In this case, if the relative frequency of the pollen taxon exceeds 45%, of the
honey is primarily originated from that dominant floral source.
Physico-Chemical Characterization
In this study, physico-chemical analysis of collected honey samples was made for selected
important parameters including moisture content, HMF, pH and free acidity, conductivity,
reducing sugar and sucrose contents. Specific procedures and protocols used in the analysis of
these parameters are described as follows.
Determination of Free Acidity and pH
Free acidity of honey is defined as the content of all free acids expressed in meq./kg of honey. In
this case, free acids in collected samples were determined by dissolving 10gm of homogenized
honey samples in laboratory grade 75ml distilled water with the help of magnetic stirrer. After
135
the sample totally dissolved, pH value was determined using a calibrated pH 301 Bench
pH/mV/0C meter accurate to 0.01 units + electrode. Then after, dissolved solution was titrated
with measured volume of 0.10M NaOH to pH = 8.30. Here, free acidity was calculated and
determined using the following formula (Equation 1):
Free acidity (meq/kg) = Volume of 0.10M NaOH (mL) x 10-----------------Equation 1
Determination of Electrical Conductivity
The electrical conductivity of honey is defined as that of a 20% w/v solution in water at 200C,
where 20% refers to honey dry matter. A calibrated Pico digital conductivity meter was used to
measure the electrical conductance of the dissolved solution and measurement readings were
recorded in workbook spreadsheets. Accordingly, electrical conductivity was determined by
dissolving 20 gm dry matter of honey sample in 100 mL distilled water and placing the beaker
with the sample solution in the thermostated water bath at 200C ± 0.50C.
After drying the conductivity cell with absorbing paper, the conductivity cell were immersed in
the sample solution the conductance (G) and the temperature were read in mS after temperature
equilibrium has been reached. Then a correction factor was applied for the calculation of the
value at 200c by adding and subtracting 3.2% of the value per 0C for the temperature below and
above 20oC respectively. The electrical conductivity of the honey solution was calculated using
the following formula (Equation 2):
EC = K.G----------------------------------Equation 2
Where: EC = electrical conductivity of the honey solution in mS.cm-1, K = cell constant in cm-1
and G = conductance in mS. The result was expressed to the nearest 0.01 mS.cm-1.
Determination of Hydroximethyl Furfural (HMF)
HMF is one of the important indicators of honey quality. In fresh honey, HMF is present only in
trace amounts and its concentration increases with storage and prolonged heating. Here 5 gm of
honey dissolved in 25 ml of water and 0.5 ml of Carrez solution I and 0.5 ml of Carrez solution
II were also being added and mixed and make up to the mark with water. Then it was filtered
through paper and the first 10 ml of the filtrate were being rejected. 5.0 ml in each of two 2 test
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tubes were being pipette and 5.0 ml of water to one of the test tubes were being added and mixed
well (the sample solution). 5.0 ml of sodium bisulphate solution 0.2% to the second test tube
were being added and mixed well (the reference solution). HMF of the samples was determined
using a UV-5200 UV/VIS spectrophotometer to determine the absorbance of the sample solution
against the reference solution at 284 and 336 nm UV absorbance in 10 mm quartz cells within
one hour and calculated using the following formula (Equation 3):
HMF (mg/Kg) = (A284 – A336) x149.7x5 D/W----------------------------Equation 3
Where, A284 = Absorbance at 284 nm, A336 = Absorbance at 336 nm, and W= Weight of
sample taken
Determination of Moisture Content
The water content is that value determined from the refractive index of the honey by reference to
a standard Table. The water content of honey (water-in-honey) is a kind of quality measurement
that determines the ability of honey to remain fresh and to avoid spoilage by yeast fermentation.
Accordingly, moisture content of collected honey samples was determined by smearing drops of
homogenized honey on the surface of Abbé-refractometer, prism and allowing refractive index
for 2 minutes. Here, the refractive index was then adjusted to a standard 200C temperature. Mean
refractive index readings were used to calculate moisture content of the samples using the
following formula (Equation 4):
Moisture Content = (-log10 (Corrected Refractive Index - 1) - 0.2681)/0.002243------Equation 4
Determination of Reducing Sugars
Honey is a mixture of principally two reducing sugars namely glucose and fructose, giving it
similar properties to invert syrup. This gives it the ability to remain liquid for long periods of
time. Here, the Layne-Enyon method was employed to determine reducing sugars in the
collected honey samples. Accordingly, five ml Fehling’s solution A was pipetted into 250 ml
Erlenmeyer flask and approximately 5 ml Fehling’s solution B was added into it and then seven
ml distilled water was added into the mixture followed by addition of about 15 ml diluted honey
solution from a burette. The mixture was heated to boiling over wire gauze and maintained at
moderate boiling for 2 minutes. One ml of 0.2 % methylene blue solution was added into the
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mixture whilst still boiling and the titration was completed within a total boiling time of 3
minutes by repeated small additions of diluted honey solution until the indicator was decolorized.
The result was calculated and expressed as follows (Equation 5):
C = (25/W)*(1000/Y) ----------------------------------Equation 5
Where, C = gram of invert sugar per 100 gram honey, W = weight (g) of honey sample taken and
Y = volume (ml) of diluted honey solution consumed.
Determination of Sucrose Content
Sucrose is a disaccharide, which means that it is made. Adulteration of honey (addition of cane
or beet sugars to honey) can be detected by measuring its sucrose content. Here, the sucrose
content of the honey samples was determined according to the procedures of Pearson (1971).
Honey solution was prepared as in the determination of reducing sugar. Fifty ml honey solution
was placed in a 100 ml volumetric flask that contained 25 ml distilled water and the mixture was
heated to 65 0C over a boiling water bath for an hour. The flask was then removed from the
water-bath and 10 ml of 6.34 M hydrochloric acid solution was added into it. The solution was
allowed to cool for 15 minutes and brought to 20 0C and neutralized with 5 M sodium hydroxide
using litmus paper as indicator, it then cooled again and the volume was adjusted to be 100 ml
(diluted honey solution). Titration was done following similar procedure as for the determination
of reducing sugar (Pearson, 1971). The result was calculated by a difference and expressed as
follows (Equation 6; Pearson, 1971):
Apparent sucrose = (invert sugar content after inversion - invert sugar before inversion)*0.95-----
---------------Equation 6
The result was expressed as gram apparent sucrose per 100 g honey.
Honey Colour Determination
Colors of each honey samples were determined using a Pfund honey color grader.
Approximately 100g of honey was poured into the sample holder in the Pfund grader.
Determination was based on the matching of the honey sample colors with the color indexes
present in the glass Pfund grader.
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Physical Characterization of Honey Using Sensory Analysis
The sensory testing panel consists of 12 selected and trained people in the age group ranging
from 30 to 45 years old. Testing was performed in a sensory laboratory under sunlight using
thirty grams of honey sample per person. The sensory testing was done using visual, olfactory
and gustatory to determine color, granulation rate, texture of granulated honey (course, fine,
uniform and irregular & layer formation), aroma (strong, weak and absence) and taste (bitter,
sweet) of honey samples. Sensor evaluation results of each of the samples were registered on
individual basis. Each terms were evaluated using a scale ranging from one to nine (extremely
dislike, strongly dislike, moderately dislike, slightly dislike, neutral, slightly like, moderately
like, strongly like, extremely like).
Data Analysis
All collected data were entered, organized and managed using Microsoft Excel. Data was
analyzed using the SAS version 9.3 statistical analysis package. Furthermore, ANOVA was
employed to test significant differences at 0.05 significance level and means were compared
usingthe Least Significant Difference (LSD) test for each of the parameters and each of the
representative districts of the study area.
Honey Pollen Analysis
According to pollen count, Acacia asak honey was identified from the honey samples collected
from Ziquala district, while Hypoestes trifolia honey was identified from Ziqula and Sekota
districts. Sorghum bicolour honey was identified from Sekota honeys. In addition, honey
samples obtained from Lasta and Gazgibla districts were known to produce Echinopshoney. This
finding was in line with Abera (2017), who reported the production of Acacia honeys from Wag-
himra Ziquala area. Contrarily, though Becium grandiflorum was identified as one of the
monofloral honey sourcesin Lasta district Abera (2017), his investigation was not supported by
our result in its honey production and dominancy from the collected samples. These differences
might have been attributed to the differences in collection time and place of the sample for pollen
analysis.
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The results in percent pollen dominance and pollen morphology of the four Wag-
Wag-Lasta monofloral
honeys are presented in Table 1. Accordingly, the level of dominance was ranging from 47.7
(Sorghum bicolour) to 85.9% (Echinops
Echinops spp.) (Table1). A similar study by Abera,, (2017) and Abera
et al. (2017a) have reported that the level of dominance of nine Ethiopian monofloral honeys ranged
Croton macrostachyus)
from 59.8 (Croton macrostachyus to 90.3% (Schefflera abyssinica). Accordingly, pollen count
percent dominance for Echinopsspp, Hypoestes, Sorghum and Acacia asak ranged from 79.3%
79.3%-
85.9%, 50.7%-74.4%, 47.7-55.1%
55.1% and 52.7% respectively. The spectrums of honey
honey plant pollens and
their contributions for specific monofloral honeys are presented in Figure.
Fig . 1. The pollen spectra
showed that relative percent contribution of each pollen type to the four monofloral honeys. Sorghum
plan pollen followed by Hypoestes with 8 spp. Other honeys;
was comprised of 5 spp. of honey plant
Echinopsspp and Acacia were made of 5 and 5 spp. of honey plant pollen, respectively.
2.01%
0.29% 1.93% Hypoestes Acacia
3.34%
1.43%
Hypoestes trifolia Acacia asak
0.55%
9.73% Acacia asak 3%
helianthus
Sorghum bicolour
15% annus
8%
53% Hypoestes
9.86% Guizotia ab 21% trifolia
61.70%
A.melifera Sorghum
9.18% bicolour
ocimum bacilicum
bidens spp
grass type
Sorghum 1%
Echnops
Sorghum bicolour Echinops

0%
2% 7% 6% 4% 3%
Cordia.africana 4% Guizotia ab
8% 5%
2% 52% Becium H.trifolia
grandiflorium 83%
11% A.melifera becium
3%
9%
grass ocium
Figure 1: Pollen spectrum of monofloral honeys with their relative contribution of each honey
pollen type in percent.
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Table 1: Honey type, level of dominance and production area

Dominance level Dominance level
Honey type range (%) Mean (%) Production area
Acacia asak 52.7 52.95 Ziquala
Hypoestestrifolia 50.7-74.4 61.8 Sekota and Ziquala
Sorghum bicolour 47.7-55.1 51.6 Sekota
Echinops spp. 79.3-85.9 81.2 Lasta and Gazgibla
Physico-Chemical Characteristics
Moisture Content
The moisture content of honey depends on several factors such as the harvest season, climatic
conditions, level of maturity, floral origin, geographical location, and the moisture content of the
original plant (Gulfraz et al., 2011). Water content is a good criterion to evaluate honey quality
and to determine honey shelf life during storage. All monofloral honey samples show a
significant difference among tested samples in their pH values. The highest moisture (18.03
g/100 g) content was determined for sorghum honey. Hypoestes honey had the lowest moisture
(16.34g/100 g) content. Our result, in this case was different from results of Abera et al. (2017a)
who have reported 15.75g/100 g MC for Acacia honey and 14.97g/100 g for hypoestes honey.
Tewodros (2010) also has reported a moisture content result of honey from Sekota district have
15.98%. Even though, his study objective was not identification of monofloral honey the result
signifies that the honey collected from Sekota district have distinct nature that support our
finding.
pH and Free Acidity
Generally, the pH of honey depends on the amount of minerals, especially iron. However, honey
is generally acidic in nature regardless of its variable geographical origin but it is important for
the honey taste, stability and resistance to micro-organisms (IHC, 2009). All of the monofloral
honey samples tested in this study was acidic in nature with the pH ranging from 3.7 to 4.7.
Alemu et al. (2018) reported that pH of Eastern Amhara honey was ranging from 3.45 to 5.4.
Abera et al. (2017a) also reported a pH of 3.52 for acacia honey and 3.38 for hypoestus honey.
Generally, all monofloral honey samples show a significant difference among tested samples in
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their pH values. Echnops honey possessed the highest pH. The lowest pH belonged to sorghum
honey. On the other hand, Tewodros (2010) has reported a pH of 4.05 for Sekota honey.
The free acidity value represents the organic acids contained in honey and increased acidity of
honey is an indicator for a fermentation process and transformation of alcohol into organic acid
(Prica et al., 2014). The maximum permissible limit for free acidity value is 40 meq/kg of honey.
In this regard, 24.86meq/kg of honey was the mean value of free acidity measured for collected
honey samples ranging from 11.98 to 47.88. However, free acidity did show a significant
difference among tested samples. Echinops spp honey showed a higher free acidity ranged from
29.74 to 47.88 meq/kg with an average of 38.81 values in which some values became above the
national limit. Our results also measured low acidity from acacia honey as compared with other
examined honey types. This result was in line with the scientific background of Prica et al.
(2014) who have suggested that acacia honeys are characterized by a particular low content of
organic acids, whilst darker honeys in general appear to be higher in acidity. It was also in
agreement with the findings of Abera Belay et al. (2017a) who have reported that free acid
contents of Ethiopian monofloral honey ranged from 20meq/kg (for Hypoestes) to 55 (for Croton
macrostachyus). Tewodros (2010) has also demonstrated an average free acidity of 23.84 meq/
kg for Sekota honey.
Electrical Conductivity
Electrical conductivity is considered to be one of the best parameters used to differentiate

different honeys from different floral origins (Terrab, 2004). The result of the electrical
conductivity of monofloral honeys is presented in Table 2. Therefore, the four different floral
origin honeys show significant different in their EC value. Echnops honey showed the highest
value of EC (0.6ms/cm) while hypoestus honey showed the lowest (0.23) which showed that the
conductivity of darker honey detected to be greater than the lighter honey. None of the samples
exceeded the maximum allowed by national standard (< 0.8ms/cm). In line with this result,
darker honeys like avocado honey showed relatively higher EC value than other lighter honey
types in Ecuador (García-Tenesaca, 2018). Abera et al. (2017a) also reported 0.28 EC value for
acacia honey and 0.14 for hypoestus honey. The EC in honey is related to concentration of
mineral salts, organic acids, and proteins present in specific plants.
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Hydroxy Methyl Furfuraldehyde (HMF)
HMF is a decomposition product of fructose. It serves as a major honey quality factor that
indicates honey freshness and adulteration associated with overheatingor inappropriate storage
conditions of honey. Hence, the concern of HMF level in honey is related to toxicity. The result
of the HMF of monofloral honeys is presented in Table 2. In this regard, average HMF contents
of collected honey samples were determined to be 6.90mg/kg (ranging from 0.30-14.50mg/kg).
Besides, the four different floral origin honeys show significant different in their HMF value.The
highest value (9.13mg/kg) of HMF was observed in Sorghum honey and the lowest (3.85 mg/kg)
in acacia honey. In line with this result, Abera et al. (2017b) also reported HMF content of
Ethiopian monofloral honeys ranged from 0 (Hypoestes and Leucas abyssinica) and 0.91 (acacia
honey) to 3.37 ± 1.73 (Croton macrostachyus). This result, however, is much lower than HMF
values of 20.56 mg/kg of Tigray honey as reported by Gebremariam and Brhane (2014).
However, none of the samples exceeded the maximum permissible limit allowed by national
standard (40 mg/kg).
Reducing Sugars and Sucrose
In this work all the monofloral samples show a significant difference in their reducing sugar
value. The overall mean value was 70.76% ranging from 63.89% to 81.31%. Our results are
consistent with those previously reported by Abera et al. (2017a) - 72.4 to 79.7 g/100g honey for
monofloral honey in Ethiopia and Tewodros (2010) - 67.33g/100g honey of Sekota honey. A
significant difference was observed between the four monofloral honeys in their reducing sugar
content. The highest value (73.76%) of reducing sugar was observed in Acacia honey and the
lowest (68.97%) in Echnops honey. In agreement with this result, Abera et al. (2017a) reported
the presence of higher fructose content in Acacia honey and the dominancy level of the
monosaccharide sugars in the Ethiopian monofloral honeys.
Average sucrose contents of analyzed honey samples were 3.56%. The four monofloral samples
were significantly different in sucrose value. Therefore, the result indicates acacia (4.75%) and
hypoestes (4.6%) honeys have relatively more sucrose concentration than the others. But
sorghumhas the lowest value (2.24%). The four monofloral honeys lied below the acceptable
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permissible maximum value of 5% sucrose content. The sucrose contents found are lower than
those described as 5.67% in previous studies for multifloral honeys produced in Tigray
(Gebremariam and Brhane, 2014) but consistent with previous study by Tewodros (2010) who
reported 3.11% sucrose content of Sekota honey. It was also higher than Abera et al. (2017a)
reported 1.22% of sucrose value for Acacia honey and 1.85% for Hypoestes honey.The
difference expected to be different in agro-ecologies and weather conditions. These results
demonstrate the lack of adulteration and honey collection at the ideal maturation time because
high sucrose content may result from the addition of commercial sugar or may be attributed to
the early honey collection.
Table 2: Physico-chemical characteristics of the collected monofloral honey samples

National
acceptab
Parameters Acacia Hypoestes Sorghum Echinops Overall le level
Mean 17.5c 16.34d 18.03a 17.85b
MC (%) Range 16.50-18.50 14.00-18.90 16.7-20.4 17.4-18.3 17.43 Max 21
Mean 3.85d 6.16c 9.13a 8.45b
HMF (mg/kg) Range 2.90-4.80 0.30-14.50 5.2-12.7 8.2-8.7 6.90 Max 40
Mean 4.2b 3.94c 3.8d 4.7a
PH (number) Range 3.90-4.50 3.70-4.30 3.70-3.90 4.6-4.80 4.16 3.5-4.5
Mean 17.98d 20.71c 21.95b 38.81a
Fa (meq/kg) Range 15.00-20.96 11.98-30.96 19.99-24.94 29.74-47.88 24.86 Max 40
Mean 0.32b 0.26c 0.23d 0.6a
EC (ms/cm) Range 0.20-0.44 0.14-0.45 0.20-0.27 0.45-0.75 0.35 < 0.8
Mean 73.76a 70.40b 69.93c 68.97d
Reducing sugar Range 66.21-81.31 66.73-80.68 69.93 63.89-74.04 70.76 Min 65
Mean 4.75a 4.60b 2.24d 4.7a
Sucrose (%) Range 4.16-5.34 3.32-5.36 2.24-2.24 2.02-3.32 3.56 Max 5
Color Analysis
Honey is often judged according to its color. The proportion of dark and light-colored honey
varies from placeto place and region to region, but generally, light colored honey is more highly
valued than dark (white et al., 1980). Color and brightness contribute to the aesthetic value of the
honey, which is important to the consumer (Abebe, 2008). Besides, color is very important,
because this plays an important role to determine its market value. As shown in the Table 3
below, the color of Hypoestes honey ranged from extra light amber to extra white color and the
color of acacia honey also ranged from light amber to white color.
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The color of sorghum honey also ranged from extra amber to white color while Echnops honey
showed a color ranged from amber to light amber. In line with this study previous
finding showed that honey from Acacia dominated, mid and lowland areas are also white in
color (Abebe, 2008). Therefore, Hypoestes, Acacia and Sorghum honeys are lighter than
Echnops honey and have more demand on the market.
Table 3: Summary of honey colours from Pfund readings

Monofloral honey types and theirpercentages
Colour Hypoestes Acacia Sorghum Echinops
Determined P-Fund Scale honey (%) honey (%) honey (%) honey (%)
Extra white 9-17mm 14.28 0 0 0
White 18-34mm 14.28 33.3 33.3 0
Extra light amber 35-48mm 71.4 0 66.7 0
Light amber 49-83mm 0 66.7 0 66.7
Amber 84-114mm 0 0 0 33.3
Sensory Evaluation
Sensory analysis of honey may be used as a complement to physico-chemical and pollen

analyses. It is used to confirm quality, verify the absence of defects, and evaluates the conformity
to established sensory profiles of unifloral honeys and also to understand consumer preferences
(Ana et al., 2018). The percentage of fructose, glucose, amount and type of amino acids and the
organic acids vary by floral source that in turn determines the flavor of honey.
The effects of the main factors on mean acceptance of studied honey types with respect to color,
smell, thickness, mouth filling (texture), taste, sweetness, after taste and overall acceptance are
presented in Table 4. The score for color acceptance test ranged from 3.31 (for Echnops) to 6.15
(for Hypoestes) on a scale of 9 with a significant difference among the honey types. The judges,
in this sensory evaluation, have determined that the honeys from Hypoestes and Sorghum were
lighter in their color than those from acacia and Echnops honey.
It is clearly described that floral resources could influence the smell of the honey significantly
among the honey types. In this regard, Hypoestes, Acacia and Sorghum honey were found to be
better preferred honey types interms of their smell attributes than Echnops honey. Honeys from
Hypoestes were also perceived as more intense regarding the attributes of thickness and mouth
filling (texture) when compared to the other honeys. The judges determined that the honeys from
145
Hypoestes, Acacia and Sorghum did not significantly differ in taste, sweetness and after taste
attributes, but all are more intense than Echinops honey when comparing the honey types (Table
2). The greater intensity of the taste attributes described in the sensory evaluation for honeys
from Hypoestes, Acacia and sorghum compared to those from Echinops appeared to be
associated with their lower pH and EC related to the higher mineral contents of these honey
types (Table 4). The sweetness of honey is also attributed to its higher fructose content and lower
PH. Generally in all attributes Hypoestes, Acacia and sorghum honey types were accepted as
more intense in overall parameters by the judges.
Table 4: Sensory evaluation of monoflral honey from different locations in Wag-Lasta area
Parameters Hypoestes Acacia Sorghum Echinops
Color 6.15a±1.97 4.53bc±2.78 5.36ab±1.96 3.31c±2.22
Smell 6.01a±1.69 5.39a±2.51 5.72a±1.72 4.29b±1.89
Thickness 6.15a±1.81 4.81b±2.2 4.67b±1.79 5.09b±1.65
Mouth fill (texture) 6.22a±1.99 5.47ab±2.17 4.92b±1.76 5.11b±1.84
Taste 6.19a±2.02 5.42ab±2.25 5.28ab±1.85 4.86b±2.25
Sweetness 6.37a±2.05 5.64ab±2.18 5.50ab±1.84 4.86b±2.33
After taste 5.95a±2.16 5.25ab±2.26 5.03ab±1.66 4.37b±2.17
Overall acceptability 6.02a±1.72 5.21ab±1.98 5.21ab±1.34 4.43b±1.76
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATION
In this study, four monofloral honeys were investigated for botanical origin. The monofloral
honeys identified were hypoestes trifolia, acacia asak, sorghum bicolour and Echinops spp.The
level of dominance in monofloral honeys ranged from 52 (Sorghum bicolour) to 83 (Echinops
spp.). Based on the sensory attributes acacia, hypoestus and sorghum honey are more preferable
than echinops honey. Therefore, the possibility of producing monofloral honey in Wag-Lasta
could also have a dully importance on the income of the rural household, the contribution of the
subsector for the national economy and the food industry.
Monofloral honey attracts a premium price, which can be used as a good incentive for
beekeepers. It also gives the opportunity to conserve honey plants and utilize the forest more
efficiently. Market promotion and popularization should be done by labeling with their own
brand name to these honey types. Further investigation should be made to study the therapeutic
value of such honey types.
146
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Assessment of Beekeeping Practices of Youth Groups in Eastern Amhara, Ethiopia
Getachew Worku and Tewabe Mihret
ABSTRACT
Beekeeping or modern apiculture is the art and science of rearing, breeding and managing honey
bee colonies for economic benefits. Beekeeping contributes to the Ethiopian economy through
export earnings. Young people account for a large percentage of the rural population, and are
often unemployed or underemployed, despite the need for the labour force in agriculture.
Currently, the Ethiopian government employed youths through different agricultural activities by
organizing them into groups. However, their successfulness is too low. The aim of this study was
to evaluate why they are not successful and assess honey bee keeping practices of youth groups.
The study was conducted on the selected area of eastern Amhara. The data were collected using
observational study, focus group discussion, key informant interview and table review. Six youth
groups were selected for data collection. Male were the majority of youth beekeeper groups they
account for 65%. The youth groups were established in the name of youths but only 29% were
youths. From the total members of the youth group, only 8.4% members were taking training
about modern beekeeping. The 75% of modern hives which are on the hand of the youth group
was not having honey bee colony. The proportion of the numbers of individual of the youth
group to the number of honey bee colony on average was below one. The youth and stakeholders
suggestion about creating effective youth group were also accessed. Before establishing the
beekeeper youth group, profitability should be considered with minimum members within the
group, at most five.
Keywords: Beekeeping, Youth group, Watershed
INTRODUCTION
Beekeeping or modern apiculture is the art and science of rearing, breeding and managing honey
bee colonies in artificial hives for economic benefits (Ikediobi et al., 1985; Morse, 1989; Ahmad
et al., 2007). Ethiopia has a long tradition of beekeeping (Kassaye and Tadesse, 1991). At the
time of King Ezana, around the 3rd century AD, wax was used for religious ceremonies and
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honey for nobility and the social elite for making traditional beverages. Despite its long history,
beekeeping in Ethiopia is still an undeveloped sector in agriculture. The knowledge and skill of
honey production and honey and beeswax extraction among the Ethiopian farmers are still very
traditional (MoARD, 2006).
The significant proportion of the honey produced in the country is used for domestic
consumption mainly for making a local drink known as Tej. On the contrary, evidence indicated
that the amount of honey exported is comparatively low and this situation is attributed, among
others, to the low quality of the honey produced (SNV, 2005; Beyene and David 2007).
Beekeeping is one of the most important farming activities in Ethiopia. It contributes to
country’s economy through export earnings. Honey and beeswax are among the export
commodities of agricultural products. Moreover, apiculture stabilizes and protects fragile
environment and increase the production of agricultural food and cash crops through pollination
service from honey bees (Abebe et al., 2008).
In Ethiopia, beekeeping is an important economic activity that employs up to 2 million people

and about 5 million hived bee colonies (CSA 2009). Young people account for a large
percentage of the rural population, and are often unemployed or underemployed, despite the need
for labor force in agriculture. Though their success is very low, currently, the Ethiopian
government is encouraging organized youth groupsto engage into the different agricultural
activities.
Only in South Wollo administrative zone, a total of 5668 youth were found to be organized in
beekeeping groups (South Wollo Zone Agriculture Office, 2016 unpublished). However, our
survey, conducted in four identified beekeeping potential districts has indicated that 40% of the
youth groups are not functional and the rest (60%) are not productive as expected. Moreover, so
far, there is no information on the productivity and/or efficiency of the youth group organized for
beekeeping. Hence, the general objective of this study was to asses and evaluates the beekeeping
practices employed by youth group in the selected districts of Eastern Amhara. Specifically, the
study has planned to evaluate why these youth groups are not successful and elucidate and
characterize the constraints and opportunities available to the beekeeping youth groups in the
study area.
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Study Area
The study was conducted in selected areas of the Eastern Amhara region. Study area selection
was made using agro-ecology, honey bee production potential and presence of large numbers of
beekeeping youth groups as potential criteria.
Kemisie town: an administrative center of the Oromia Zone of the Amhara region is one of the
selected areas situated at about 300 km from Addis Ababa (Desta, 2014). The area, with an
elevation of 1424 m.a.s.l and surrounded by Dawa-Chefe district, is located at a latitude and
longitude of 10º 43’N and 39º 52’E respectively.
Dewa-Chefa district: one of the districts in Oromia Zone of the Amhara Regional State. The
area is located at 10°43′N, latitude and 39°52′E longitude. The altitude of the area ranges from
1500 to 2300 m.a.s.l.
Kalu district: also known as Harbu is one of the districts in the South Wollo of Amhara Region.
The administrative center for this district is Harbu. The altitude of this district ranges from 800
m.a.s.l (in the lowlands bordering the Oromia Zone) to 1,750 m.a.s.l (at the foot of the mountains
north of Kombolcha); the climate of Kalu varies from dry sub-humid to semi-arid.
Ambasel district: is a part of South Wollo zone. The word Ambasel derived from two words
‘Amba’ from Amharic word which means plateau, and ‘Asel’ is from the Arabic language which
means honey. Collectively means the plateau of honey or the land of honey (Personal
communication with elder). Ambasel district is located at 11º 31′05′′N and 39º 36′ 34′′E with an
elevation of about 3500 m.a.s.l.
Meket district: One of the districts in the North Wollo administration zone of Amhara Region
with elevations ranging from about 1200 m.a.s.l at the north western most point to over 3000
m.a.s.l along the eastern part of its southern border.
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Data Collection
Data were collected using researchers’ observation, focus group discussion and key informant
interview. In study, sampling units were beekeeping youth groups and their members. The major
problems of the beekeeping youth groups were identified and ranked through pairwise ranking.
The collected data from youth groups were cross-checked with zone and district apiculture
experts and other stakeholders through key informant interview.
Sampling Procedure and Sample Size
Multi-stage sampling was used from zonal to kebele (watershed) level, based on representations
of the three agro-ecological zones, honey bee colony potential and number of youth groups
available. Accordingly, from each sampled districts two beekeeping youth groups were selected.
However, due to their non-functionality of beekeeping youth groups the data collection process
in forced to only the available functional groups. Therefore, six beekeeping youth groups
(Mesena and Sitr youth groups from Dewa-Chefa district and Kemisie town respectively;
Mekanti and Fereko youth groups from Kalu district; Yismanigus and Asteway youth group
from Ambasel and Meket district respectively) were used for data collection.
Data Analysis
The collected data were analysed usinga simple descriptive statistics. The data was presented in
tables and percentages.
Demographic Characteristics of the Beekeeping Youth Groups
Sex and Age
Though our study has demonstrated that the groups are composed of both male and female
members, the result has revealed that the Eastern Amhara organized beekeeping youth groups are
dominated by male (65%) members, female group members have comprised from 9% (in
Mesena beekeeping youth group) to 75% (in Sitr beekeeping youth group). Though age
categories 15-29 years old in Ethiopian context and 15-24 years old are defined as youth (Jeni,
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2005; MYSC, 2004), remarkably, the majority (71%) of the beekeeping group members were
beyond the defined and indicated age categories. Moreover, in all selected beekeeping groups,
the proportion of young accounts from 0% (in Sitr youth beekeeping group) to 83% (in Asteway
youth beekeeping group). This was also reflected and observed in mismatches between group
members socially, economically and working interactions. Further, some members of the youth
were not actively involved in the beekeeping activity rather they were replaced by their old
relatives or family members (like elder brother and father). This further has clearly indicated that
such youth beekeeping groups were established and/or organized without the knowledge of the
subject matter (youth).
Groups’ Time of Establishment
The youth group were established in a different year and so has different years of old ranging
from as early as 1 year (Asteway beekeeper youth group of Meket district) to as old as 8 years
(Yismanigus beekeeper youth group of Ambasel district). The average longevity of the youth in
a year was 4.4 years. However, from those groups, Fereko beekeeper youth group of Kalu
district completely break down and many of other also the way to collapse unless closed follows
up and support is done.
Educational Status and Number of Trained Youth in the Group
Education is an important and one entry point for fast transfer of knowledge on improved
beekeeping. Moreover, educational level of the farming households may have significant
importance and determining the type of development and extension service approaches
(Kerealem, 2005). Only 20% was illiterate; the rest 80% was educated in different education
level from basic to secondary school graduates. From the total members, about 15% were could
only read and write, about 22%, 35% and 8% were completed (1-4 grade), (5-8 grade), and (9-10
grade) respectively.
The total individual members of all sampled beekeeper youth group were 225, from those only
19 individuals were take training on modern beekeeping, which accounts only 8.4%. However,
the trained individual in percentage ranges from 0% to 36% from different youth group.
Averagely 8.4% trained individual from the group is not enough to accomplish well the
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beekeeping practice. Those trained individual were take training at either Gorgora (Central
Gondar zone) or Jari (South Wollo zone) queen raring and training center. Many of youth group
were taking training at the district level but many of the youth group members complain about
that mass training. It was not effective as the trainer rush to cover the course and most of the
training was theory based rather than practical.
Characteristics of the Watershedsowned by Youth Groups
The study result has elucidated that the average overall area coverage of the watersheds, where
sampled youth beekeeping groups were found, was found to be 406.2 ha with an average 492
numbers of households. Specifically, each of the groups owed an average area of 20.1ha being
except Fereko group where it doesn’t have delineated area. However, Mekanti youth beekeeping
group was the one holding the maximum (30 ha) area while Yismanigus youth beekeeping group
was the lowest (1.5 ha) in its landholding for the beekeeping purpose. On the other hand,
availability of fresh water is a paramount important parameter to be considered in beekeeping. In
this case, our result showed that apiary average distance from the water sources was only 0.74
km ranging from 0.1 to 2 km.
The Use of Improved Beekeeping Materials
Production and productivity in beekeeping could be enhanced by proper use of improved

equipment. However, most of the youth groups addressed in this study were facing a lack of
these equipment (such as overall, bee veil, hand glove, smoker). This result is in line with the
results of Malede et al. (2015) who evaluated beekeepers farmers in Ethiopia. Remarkably,
Asteway youth beekeeping group (in Meket district) was identified as a group without frame
(modern) hive, casting mould, and honey extractorin its apiary. Moreover, though groups do
have some of the improved beekeeping materials, most of the groups were not using the
materials properly and some materials were found miss managed. Further, based on the survey
result and field observation, it was found that 75% of the frame hives were not in use or they
were empty.
The proportions of hive type that has honey bee colony were assessed. Ethiopia produces about
96.4% of its bee product from traditional hives (CSA, 2017). Although, the dominant hive type
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used by youth groups were modern hive type (39.4%); followed by traditional and transitional
hive type about (37.9.4%) and (22.7%) respectively.
Table.1: Total number of hive and number of honey bee colonies

Total number of Numberbee coloniesin hive types
Beekeeping youth groups modern hives Modern Transitional Traditional
Mesena 23 9 0 0
Sitr 60 13 0 0
Mekanti 5 5 0 25
Fereko 34 0 0 0
Yismanigus 50 30 30 10
Asteway 0 0 3 20
Total 173 57 33 55
Proportion of modern hives with & without 75 25 - -
colony (%)
Honey bee colonies in each type of hive (%) 39.4 22.7 37.9
Proportions of Youth Group Members with that of Group Colony Holdings
The proportion of the number of individuals to the number of honey bee colonies on average it
was below 1. This results the youth has despair on the group work. From the discussion, the
youth point out how they could be benefited with these honey bee colonies number.
From the beginning, there were 414 honey bee colonies by all sampled beekeeper youth group.
The mean proportion was 1.84. With each individual youth group, the starting proportion of
colony number to youth members ranges from 0.76 (Asteway) to 3.09 (Mesena). However,
during data collection period only 145 honey bee colonies are on the hand of the youth group.
The average proportion also decline to 0.62 colonies for a single group member. Also, the
current proportion in youth group varies from 0 (Fereko), totally lost the colony, to 0.81
(Mesena). Generally, this indicated that about 65% of honey bee colonies were lost.
Youth Group Knowledge about Watershed
The youth groups expressed watersheds in different definitions based on their knowledge and
considerations. Most of them define a watershed as follows: ‘the area which has the same or one
water flow point’. Examples of a watershed defined by Yisma-Nigus group member (Ambasel
district): ‘Watershed is life’, as they said. ‘We are here because of watershed activities, the area
protects us from flood events and also the vegetation cover, which thereby is able to rehabilitate
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again, and the watershed looks green and attractive. The group members also mentioned, that
protecting the area from free grazing prevents soil erosion and that specific foraging plants for
animals can be planted to use them in a cut and carry system.
Social and Economical Contributions of Beekeeping to Youth Groups
Social Contributions
As the youth group members argued in the focus group discussion, they want to develop a
culture of cooperation on beekeeping activities. Besides the beekeeping activities, they can
interact with each other in traditional and social aspects: ‘Kirie’ (cheer each other up, if a family
member passes); ‘Equb’ (traditional money saving practice). These traditional and social
interactions were practiced especially in the Dewa-Chefa district among the Sitir beekeeper
youth group. Another big social contribution of youth groups may be that the youth start working
in their home country instead of becoming refugees, even if the business is not as such profitable.
Economic Contributions
The economic role of beekeeping youth group has been evaluated in two different perspectives.
The first one was within the group or for youth group members or for themselves, thus the youth
can have income even if the income was as supplementary, it cannot major income source and
not profit oriented because of so many reasons which will be discussed in the later part of this
paper.
The second also to the communities, the communities is direct and /or indirect benefited from the
beekeepers youth group. As the result obtained from the discussion, communities benefited
directly through purchasing quality honey. Today at the market there is a problem in honey
adulteration but the youth group can supply pure honey to the communities even if the
production is too low. Some watersheds make income for keepers through the selling of grass.
As the youth group evaluate the existed condition of indirect benefit of the youth group to the
communities are,
1. They established different soil conservation structure at the upper part of many hills and this
helps the lower part protect from flood and gully. Protecting the land from flood and gully
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secure the communities house, cropland, grazing land etc. These results decrease the costs
incur to secure themselves from the upcoming flood. And protecting the communities from
unknown flood risk it may damage total asset of the community and/ or may devastate the
human life.
2. The beekeeper youth group members may be a thief if there is no work opportunity just like
this. The potential working the human resource may extravagant in bad condition just like the
drug addicted and the like.
3. The youth group members emanated from the communities or they are part of the
communities of that specific watershed, then the communities indirectly benefited from the
youth group.
The Ecological Contributions of Beekeepers Youth Group
The constructed soil and water conservation structure protect the physical and biological
environment of the watershed that protect the local biodiversity, and different plant species are
introduce as a honey flora and animal feed (Pigeon pea) in many of the watershed and biological
soil and water conservation remedy and income source (Jatrofa) in low land area like in
Kemissie and Dewa-Chefa district and apple in high land of Meket district in one watershed. At
the discussion one individual from in Ambasel district, Yisma-Nigus bee keepers group, as he
said that keeping the bee more benefit for the local crop cultivator farmers than the beekeepers
through pollination. To sum up he messaged “crop growers should be protect the bee from
chemical toxicity.”
The Weakness of Beekeeping Youth Groups
As most youth group members believed, working in a group needs a high level of commitment
to be a hard worker and willingness in night working activities, respect the group rules and
regulation, a capable to pledge an individual task from the group work.
Most members of the youth group have hesitating to accept and implement the DAs’ suggestion
and comment. In addition to this some group members busy for individual activities than the
group, this result regress committed members.
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Due to the high numbers of an individual within a single group, most of the time there were a conflict
in a different situation. This result completely refracts the group.Some of the youth groups have rules
and regulation but there is a high limitation in implementation strategy and there is no responsible
person to support and implement the rules and regulation of the group and some groups are
completely have not rules and regulation. In this regard, there is the somehow better activity in
Ambasel district, Yisma-Nigus beekeepers group.
Many of the watersheds in are rich with diversified plants species including different bee flora.
However, all youth group does not practice dearth period feed, at Sitr watershed, Enkdem Beekeeper
youths group was the only group that gave water for their honey bee colony. And most of the youth
group apiary sites were invaded by weed, which used as a climbing material for bees pest and
predator to enter the inside hive.
Figure 1 and 2: Weed infestation of the apiary site and the hive nearby respectively
As the youth group indicated there was high level of wax moth infestation, one youth group totally
lost the whole honey bee colony due to the moth in addition to careless handling of the hive.
Figure 3: Wax moth dead larvae in side hive, Figure: 4.Bad handled of transitional hive
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As youth groups and key informants discussed the main weakness of the youth group that was
pulled back off ward the success of beekeeping activities are, firstly the youth need short-term
return; however, beekeeping activity was only one or two time income collection per year with
low income per individual because of low proportion of number of members with colony. The
second was khat; currently, most youths are addicted to khat chewing, this is the reason why
most youths need a short-term return. In addition to this, there was surplus working time waste to
chew khat. The third and most problems in present time, the youth has despair in their home and
their hope is out of the country especially in Arab countries. Many beekeeper youth group were
disappeared by sold the supported beekeeping equipment including bee colony and modern hive,
this was more pronounced in Kalu and DewaChefa district.
Youth and Stakeholders Suggestion to Create Effective Youth Groups
Almost all youths and stakeholders believed that the youth group can be effective and fruitful, if
every governmental body shares their responsible in addition to the youth. As they said the
following basic issue need to be considered to make effective beekeeper youth group.
1. Need identification: The discussion result shows that the youths should be organized based
on their internal interest. Before the youth were organized without considering their interest.
Some youths were completely not interested in agriculture activities. On this basis how they
will be effective?
2. Full support: As the youth have not experience in working together, working with the honey
bee and other business activities, they need to train in technical thing in honey bee
management and peaceful problem-solving approach and human resource management.
Another big issue the youth raise was financial support including credit service. All youth
groups needed credit to expand their business but credit institutions were not flexible for
youth. As Dewa-Chefa and Harbu district Muslim dominant communities, they needed a loan
without interest. No institutions were giving this service in the area, even in Ethiopia. And at
Ambasel and Meket district the youth are willing to take money from the only Amhara Credit
Saving Institution (ACSI) credit institution. However, the youths and stakeholder complain
about the organization internal credit service system and the interest also too high. Currently,
there is a revolving fund for youth but the credit system is complex as the youth said.
159
3. Side business: Most youth need side business in addition to beekeeping activity that can
support and increase the group income. The youth believed that beekeeping was most of the
time only one time harvesting season in a year. Depending only on beekeeping with a large
number of an individual was extravagant of working human resource. Then another small
side business is essential as they supposed.
4. Concern on quality: The government concerns more about quantity rather quality, how
many youth groups were established. No one has cared how many of them were effective and
productive. Most of the local governmental body needed a report on only how much youth
groups were established. There was waste effort to establish the group but nothing is to do
for their sustainability. As they said, “establishing youth group should not a final goal.” A
group at most composed of five members and supports them by considering the economic
benefit of them.
5. Credit for knowledge: Local government bodies intervention on the technical aspect of
beekeeping without considering the environmental and ecological background of an area.
Particularly to make field day colony transferring and colony purchase was done without
seeing the environmental condition. Especially, purchasing process was undertaken through
a tender system, this results not consider the colony strength rather than low cost. In addition,
most of the time purchasing from out the local environment.
Major Problems of the Beekeeping Youth Groups (Using Pair Wise Ranking)
As summarized in table 2, the results of this study have demonstrated that there are various
problems that sampled beekeeping youth groupswere facing. As indicated in the table, the youth
groups were challenged with different specific problems. The frequencies in the table indicate
that how many beekeepers youth groups are challenged by that specific problem with the
different level of severity (it means that one problem rank first for one youth group but it may
not for other groups).
Based on this, the most frequent problems were pest and predators that are the small ant and
honey bee predator birds. The second most frequent problems were the following three
constraints. (1), “Wax moth” is ubiquitous pests of honey bee colonies globally (Ellis et al.,
2012). (2), “Organizational Structure’’ as the youth group articulated and according to the
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dictionary definition, organizational Structure expressed as “The typically hierarchical

arrangement of lines of authority, communications, rights, and duties of an organization.
Organizational structure determines how the roles, power, and responsibilities are assigned,
controlled, and coordinated, and how information flows between the different levels of
management. (3), “Inexperience” as shown in early part of this paper, on average only 8.4% of
the youths was takes training on modern beekeeping practice. As they replied to the discussion,
how to run modern beekeeping system with only this trained manpower.
The third category of the most frequently exist constraint were (i), “Budget shortage”- the budget
scarcity was also a constraint to expand their business. (ii), “Chemical”- repeated chemical
applications were another headache for beekeeping sector especially in the low and Midland area
of an eastern part of Amhara region. According to Kerealem et al. (2009) poisoning honey bees
by agrochemical have been increased from time to time. Some beekeepers lost totally their
colonies due to agrochemicals.
Table 2: Major Problems of beekeeper youth group

Rank in the pair wise for each beekeeper youth group
List major problems Mesena Enkdem Mekanti Fereko Y. nigus Asteway Frequency
Chemical 6 9 2 3
Drought 3 5 2
Wax moth 4 3 5 7 4
Small ant 5 7 6 3 5 5
Organizational Structure 2 1 8 1 4
Bird 1 6 7 5 6 5
Budget shortage 4 4 1 3
Wax shortage 1 1
Inexperience 2 2 4 3 4
Water shortage 8 3 2
Untimely input supply 3 1
Ant 6 1
Over all shortage 5 1
Land shortage 1 1
Weak colony supply 2 1
Termite 4 1
Free grazing 4 1
Lack of input 2 1
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Opportunities
Though we could name various types of bottlenecks that beekeeping youth groups are facing in
sustainable, productive and efficient beekeeping development practices, our survey result has
also pointed out different opportunities whereby organized youth beekeeping groups could
utilize. Specifically, based on the results obtained from key informants’ interview, government’s
attention towards beekeeping, possibilities of organizing youth beekeeping groups, availability of
diversified agro-ecologies suitable for beekeeping and bee forage development, availability of
protected watersheds and potential natural resources, increased attitudinal changes towards
natural resource restoration practices, presence of plenty of working youth force, increased
demand of hive products at national and international levels, possibilities and potentials of the
beekeeping business to grow, non-competitive nature of beekeeping with other agricultural
activities rather it supports and add valuesto crop productionthrough its pollination services and
better experience among beekeepers in Ethiopia have been identified as major opportunities of
the youth beekeeping groups in the study areas.
Generally, the Beekeeping youth groups established and assessed in selected districts of the
Eastern Amhara region were not productive and benefiting. The proportions of colony number to
youth group members were too low and declined timely. According to the youth the average
numbers of members of the group were too high. Before establishing the beekeeper youth group
profitability should be considered i.e. honey beecolonies to youth proportion should be set to be
profitable, with minimum members within the group, at most 5. The honey bee colony number
must be high as the business can improve the livelihood of the youth and as it should make the
youth full-time worker. If the area is potential for beekeeping, it is possible to increase the honey
bee colony, unless side business is essential for sustainable beekeeping profitable group. The
other giant problem was honey bee colony purchasing process, before doing it the local
environment should be considered and the purchased colony should be strong.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We want to express our humble, sincere gratitude to the beekeeper youth group members, key
informants of zone, district and kebelelevel livestock production experts who contributed to this
paper.
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164
Economic Value of Pollination Service Provided by Biological Pollinators on Major

Agricultural Crops in Ethiopia
Getachew Worku
ABSTRACT
Pollination is the most important ecosystem service for sustainable crop production,
themutualistic interaction between plants and animals. Honeybees are being indispensable role in
this process. The total economic value of crop pollination worldwide has been estimated at €153
billion annually. Animal pollination of agricultural crops is provided by both managed and wild
pollinators. The aim of this study was to determine the economic value of pollination services
and vulnerability of Ethiopian agriculture in the face of pollinator decline. An improved
approach to determine the economic value of pollination (EVP) services is applied to multiply a
crop’s total value by a coefficient between zero and one representing the crop’s dependency on
pollination services for production. The potential production value loss due to lack of pollinators
is also computed as the ratio of EVP to economic production value. Then EVP was $ 815.2
million dollars and vulnerability of Ethiopian agriculture due to lack of pollinators 16% in the
2015/16 crop production season. The regional state of Oromia was the most benefited followed
by the regional states of Amhara and South Nation Nationality People (SNPP). Coffee, the
leading crop, has thehighest EVP in the country followed by Faba beans and Nug (Guizotia
abyssinica). Ethiopia has highly benefited from biological pollinators, so protecting them has
significant role in the country’s economy. Most crops in Ethiopia have no pollination
dependency ratio and some minor crop has no production data, incorporating them possible to
better estimation of EVP service for the future.
Keywords: Biological pollinators, Economic values, Pollination services, Crop vulnerability,

Ethiopia
INTRODUCTION
One of the most important ecosystem services for sustainable crop production is the mutualistic
interaction between plants and animals through pollination services (Kjøhl et al., 2011). Out of
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the total 115 crops whose pollen vectors were determined in a recent global study, over 75% of
them depends, to some degree, upon animal pollination. Among the leading crops that benefit
from animal pollination, 13 are entirely reliant upon animal pollinators, 30 are greatly dependent
and 27 are moderately dependent and the rest are either little dependent or no pollination
requirement (Gallai and Vaissière, 2009). The international community has acknowledged the
importance of insect pollinator’s diversity to support the increased demand for food brought
about by predicted population increase. Insect pollination is threatened by several environmental
and anthropogenic factors, and pollination crisis has been raised forthcoming (Kjøhl et al.,
2011).
Animal pollinators include many insect species, as well as several species of birds and bats
(Naban and Buchmann, 1997). Agricultural crops are pollinated by both managed and wild
pollinators. European honeybees (Apismellifera) are the most commonly managed species
possessing several characteristics of a good pollinator (NRC, 2007). The honeybees are
considered as generalists that are physically capable of pollinating many different plant species.
Moreover, they exist in large and perennial colonies with an average of 30,000 individuals that
are available for crop pollination year round. Honeybees are also known to be able to forage over
large distances, so that their placement within large monoculture fields allows them to provide
pollination services over wide area. The efficient communication among and within members of
the honeybee colony with regard to location, distance, direction and abundance of food source
made them a highly important pollinators in agriculture. At this point, it is also paramount
important to appreciate and consider the valuable products of the honeybees (honey and other
valuable and commercially marketed products) (Bauer and Wing, 2010).
Bees are efficient pollinators through visiting several flowers of the same species in one trip.
Honeybees and, to a lesser extent, bumble bees are favored among farmers because of their
manageability and comparatively large colonial forager populations (Delaplane et al., 2000;
Delaplane et al., 2010), and their indispensable pollination services (Sagili and Burgett, 2011).
The total economic value of crop pollination worldwide has been estimated at €153 billion
annually (Gallai et al., 2009). The leading pollinator-dependent crops are vegetables and fruits,
representing about €50 billion each, followed by edible oil crops, stimulants (coffee, cocoa, etc.),
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nuts and spices (Van der et al., 2013). Among the biological pollinators, honeybees play a
central role in agricultural pollination and their global economic contribution to food production
is estimated between 235 and 285 billion US$ annually (Lautenbach et al., 2012). Their value to
the ecosystem lies in the fact that honeybees pollinate more than 90% of insect-pollinated plants,
and as generalist, they are also crucial buffers to pollination networks (Potts et al., 2010).
However, poisoning of biological pollinators, especially of the honeybees, by misused
agrochemicals has been increased from time to time. Some beekeepers lost their colonies totally
due to agrochemical poisoning (Kerealem et al., 2009). These are the result of lack of knowledge
on the value of insect pollination.
To date, there is no readily available data on the economic values and contribution of insect
pollination in the agricultural production system in Ethiopia. Therefore, the aims of this study
were to determine the economic values of pollination (EVP) services and the crop vulnerability
ratio (CVR) of Ethiopian agriculture in the face of pollinator decline.
Study Area
The study area comprises the crop production system of Ethiopia, with a total of 1.22 million
hectares of land and varying topography from 116 m below sea level at the Afar triangle to 4620
m above sea level at the mount Ras Dashen (originally named as mount Ras Dejen). The
periphery encircling the country consists generally of lowland plains with elevations below 1500
m and a mean annual rainfall of less than 500 mm. This area makes 65 million hectare (61%) of
the total surface, mainly pasture land and home of pastoralists who make up 12% of the
population with 26% of the livestock found in the country. The central highland, with an annual
rainfall ranging between 500 mm to 1000 mm, is suitable for crop cultivation, comprises 18
million hectare, and is inhabited by subsistence farmers (Waktola and Tsegaye, 2003). The
country has nine regional state and two city administration i.e. Addis Abeba and Dire Dawa
(Education for all 2015 national review report: Ethiopia, nd).
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Data Needed and Data Source
There are four data sets that are used to analyze the economic value of pollination. These are:
Choice of crops to be assessed, current knowledge of the impact of animal pollination on yields,
price of crops to producers and production levels of crops (Gallai and Vaissière, 2009). As in
Gallai et al. (2009) a bio-economic approach were used to calculate the economic value of the
impact of pollinator loss as well as the overall vulnerability of the agricultural output to such a
loss. The variables used for each crop (i), the quantity produced (Qi), the dependence ratio of the
crop i on insect pollinators (Di) and the price of crop i per unit produced (Pi) for each crop.
Central statistics agency (CSA) database were used as a source of data. Report on total area used
and production of major crops, agricultural sample survey 2015/2016 report and the annual
average producer price (for the period from July, 2015 to June, 2016) data were used. During this
period about 3601833.62 ha of land was reported to be covered by sampled crops in this analysis.
Data Analysis
The collected data were coded, tabulated, analyzed and interpreted using the descriptive statistics
of Microsoft office excel 2007.
Mathematical Constants Used
Using an improved approach i.e. multiplying a crop’s total value by a coefficient between 0 and
1 is representing the crop’s dependency on pollination services for production. Setting this
coefficient equal to one would produce the same results as just calculating the total value of
biotically pollinated crops. This method, the bio-economic approach, is a variation of the
conventional production function method and has been employed by Morse and Calderone
(2000) in the case of managed bees. However, this approach does not account for production
costs (NRC, 2007).
According to Klein et al. (2007) pollinator dependency was categorized into six classes: None
(class 0; production is not affected by pollinators), Little (class 1; absence of pollinators leads to
0 to 10% reduction in production), Modest (class 2; 10 to 40% reduction in production occurs
without pollination service), High (class 3; animal pollinators contribute to 40 to 90% of
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production), Essential (class 4; production drops more than 90% when pollinators are not
available), and Unknown (class 5; insufficient data). According to Gallai et al. (2009) a
dependency value was assigned to each class: Class 0 = 0, Class 1 = 0.05, Class 2 = 0.25, Class 3
= 0.65, Class 4 = 0.95, Class 5 = 0. The economic value of pollination (EVP) and the crop
vulnerability ratio (CVR) for each of the nine regional states of the country and the whole
Ethiopia were estimated. According to Gallai et al. (2009) the economic value of pollination
service was calculated as follow:
EVP = ΣIi=1 (P i X Qi X Di)
= ΣIi = 1(FGVi X Di) ----------------------------------------------------------- Equation (1)
Where, for each crop i, i Є [1: i] (where i = 53 in this study), (Qi) is the quantity produced, (Di) is
the pollination dependency ratio, (Pi) is the price per unit. Also as in Gallai et al, (2009) crop
vulnerability ratio (CVR), the potential production value loss due to lack of pollinators, is
computed as the ratio of EVP to economic production value (EV). CVR can be stated as follow:
CVR =EVP/ EV
= ΣI i=1 (Pi X Qi X Di)/ ΣIi=1 (Pi X Qi)
= ΣI i=1(FGViX Di)/ ΣI i=1(FGVi) %----------------------------------------- Equation (2)
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Table 1: List of studied crops, their pollination dependency ratio (PDR) and their area coverage
Area Area Area
Crop PDR coverage (ha) Crop PDR coverage (ha) Crop PDR coverage (ha)
Faba beans 0.25 443,966.09 Beetroot 0.05 3,364.72 Avocados 0.65 13,665.45
Field peas 0.05 221,415.67 Onion 0.05 29,517.01 Guavas 0.25 2,006.28
White haricot beans 0.05 113,249.95 Potatoes 0.05 70,131.32 Lemons 0.05 1,099.11
Red haricot beans 0.05 244,049.94 Head cabbage 0.05 7,197.70 Mangoes 0.65 14,791.23
Gibto/ Lupin 0.05 16,788.20 Ethiopian cabbage 0.05 33,942.01 Oranges 0.05 3,547.34
G.abyssinica 0.65 281,036.36 Tomatoes 0.05 9,524.42 Papayas 0.05 3,338.01
Chick peas 0.05 258,486.29 Green pepper 0.05 7,449.59 Cotton 0.25 93,600
Lentils 0.05 100,692.74 Red pepper 0.05 142,795.16 Coffee 0.25 653,909.70
Grass peas 0.05 159,105.68 Linseed 0.05 85,415.67 Sesame 0.25 388,245.50
Soya beans 0.25 38,166.04 Groundnut 0.05 67,062.40 Rape seed 0.25 29,989.17
Fenugreek 0.05 29,837.65 Safflower 0.25 7,361.30 Mung bean 0.05 27,085.92
Source: Klein et al. (2007); Mc Gregor (1976); Krombein et al. (1979) and due to a lack of data for each pulses crop (field peas, white
and red haricot beans, chick peas, lentils, grass peas, fenugreek and lupin), used the least PDR i.e. 0.05 to not be under estimate the
EVP, however Shankar (2015) states that all pulse crops are open pollinated to varying degrees, i.e. pollen must be transferred
between ﬂowers in order to achieve seed set. Such mechanisms as wind can achieve pollen transfer or cross pollination, but the most
effective method is the utilization of insects. For Guizotia abyssinica, Admassu and Nuru (2000) state that there is 44% yield
increment with biological pollinators especially honeybees. Mustard PDR was used for rape seed because it has the same biology and
belongs to the same family Brassicaceae.
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RESULTS
Distribution of Crops among Categories of Pollinator Dependency Ratio
According to CSA (2016) report every years there are 53 major crops which cultivated in
Ethiopia. Among the total 53 major crops cultivated in Ethiopia, 33 (62.2%) of the crops depends
(from low to high level of dependency) on biological pollinators (Table 2). However, this study
didn’t evaluate the rest 20 (37.7%) crops due to the reason that these crops do have either zero
pollination requirement or lack of data on pollination dependency ratio and production.
Table 2: Distribution of crops among the categories of pollinator dependency ratios

Pollinator dependence No. of crops Percentage crops
0 (none) – 0 20 37%
1 (little) – 0.05 22 41.5%
2 (modest) -0.25 8 15%
3 (high) -0.65 3 5%
4 (essential) -0.95 0 0
The National and Regional Economic Value of Pollination Service
The economic value of pollination service was estimated to be 815.2 million dollar in 2015/16
production season which is about 17.1 billion ETB and estimation as exchanged rates are
variable between days.When we see the EVP services among regional states of the country,
Oromia region was the first who has benefited from the services provided by the biological
pollinators followed by Amhara region (Table 3). Accordingly, the EVP services for the specific
production year in Oromia and Amhara were estimated to be 413,159,161 and 186,591,355.6
USD accounting 53.2% and 24.0% of the total contribution respectively. In this case, Afar
regional state was the least benefited from the economic value of pollination services.
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Table 3: The economic values of pollination (EVP) services for crops in each of the regional
states
Regional state/City administration EVP in Birr EVP in $ Rank Percentage
Tigray Regional state 445,528,264.2 21,215,631.63 4 2.7%
Afar Regional state 63,231.36 3,011.02 10 0.00039%
Amhara Regional state 3,918,418,47 186,591,355.6 2 24.0%
Oromia Regional state 8,676,342,382 413,159,161 1 53.2%
Somali Regional state 12,223,188.93 582,056.61 6 0.075%
SNNP Regional state 2,918,537,937 138,977,997 3 17.9%
BenshangulGumzRegion 322,425,419.7 15,353,591.41 5 1.97%
Harerge Regional state 2,279,524.49 108,548.79 7 0.013%
GambelaRegional state 138,958.85 6,617.09 9 0.00085%
Dire Dawacity administration 819,687.05 39,032.71 8 0.005%
Ethiopia (total) 17,120,196,895 815,247,471.2
NB: The total EVP for the regions was less than Ethiopia’s EVP. This is because of the reason
that data was not found for some crops at regional levels while it was available for the national
levels like cotton.
The Economic Value of Pollination Service by Crop Type
The EVP for the specific crops ranges from $2.5million to 1010.7 table (4).From the
perspectives of Ethiopian agriculture, in the specific production year coffee ($2.5million) was the
first crop which has higher pollination economic value, followed byFaba bean ($1.431 million)
and G. abyssinica ($ 1.430 million) respectively. And from studied crops Lemonwasthe least
economic value of pollination with $1010.7.
Table 4: EVP service for biotically pollinated crops

Crop EVP ($) Rank Crop EVP($) Rank Crop EVP($) Rank
Coffee 2,500,905 1 Potatoes 90,280.9 12 Green pepper 14,050.8 23
Faba beans 1,431,599.4 2 Grass peas 85,822.8 13 Mung bean 12,932.8 24
G. abyssinica 1,430,488.6 3 Avocados 85,132.5 14 Safflower 10,192.7 25
Sesame 549,087.7 4 Soya beans 81,145.1 15 Tomatoes 8,139.8 26
Cotton 485,714.2 5 Red haricot bean 66,134.4 16 Papayas 6,174.8 27
Red pepper 383,424.3 6 Onion 57,005.6 17 Oranges 4,473.4 28
Mangoes 175,806.2 7 Groundnut 50,262.1 18 Head cabbage 4,091.3 29
Chick peas 166,539.2 8 Linseed 45,561.6 19 Lupine 3,565 30
Field peas 118,422.3 9 Whiteharicot bean 27,764.2 20 Beetroot 3,378.3 31
Rape seed 101,567.4 10 Ethiopian cabbage 27,082.1 21 Guavas 1,622.5 32
Lentils 99,589.2 11 Fenugreek 23,506 22 Lemons 1,010.7 33
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The Economic Value of Pollination Service by Crops Categories
The economic value of pollination service by seven different crop categories was shown in
(Table 5), which are pulses crop, oilseeds crop, vegetables crop, root crops, stimulant crop, fiber
crop and fruit crops. From thus stimulant crop i.e. coffee was the first crop even from crop
categories, followed by oilseeds crops ($ 2.18million) and pulses ($ 2.11 million) respectively.
Root crops were the least crop categories ineconomic value of pollination i.e. $3378.3.
Table 5: EVP for biotically pollinated crops by categories

Crop categories EVP in $ Rank Area coverage (ha) Rank
Pulses 2,117,020.4 3 1,652,844.17 1
Oilseeds 2,187,160 2 859,110.4 2
Vegetables 584,074.8 4 200,908.88 4
Root crops 3,378.3 7 103,013.05 5
Fruit Crops 274,220.1 6 38,447.42 7
Stimulant crop (coffee) 2,500,905 1 653,909.7 3
Fiber crop (Cotton ) 485,714 5 93,600 6
Crop Vulnerability Ratio
The crop vulnerability ratio of Ethiopia for 2015/16 production year was 16% for the studied
crops. The crop vulnerability ratio in regional state shows in Table (6). As shown in the table
Gambela and SNNP regional state has the highest crop vulnerability ratio by (26%), followed by
Afar (21%), both Tigray and Benshangul Gumz (18%). Both Somali and Harerge Regional state
were the least vulnerability bout (5%) each.
Table 6: Crop vulnerability ratio in each regional state

Regional state/City administration CVR Percentage Rank
Tigray Regional state 0.185 18% 4
Afar Regional state 0.217 21% 3
Amhara Regional state 0.117 11% 7
Oromia Regional state 0.178 17% 6
Somali Regional state 0.050 5% 9
SNNP Regional state 0.269 26.9% 1
BenshangulGumzRegional state 0.181 18% 4
Harerge Regional state 0.056 5% 9
GambelaRegional state 0.267 26.7% 2
Dire Dawacity administration 0.106 10% 8
Ethiopia 0.165 16%
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Contribution of Pollination from Agriculture GDP in Ethiopia
The Gross Domestic Production (GDP) from Agriculture in Ethiopia increased to 274 ETB
Billion in 2015 from 267.80 ETB Billion in 2014. GDP From Agriculture in Ethiopia averaged
175.60 ETB Billion from 1999 until 2015, reaching an all the time high of 274 ETB Billion in
2015 and a record low of 98.30 ETB Billion in 2002 (Ethiopia GDP From Agriculture, 2014)
https://tradingeconomics.com/ethiopia/gdp-from-agriculture.
Contribution of pollination in Agriculture GDP = (EVP/GDP from Agriculture) X 100
= (17.1 ETB Billion/274ETB Billion) X 100 = 6.26
To estimate the contribution of honeybee from the all over biological pollinator, research has to
be needed for each crop type which biological pollinator is contributor. However, blanket
estimation from different scholars revealed; honeybees contribute 80% of pollination service
from all biological pollinators hence, 80% of EVP service was $ 652,197,976.96 belongs to
honeybee. And 50.79 million Kg honey was produced besides the cost of honey at national
average was $ 2.8 (CSA, 2016) then the economic benefit from honey was $142,212,000. The
benefit of pollination service from honeybee over honey production was $ 652,197,976.96
divided by $ 142,212,000 is equals to 4.58. Therefore, the benefit of honeybee for pollination
service was 4.58 times greater than the honey production.
DISCUSSION
From the major agricultural crops which are being cultivated in Ethiopia, about 33 (62.2%) crops
depended on biological pollinators. This result was lower than Gallai and Vaissière (2009), out
of the 115 crops whose pollen vectors were determined in a recent global study, over 75%
depend to some degree upon animal pollination. This variation could be due to the inclusion of
major crops only in this study. Some minor crops were not included in the study. Pollinators
include many insect species; among the major one was honeybee.About 5,916,100 honeybee
colonies are found in the country (CSA, 2016). However as Ejigu et al. (2009) point out
poisoning of honeybees by agrochemical has been increased.The level of pollinator dependency
varies dramatically among crops (Klein et al., 2007). About 41.5% of the studied crops have lied
174
on little dependency this was also due to lack of pollination dependency ratio data of pulse crops
which enforced to categorize them into little level of dependency ratio.
The EVP service was 815.2 million US dollar. The value was about 6.24% of the agricultural
GDP. From the total EVP service, about 80% was the contribution of honeybee from the
biological pollinators; therefore, the benefit of honeybee for pollination service was 4.58 times
greater than the honey production.Oromia and Afar regional state have the highest and the lowest
EVP service, respectively. This is due to the reason EVP service is highly correlated with level
of production. Different crop type depends on pollination differently from zero dependents to
entirely dependent. The economic values of pollination by crop type vary according to the
selected type of crop pollination dependency ratio, production level, and the market value.
Coffee had the highest EVP service, this was due to the highest market value comparing to other
crops, however, it has laid on little or 0.05 pollination dependency ratios. Faba bean was the
second highest EVP service; this is also because of its relative highest production with medium
market value. Accordingly, again due to its highest market value of coffee alone as stimulant
crop category, it was highest EVP service from all other crop categories.
Crop vulnerability ratio (CVR) is the potential production value loss due to lack of pollinators. It
expressed in percentage (Gallai et al., 2009). The CVR of Ethiopian agriculture was 16%.
Gambela and SNNP regional state have the highest crop vulnerability ratio by (26%) yield loss
will happen if there were no biological pollinators, followed by Afar (21%), both Tigray and
Benshangul Gumz (18%). Both Somali and Harerge Regional states were the least crop
vulnerability ratio value below the country average (5%). This difference mainly comes from the
difference of growing crop type with different pollination dependency ratio.
CONCLUSION AND RECOMME’NDATION
Using a bio-economic approach, the contribution of biological pollinators to the production of

agricultural crops in Ethiopia for the year 2015/16 was $815.2 million, which is about 6.24 % of
the total value of the agricultural GDP. This paper provides useful information for policy makers
and extension service in Ethiopian agriculture, to protect the biological pollinator especially
honeybee from careless and unwise use of pesticide, insecticide and herbicide application.
175
The biggest challenge to do this work was lack of enough and clear data. The data type which is
difficult to easily access is pollination dependency ratio (PDR). Many crops which are grown in
Ethiopia still do not have data on the effect of pollination. So in the future it is better to known
the PDR of all crops. In addition, lack of production data of minor crops like Pumpkin, Apple,
Tangerine, Pears (high food and market value especially in Tigray region and Raya Kobo district
of Amhara region), Pineapples, the newly introduced crop i.e. Water melon and other minor
crops which are entirely depend on biological pollinators to produce them. As a result the EVP
service estimate might be underestimated. Hence, I recommend incorporating those datas in the
future to have a better estimation of the EVP service.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
At the beginning I would like to express my special gratitude to Amssalu Bezabih for his advice,
motivation and devotion of his time in correcting and reviewing this paper. Lastly my special
appreciation goes to Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research and Amhara Agricultural
Research Institute for their budget fund.
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Post-Harvest Fish Losses and Fish Consumption Habits of the Local Community in Tekeze
Reservoir Fisheries, Wag-Himra Zone, Ethiopia
Wubet Biset1 and Dereje Tewabe2

1
2
Bahir Dar Fisheries and Other Aquatic Life Research Center, P.O.Box 794, Bahir Dar Ethiopia
ABSTRACT
The survey was aimed to: (1) quantify post-harvest losses after fishing, handling, processing,
transporting and storage; (2) identify fish left over carcass and/or by product discard areas
around the border of the reservoir and (3) observe food habits of the local community on fish
products. Data was collected from May 2017 to March 2018 by using purposive sampling
technique up to sufficient sample; 101 fishermen were interviewed. Finally, descriptive statistics
was used to summarize and analyzed the primary data. Most respondents, 62.4% couldn’t eat the
fish before engaging on the reservoir, but after engaging 95% could eat. Majority of the fishers
(75.2%) were fishing operating by using monofilament. A total of 9.77 tons/yr was recorded, i.e.,
approximately 0.1 tons/yr per individual was lost and from secondary data, 108.9 tons of fish
were lost in four consecutive years. On average the price of three fish species was 39 Birr/kg (US
$1.655/kg), can estimate monetary lost was 4,247,100 ETB (US $180,229.5). Major causes were
delay before marketing, high temperature, immature fish harvesting, unlimited setting gear,
uncomfortable road and uncompetitive market price. Real measures have to be taken to improve
facilities from market linkage perspective until it reaches to end consumer.
Keywords: Post-harvest losses, Fish spoilage, Handling technique, Discard area
INTRODUCTION
Most developing countries in Asia, South America and Africa have recognized reservoir
fisheries as an effective way of increasing the supply of fish as food in rural areas, at an
affordable price. Reservoir fisheries also provide additional income to rural farmers, thereby
contributing to poverty alleviation. Reservoir fisheries have added advantages in that, unlike the
more conventional aquaculture practices, they are less resource intensive and need less technical
skills at the farmer level (Hussein et al., 2010).
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Post-harvest fish loss (PHFL) refers to fish that is either discarded or sold at a relatively low
price because of quality deterioration. This means that fish operators (fishers, processor, traders,
and stakeholders involved in fisheries) lose potential income (Diei-Ouadi and Mgawe, 2011).
Fishes are perishable products they spoil very quickly by intrinsic and extrinsic factors. High
temperatures hurry up fish spoilage that increases the activities of bacteria and enzymes, and
biochemical and microbiological spoilage changes that occur in fish after death. A live fish has
natural defense mechanisms that help to prevent spoilage. However, once a fish dies its defense
mechanisms stop and enzymatic, oxidative and microbiological spoilage begins to cause quality
deterioration. Therefore, these are resulted post-harvest fish losses, i.e., nutrient or economic
losses of fish and fishery products ( Diei-Ouadi and Mgawe, 2011; Agumassie, 2018).
Fish handling is one key practice for ensuring improved fish quality and safety. Fish is usually
transported from fishing ground to landing sites by putting it at the bottom of the boats where in
some instances it is covered with plastic sheets or leaves of vegetation. The use of ice keeps fish
at chill temperatures, which in turn slows down the rate of microbial proliferation however,
fishers rarely use ice for preserving fish (Kyangwa and Odongkara, 2005).
Since post-harvest losses are defined as a reduction in quantity, or quality or monetary value of
fish in the supply chain (Smart, 2017). In addition to this fish is an important food item that has
significant socioeconomic contribution as a source of income, employment and cheap protein for
marginal people in developing countries including Ethiopia (Assefa et al., 2008). However, the
fishing practice in Ethiopia depends on some selective species and others discarded (as a by-
product and left over). In addition, poor quality handling practice is common which exposes for
high post-harvest losses. This problem is pronounced at Tekeze reservoir fisheries at this time.
Objectives
 To quantify post-harvest losses in Tekeze reservoir fisheries

 To identify fish by product and left over discard areas from the reservoir border of Wag
Himra zone
 To evaluate fish food habits of the local community.
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METHODOLOGY
Figure 1:: Map of study area in Tekeze reservoir fisheries

fisheri
The survey was done in the Tekeze hydropower reservoir that has a maximum length and width
of 75 km and 6 km, respectively, about 160.4 km2 areas and an average depth of 58 m ((Tsegay et
al., 2016).. Its location is an altitude of 1,145 m a.s.l, an annual average rainfall of 150
150-700 mm
and temperature of 15-40 oC. It is bordered by five districts, namely Abergele, Ziquala, Sahila
and Telemt in Amhara region and Tanqua-Abergele
Tanqua Abergele in Tigray region. The main aim of
constructing of the reservoir was to produce electricity, but fisheries were later recognized as a
economic importance (Hussein et al., 2016; and Tsegay et al.,., 2016
significant socio-economic 2016).
Data Collection
The survey was conducted over an eight-month

eight month periods from May 2017 to March 2018, the
program carried out mainly from three districts such as, Abergele, Zequala and Sahila Seyemit
and some extent of Tanqua Abergele and Telemit were included. Data were collected from each
district fishers by using purposive sampling technique that was interview up to suffic
sufficient sample.
The distributions of the fishers in each kebeles were arranged by livestock and fish resource
development office as cooperative. A total of 18 Kebeles bordering the reservoir and engaged in
fishing practice. Out of 16 cooperatives and 20 shareholders;
shareholders; 10 cooperatives and 10
shareholders prepared for interview; 3-6
3 6 respondents interviewed for each cooperatives and 22-3
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respondents for each shareholders from the nearest lading site. In addition to this 8 individual
fishers were participate. Totally 101 respondents participated for interview purposively.
Structured and semi structured questionnaire were prepared including oral interview and
discussions. Focus Group Discussion (FGD), key informant interview and personal observations
were also made at the reservoir, landing sites, marketing places, transportation and storage
facilities that have been evaluated and noted on post-harvest losses. Various pictures and GPS
data were collected from the shoreline and in small islands of the reservoir. Secondary data were
collected in collaboration with the four districts’ livestock and fish resource development office
except Telemit. Four FGD; one in each district was made with 6-8 individuals.
Data Analysis
All questions were pre-coded, once collected data was first entered in EXCEL and then,
transferred into SPSS for analysis. Descriptive statistics was used to summarize and analyzed the
primary data, such as frequency, percentage, and minimum, maximum, mean value and standard
deviation by using SPSS version 20 software. Additionally; tables, figures and graphs of the data
was analyzed and presented by using Microsoft Excel 2007.
Physical and Demographic Characteristics
There are about three landing sites were observed during the survey from three districts around
the lake. The major landing sites were found in Abegele and Tanqua Abergele district, namely
kerchifen and Chinchut landing sites, respectively. One small landing site found in Sahila
Seyemit (Anteneh Giba landing site) which serve as only transport site for passengers and camp
for pity trade.
Of the total 101 respondents, all most 99.01% were males. Even though females included in each
cooperative, but not engaged in both fishing and processing activities. Most fishers 86.1% were
under age group of youths (18-35) with minimum and maximum ages were 15 and 48,
respectively. Most of 74.3% were married whereas majority of the respondents 84.2% ranged 1-5
family size and also most of them (56.4%) were primary school educated (Table 1).
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Table 1: Characteristics of sample respondents

Category Frequency Percent Min Max Mean
Male 100 99.01
Sex Female 1 0.99 - - -
Teenagers (<18 years) 3 3.0
Youths (18-35 years) 87 86.1
Age Adults (36-50 years) 11 10.9 15 48 26.7±6.3
1-5 85 84.2
Family size 6-10 16 15.8 1 10 3.30±2.1
Married 75 74.3
Marital status Single 26 25.7 - - -
Illiterate 27 26.7
Read and write 5 5.0
Primary school 57 56.4
Educational level Secondary school 12 11.9 - - -
Fishing, Post-Harvest Loss, Handling and Preservation Techniques
Fishing Experience and Fish Meat Utilization as a Food
Fishing experience of the respondents, 12.9% have fishing experience before the dam
construction that mainly practiced on rivers by traditional ways such as stick, cloth, hooks; and
block by sand dam. But the majority (87.1%) engaged after the dam construction and their
fishing experience was 1-9 years. Here, 75.2% were under the range of 1-3 years experience
(Table 2).
Most of the respondents (62.4%) were not used to eat fish meat before engaging on the dam.
After the dam construction, (95%) of the respondents practiced fish stew cooking and could be
able to eat fish as a food (Table 2). Therefore, fish consumption habits of the fishers were not
more adapted in the earlier. Because fishing practice before constructed the dam were practiced
only at some individuals from local community using traditional fishing methods as riverine
fisheries seasonally and the fish population also limited. After engaging, fishers were sharing
traditional practice from their friends to cooking fish stew. All most 42.6% and 40.6% of the
sample households engaged in full time and part time, respectively (Table 2).
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Table 2: Fishing activities

Experience before the Yes 13 12.9 - - -
Dam construction No 88 87.1
Eating fish meat as a Yes 38 37.6 - - -
food before engaging No 63 62.4
Experience after the 1-3 years 76 75.2 1 9 2.9±1.4
Dam construction 4-9 years 25 24.8
After engaging with Yes 96 95.0 - - -
cooking fish stew No 5 5.0
Full time 24-30 days 43 42.6 - - -
Fishing engagement Part time 12-23 days 41 40.6
Seasonal (<12 days) 17 16.8
Fishing Gear and Vessel Status
Fishing boats: Two types of fishing boats, steel boats and planked boats were operating on
fishing activities in the reservoir. Though there was 66.3% and 15.8 % of the samples have been
only planked and steel boat, respectively and the remaining 17.8% was both boats (Table 3).
Minimum and maximum numbers of gillnet per individuals were 1 and 26, respectively and
averagely, 5.8 gillnets. Majority samples, 75.2% were fishing operating by using monofilament
and only 1% was using multifilament (Table 3). Moreover, the number of hooks and lines;
average, maximum and minimum responses were 34.2, 300 and 4, respectively.
Table 3: Fishing gear and vessels

Fishing gear condition Frequency % Min Max Mean
Types of boat Planked boat 67 66.3 - - -
Steel boat 16 15.8
both (planked and steel boat) 18 17.8
Number of gillnet 1-10 93 92.1 1 26 5.8±3.2
Above 11 4 4.0
Number of hooks 1-39 63 62.4 4 300 34.2±35.8
and lines 40-300 30 29.7
Monofilament 76 75.2 - - -
Types of net Multifilament 1 1.0
Only hooks 4 4.0
Both (all of the list) 20 19.8
According to personal observation, a few fishermen were fishing on a night time in the methods
of chase and trap illegally, which came from other parts of Southern Ethiopia; Arba-Minch.
Fishing gears type and operating methods are one of the factors to be considered in order to use
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the resource in a sustainable way. In Lake Abaya, there were three types of fishing methods:
gillnetting, long line and chase and trap. Majority of the fishermen having a net used the gillnet
method. Besides this, a few fishermen who did not have a boat were using chase and trap method
(unhealthy fishing method) (Genanew and Minwyelet, 2017).
Times of setting fishing gears on the reservoir were mostly a long period. Majority samples, 47%
were above 20 o’clock per day and minimally, 6% were up to 5 o’clock (Figure 2). Inappropriate
fishing gear using and setting for a long time from one place was the other factor that increases
fish post-harvest loss in the reservoir.
6% up to 5 o'clock
16% up to 10 o'clock
47%
up to 15 o'clock
22% up to 20 o'clock
above 20 o'clock
9%
Figure 2: Times of setting fishing gear per month
Fishing Catch
Since 2016/17, the fishers caught the fishes once a day; maximum 80 kg and average 32.18 kg
were recorded from the maximum catch, but the minimum were a range of 0 to 2 kg (Table 4).
Moreover, from the total, 20.8% were caught a maximally about 50-80 kg per trip; this may be
occurred once per year for a fisher. However, the respondents were response from the question
of minimum catch were 2kg and under. Under ranged 1-8 kg fish product were sold for whole
sellers which mean that the range was averagely sold product for their receivers (recipients).
Further, Fishers’ fish meat utilization for home consumption was under 0.5 kg and averagely,
they utilized 0.25 kg from the total catch per trip (Table 4). However, the Wag-Hemira peoples
were not eating fish as a food and they don’t have any awareness about fish except deployed
fishermen and small number of youths in Abergele and SahilaSeyemit. During personal
observation and key informant interview, the young from Sahila district town were eating fish in
the form of dry fish, but not in Abergele.
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Table 4: Fish caught in 2016/17 as per the respondents

Maximum catch 1-25 kg 36 35.6 4 80 32.18±17.58
26- 49 kg 44 43.6
50-80 kg 21 20.8
Minimum catch 0 kg 87 86.1 0 2 1
1 kg 13 12.9
2 kg 1 1.0
Fish used for home 0.125 kg 23 22.8 0.125 0.5 0.25±0.10
consumption 0.25 kg 65 64.4
0.5 kg 10 9.9
Fish sold for whole 1-3 kg 26 25.7 1 8 4.41±1.42
seller 4-6 kg 69 68.3
7-8 kg 6 5.9
Commonly Harvested Fish Species and Average Price
The main targeted fish species were Clarias gariepinus, Bagrusdocmak and Hetero
branchuslongifilis (Tsegay et al., 2016) whereas the gillnet were more targeted oncichlidae
family (Oreochromis niloticus) and cyprinidae family (Labeo barbus intermedius), but 18 fish
species with 7 families were present in the reservoir from the former studies (Goraw et al.,
2009). During the assessment of this study, the most caught fish species were specified common
fish like O. niloticus, L.intermedius, C. gariepinus and B. docmak with related fish under
grouped in cichlidae, cyprinidae, clariidae and bagridae families with respective species.
Average Price of Commonly Caught Fish Species
According to personal observation, FGD and key informant interview; the three commonly
harvested and commercially important fish species were O. niloticus, B. docmak and C.
gariepinus. The average price of each species in three consecutive years was 14 Birr/kg for
catfish, 49 Birr/kg for tilapia and 54 Birr/kg for bagrusdocmak (Figure 3).
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100
86
80 76
Cat fish
60
Price in Birr
42 46 Tilapia
40 31
29 B. Docmak
16 18
20 10
0
2008EC 2009EC 2010 EC
Years
Figure 3: Average price in three years
Seasonality of Fish Production in Tekeze Reservoir
In Tekeze reservoir, fishers couldn’t engage in fishing activities throughout the year, they
engaged from October to June and remaining was closed season. In closed season, fishers
engaged to crop production, animal rearing and labor working from their districts, and also they
migrate to Metema in West Gondar. Therefore, seasonality was one of the determinant factors
for access of fish production in different water bodies. For instance, in North Shewa Zone from
Jemma and Wonchit Rivers; there are three main periods in the fishery: dry season (February to
April), early-wet and wet season (May toAugust) and late-wet season (September toJanuary)
(Erkie et al., 2016).
Active Fishing Seasons: Fishers were actively participating during the peak season of March
(fasting season), May and June, because they got high price or good market. In December (fasting),
most fishers were active but not all (Figure 4). In the same study, post-harvest loss increased as the
catch increased and during fasting seasons, the demand of fish was high and fishing effort also
increased without changing fish handling mechanisms (Yared, 2010).
None-Active Fishing Seasons: The fall seasons of fishing activity in Tekeze Reservoir were the
reciprocal of active season (at the beginning and January) (Figure 4). Sometimes in January, there
had closed time for one or two weeks in cause of water mixing (water turn-over), i.e., during the
season of surface cooling being most part of the reservoir is deepest, thermal stratification occurred
frequently as a result mass fish kill happened.
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Seasons of High Post-Harvest Fish Loss: In this survey, post-harvest losses mostly occurred during
non-active fishing season in cause of natural and human made factors. The most respondents told that
high post-harvest losses occurred during the beginning of fishing (October and November) due to
high fish production, unbalance of fish price and shortage of whole sellers and transport problems.
Besides that during the summer season (winter in Ethiopia), there was encountered water mixing
(water turn-over especially in January), this implies low dissolved oxygen from the reservoir were
confirmed by personal observation, FGD and key informants. As a result, fishes were very weak and
caught easily, short shelf life span after caught and which spoiled in a short time that exposed for
high harvest losses. In addition to this, post-harvest losses also increased from the end of fishing
season due to sudden flooding that comes from different tributaries and immature fish harvesting was
the other problem during May and June (Figure 4).
60
50
Active fishing season
Frequency
40
30
20
10
0
Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Marc Apr May Jun
Months
Figure 4: Seasons of active fishing, non-active fishing and high post-harvest losses.
Post-Harvest Fish Losses
Sometimes, 84.9% of the respondents did encounter 100% fish harvest losses in once trip
sporadically, i.e., sometimes all harvested fish was dump without selling during absent of the
whole sellers and transport problems). On average, 16.07 kg fish was lost once and the maximum
fish product lost was 40 kg, i.e. occasionally. Totally, 1.462 tons fish catch were lost as of 91
respondents. According to respondents, the average, a minimum and maximum value of fish lost
in the year 2016/17 was 101.8 kg, 20 kg and 300 kg, respectively (Table 5). The total 9770 kg
(9.77 tons/year) were recorded from the sample which implies approximately 1Quintalper
individual (0.1 ton) was lost. According to the four districts of livestock and fish resource
187
development office in 2017, the total numbers of fishers were 2914. Based on this research
finding, fish post-harvest lost from all targeted fish species including non-targeted by catch
(cyprinidae family) estimated 291.4 tons/year.
In the recent study, fish potential of Tekeze Reservoir was 1065.63 tons/year (Tsegay et al.,
2016). The result was higher than to those reported by Goraw et al. (2009) in this Lake (968
tons/year). However, secondary data of the total fish production and post-harvest losses collected
from four district’s offices; livestock and fish resource development office. Based on their
reports, that recorded in four consecutive years (2007, 2008, 2009 and 2010* EC), out of the
total fish production 6229.52 tons (approximately, 1557.38 tons per year), 108.9 tons
(approximately, 27.23 tons/yr) were lost in cause of market linkage problem associated with lack
of infrastructures like road, transportation, electricity and forced to travel long distance (Table 6).
Average price of three fish species in three consecutive years was 39 Birr/kg ($1.655/kg) and can
be calculate and estimate monetary lost was 4,247,100 Birr (ETB) or ($180,229.5).
Table 5: Post-harvest loss in 2016/17

Post-harvest Frequency Percent N Min Max Mean
Sudden 100% loss Yes 91 89.4 101 - - -
(all dumped) No 10 10.6
Amount of loss/ 1-19 kg 56 55.5 3 40 16.07±7.63
kg/once 20-40 kg 35 34.6 91
losses per year/kg 20-59 kg 33 32.7 96 20 300 101.77±70.51
60-99 kg 22 21.8
100-300 kg 41 40.6
Table 6: Secondary data on fish post-harvest loss

Production per tons Lost production per ton
District 2007 2008 2009 2010* Total 2007 2008 2009 2010* Total
Abegele 507.6 1020.2 2280 70 3877.8 14 2.8 4.2 3.7 24.7
Ziquala 32.28 57.43 65.84 35.25 190.8 3.2 6.8 7.9 0.3 18.2
Sahila 120.92 124.9 720 63.5 1029.32 1.5 1.3 2.5 0.5 5.8
T/Abergele 152.3 368 596.4 14.9 1131 20 30 10 0.2 60.2
Total 813.1 1570.53 3662.24 183.65 6229.52 38.7 40.9 24.6 4.7 108.9
* Indicating that data were recorded up to March 2010 E.C
Load Tracking on Fish Left-Over and Discard Area
In this study, the left-over discards of fish species were recorded by manual spring balance and
prepared record sheets. From the total weight of cichlidae, cyprinidae, clariidae and bagridae
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family fish species; 71.67, 58.65, 43.07 and 39.34 percent lost were recorded respectively, and
the remaining part was filleted (Figure 5). Similar to this finding, since 2012 report the
percentage yield of filleted fish in three Ethiopian Lakes; Koka, Ziway and Hashengie was 29-
32, 25-28 and 32-36, respectively for Tilapia fillet (Yared 2010 and 2012). Further, the
cyprinidae family like Labeo barbusintermedius was not preferable by the existed market, most
likely in case of bonny in the flesh of these species. As a result of the problem the cyprinidae
family was discarding to the shoreline and the open water of Tekeze Resercoir as a byproduct.
80 71.67 % of filleted
70
58.65 56.93 60.66 % of lost
60
percent
50 43.07
41.35 39.34
40
28.33
30
20
10
0
Tilapia L. Barbus cat fish B. Docmak
Fish species
Figure 5: Losses of left-over from four fish species.
Generally, discarding area of this by-product and fish post harvest losses mostly observed from
the shoreline or bordering of three districts, Abergele, Zequala and Sahila Seyemit (Figure 6).
Figure 6: Points of the study sites in Tekeze Reservoir
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During our visit, the fish left-over (by-product) was burned out by using fire in some parts of
shoreline in the Lake (Figure 7). This was done by the fishermen to avoid the bad smell
(deodorize) from the surrounding. Moreover, the by-products from filleting factories are even at
greater risk of spoilage because these products are often treated as trash (Kabahenda, 2009). But,
it can be use for fish meal and for poultry farming either as ingredients or alone for meal (Alayu
et al., 2017).
Figure 7: Left-over carcass of different fish species.
Handling Technique (Preservation and Processing)
From the total respondents, 57.4% filleted their fish for selling in the market and others were
making both filleted and gutting. Some of the respondents, 11.9% practiced sun drying to
preserve the fish product during caught a huge amount, impossible to finish fish filleting and
passed the selling time but, 88.1% were not practicing these types of process techniques, the
option was dump their harvested to the Lake or other area. The storage materials of fishers were
Jerry can (60.4%) and sack which was unsafe and exposed materials for spoilage (Table 7 and
Figure 8). Poor handling techniques are major factors that affect the nutritive value of fish
products; related to how fish is handled, processed or preserved and stored. Traditional practices
such as exposing fish for a long periods to weather elements coupled with traditional methods of
preservation (hot smoking, sun-drying and deep frying) and poor storage are subjecting fish to
different kinds of product degradation (Kabahenda, 2009).
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Table 7: Post-harvest loss and related activities

Category Frequency Percent
Processing method for selling Only filleted 58 57.4
Filleted and gutted 43 42.6
Storage before sell Jerry can 61 60.4
Sack and jerry can 40 39.6
Selling time in the landing site Immediately 7 6.9
After time consuming 94 93.1
You know that starting place of fish Some awareness 84 83.2
spoilage Haven’t awareness 17 16.8
Where begin fish spoilage From the net 55 54.5
During transport 29 28.7
Preservation technique Sun drying 12 11.9
No 89 88.1
There are two main ways (preservation and processing) by which spoilage can be slowed down or
stopped. Preservation methods keep the fish in the fresh state so that the changes in texture, taste and
appearance, etc… are minimized. Processing methods usually change these properties so that the
deterioration is slowed or halted, but the characteristics of the fish also alter according to the process
used (Yared, 2010). This describes that fish preservation and processing methods are depends on fish
handling materials. Inadequate facilities, delay between catches, absence of collection and
distribution techniques are the other reasons for post-harvest losses. For instance transportation,
fishing gear, distance between fishing site and landing site, materials or storage (Figures 8 and 9).
Figure 8: Unsafe storage for a long period of timeand monofilament fishing gear
Figure 9: Losses on the tracking, around the boat and on the landing site
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Major Causes of the Post-Harvest Fish Losses around the Reservoir
In this survey, different factors influenced the quality of fish production which were observed
and recorded from FGD, key informant interviews and personal observations. Among those,
delay before marketing and storage, high environmental temperature, water mixing or turn over
(which causes for fish death during December and January in 2016/2017 and 2017/2018);
Immature fish harvesting by monofilament (non- selected fishing gear), unlimited setting gears
for a lot of days, poor handling and processing method, unstable fish market price (market force
loss), flooding during May and June. In Similarly report, the root cause of post-harvest quality
loss was spoilage due to long distances of transportation from landing to market, high ambient
temperature and poor quality packing materials were observed in Genale River (Alemu, 2016).
Other factors that affect the nutritive value of fish products were related to how fish is handled,
processed or preserved and stored. Traditional practices such as exposing fish for long periods to
weather elements coupled with poor preservation and storage conditions could render the fish
products to different kinds of degradation (Addis et al., 2015).
The substantial post-harvest fish losses and low preservation technique had been observed in
Tekeze Reservoir at different stages of the fishery. The three kinds of loss: physical, quality loss
and market force loss were identified in this study. The major causes of post-harvest fish losses
include delay before marketing, high environmental temperature, water mixing during December
and January, immature fish harvesting, unlimited setting gear for a long (unfixed days), poor
handling and preservation methods, poor infrastructure like road and non-computational market
price. The fishermen were discarding and dumping the fish left over or by-product from the
shoreline of the reservoir especially from the bordering of three districts, Abergele, Zequala and
SahilaSeyemit. Fish product utilization as a food in Wag-Hemira zone was also not practicable
and has not any awareness on fish importance except the fishermen and some youths.
Real measures have to be taken to improve facilities from the point of production until it reaches
the consumer. Monitoring on illegal fishing gears (like, monofilament) and prepare appropriate
fishing gear in the surrounding with female participation; deep refrigerator truck for
192
transportation; additional landing site in the side of Sahila Seymit district with fulfilling the
infrastructure, add value on fish left over or by-product for fish meal, human consumption, and
other animals should be practiced. ‘Aquatic Parks’ or closed areas are required to increase
productivity by protecting juvenile fish and ensuring uninterrupted spawning from the shoreline.
Awareness creation for the local community on fish meat utilization as a food is criticaly needed
to combat the existing challenge. Fish drying by using solar tent dryer should be done
complementary to reduce the loss.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
First and for most I would like to say thanks to God for his spiritual help to complete this work. I
would like to thanks our research center researchers; Ayalew Assefa, Alemu Tsegaye and Addisu
Bihonegn, for their unlimited support, guidance, suggestion, comment, software training, GPS
point mapping and encouragement throughout the development of this study.
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Monitoring of Commercially Important Fishes of Lake Ardibo and Lugo, South Wollo
Ethiopia
Endalh Mekonnen1, Gedion Berihanu1 and Tizazu Yitayew2

1
2
Bahir Dar Fisheries and Other Aquatic Life Research Center, P.O.Box 794, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia
ABSTRACT
This study was aimed to assess the current status of fish stock, fishing practice, species composition,
size, abundance and some biological aspects of fishes in Lake Lugo and Ardibo. Data on
commercially important fisheries of the Lakes were collected on monthly basis from October 2013 to
September 2017. Gillnets of different mesh sizes (6, 8, 10 and 12, stretched mesh size) were used to
harvest the fishes. Total length (L) and body weight (W) of all species were measured to the nearest
0.1 cm and 1 g, respectively. The physico-chemical parameters were measured using secchi disck,
wagtach international conductivity and pH meter. These parameters were within the permissible
limits except the pH level at Gedam sefare in Lake Lugo and Hulluko in Lake Ardibo sampling sites.
The results revealed that the catch compositions of all fish species were showed a decreasing
tendency from time to time which could negatively affect the livelihood of the fishermen. The length
weight relationships (LWRs) for Oreochromis niloticus (TW = 0.020TL2.934; n = 243; R2 = 0.936)
and Cyprinus carpio (TW = 0.019TL2.845; n = 1436; R2 = 0.927) in Lake Ardibo and for Oreochromis
niloticus (TW = 0.064TL2.53; n = 32; R2 = 0.862), C. carpio (TW = 0.018TL2.85; n = 591; R2 = 0.926)
and Clarias gariepinus (TW = 0.015TL2.8; n = 81; R2 = 0.901) in Lake Lugo were showed a
curvilinear relationship that signifying the fish growth were negative allometric growth. Except C.
carpio in Lake Ardibo all species in both Lakes have significant difference between sexes (χ2, P <
0.05). The size at first sexual maturity (L50) for Oreochromis niloticus of females was 16.5 and 15.4
cm for males, Clarias carpio of females 19.23 and 19.24 cm for males in Lake Ardibo. In Lake Lugo,
L50 was 14.6 cm for females and 15.3 cm for the male Oreochromis niloticus, L50 of Clarias
gariepinus was 31.7 cm and 31.05 cm for females and males, respectively while L50 was 19.2 cm and
19.3 cm for female and male Clarias carpio, respectively. The unregulated open access resources use
and uncoordinated water resources development activities in both Lakes could lead to degradation of
fish resources in particular and other natural resources in general.
Keywords: Fishing practices, Maturity Length, Negative allometric growth, Relative Abundance
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INTRODUCTION
Ethiopia is a land locked country that depends on the inland waters for the supply of fish as a
cheap source of animal protein. It has a number of lakes and rivers with substantial quantity of
fish stocks (Tesfaye, 1998). The total surface area of these natural and artificial lakes in Ethiopia
is about 7,500 km2 (Julie, 2008). Knowledge on diversity, population, structure, distribution and
population of the Ethiopia icthyofauna and biology of fish species is poorly known relatively a
large number of small, medium and even some large river have not been well studied and
explored (Abebe, 2005). The fisheries was not contribute to the Ethiopian economy, until 50
years ago, due to the population density was sparse and land based resources was enough to meet
their interest. However, from the 1940s and 50s, the consequence of rapid population growth was
a shortage of cultivable land and depletion of land resources, forced the people to look for other
alternative occupations and sources of food from water resources at a subsistence level (Alayu et
al., 2015).
Amhara region has high fish production potential from major lakes, Lake Tana, Lugo, Ardibo
and other small water bodies. Moreover, the region has also a considerable fish potential from
rivers; like Shinfa, Sanja, Ayima, Gendwuha and others (Dereje et al., 2016). Relatively major
rivers in Amhara region were investigated for their fish diversity.
Lake Hayq is a highly valuable resource area. It is a focal point for tourism, it attracts who
appreciate their natural beauty, or who come to swim, or explore. It has long been important to
lake area inhabitants as a food resource and for their religious and cultural associations and it
appreciates peoples to invest their capital at its surrounding area (Tadesse, 2010). Lake Ardibo
has been recently used for irrigation, local fishing activity and watering of animals (Molla,
2000). The study lakes have been inhabited by local communities for centuries; there are strong
interaction between local communities and the lake ecosystems. In most cases, currently
management plans that would ensure the conservation and sustainable use of the lake resources
are still lacking. Therefore, the purpose of exploratory programme is to monitoring and
examined the current status of fishes, relative abundance, some biological aspects of
commercially important fish species, physico-chemical parameters of Lake Lugo and Ardibo and
directed the management option used to conserve the Lake resources.
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Lake Lugo and Ardibo were found in Northern Ethiopia, South Wollo administrative zone in the
same Woreda, Tehulidre. Lake Lugo located 30 km far from Dessie, it lies at 11015′ N Latitude,
39057′ E Longitude and at an altitude of 2,030 m above sea level (Baxter, 1970), whereas lake
Ardibo located 11010′26.9″ N latitude and 34045′19.2″ E longitude (LFDP, 1995). The maximum
depth and mean depth of the Lake Lugo was 77 m and 30 m, respectively.
Site Selection and Sampling
In both study lakes six (6) sampling sites were selected. Map of the study lakes with sampling
sites were determined using GPS shown in (Fig1). The sampling sites or habitats were selected
based on vegetation cover, human and animal interference and substrate type of the sediment
which represent the whole area of the study lakes. In Lake Ardibo the three sampling sites were
selected, 1) Borsho site has high vegetation cover.The station (site) is characterized by relatively
less human and cattle interference, 2) Hulluko site is high human and cattle interferencei.e. it is a
place where people were swimming, clean cloths and used as a cattle watering place.The
vegetation cover is very low, 3) Pelagic or open watersite is used as reference point. It is the
deepest part of the lake.
In Lake Lugo three sampling sites were selected 1) Gedam sefar site have high vegetation cover,
2) Ankerkha River mouth; this site is the meeting place of Ankerkha River and Lake Lugo. The
principal source of sediment in the Lake Lugo is the smaller tributary is called Ankerkha River.
During the dry season, the water level of Ankerkha River water level is decreased at sometimes
it becomes too dried, 3) Pelagic or open water. This site is used as reference point. It is the
deepest part of the lake. From each lake across each sampling site the samples were taken every
month from October 2013 to September 2017. Gillnets of stretched mesh sizes 6, 8, 10, 12 cm
were use to catch fishes. The nets were set 5:00 pm late afternoon and retrieve 7:00 am in early
morning. Immediately after capture all specimens of total length and body weight were measured
by using measuring board and electronic Balance. The degree of sexual maturity and sex of each
specimen were determined by inspection of the gonads in fresh Individuals according to Holden
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and Raitt’s (1974) maturity scale. The physico-chemical parameters such as conductivity, pH,
temperature and transparency of the lakes were measured by using Wagtech International
conductivity, pH mater and Secchi disk, respectively. More over primary was collected through
field observation and secondary data were used.
Length-weight relationships (LWRs) were calculated using power function (Bagenal and Tesch,
1978).
TW = aTLb, Where, TW = Total weight (gm), TL = Total length (cm), a = Intercept of the
regression line and b = Slope of the regression line.
Sex ratio was determined using the following formula (Fasile et al., 2012):
Number of females
Sex ratio =
Number of males
The L50 was estimated by: TL = (Sparre and Venema, 1998)
a = intercept, b = slope of regression
Figure 1: Map of the study lakes and sampling sites (the left Ardibo and right side Lugo
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Data Analysis
The data could be analyzed by using descriptive statics and regression equation through Excel;
statistical soft ware’s using windows version 22, ANOVA and Chi-square (χ2) to test sex ratio.
Physico-Chemical Parameters
The physico chemical parameters such as transparency, pH, temperature and conductivity of
water were compared among the Lakes across sampling sites were mentioned below in Table1.
Table 1: The mean ± SD physico-chemical parameters at six sampling site of Lake Lugo, and
Ardibo
Sampling Site of Lake Lugo Sampling Site of Lake Ardibo
Gedam
Parameters Sefar Pelagic Ankerkha Hulluko Pelagic Borsho
pH Mean±SD 9.07±1.34 8.9±0.57 8.98±0.08 9.06±0.8 8.43±0.93 8.82±0.93
Conductivity (µs/cm) Mean±SD 401±41.01 403.67±16.25 360.5±92.63 288±51.58 277±11.69 279.5±13.43
Temperature(0C) Mean±SD 23.9±0.49 22.83±0.97 22.1±2.12 20.5±0.97 19.9±1.27 20.3±0.85
Secchi depth (m) 3 3.5 2.8 1.5 2.8 2.4
According to Hamed et al. (2013) the pH value from 7.9 to 9 was a slightly too moderately
alkaline and above this was the water is high alkaline. It is probably due to the effect of direct
point and non-point source of pollution disposed near to their location. While in Gedam Sefar
site and Hulluko in Lake Lugo and Ardibo respectively the alkalinity is relatively higher than the
other sites. It is probably due to the nature of watershed topography which depend on many
variables and mixture of different drainage water coming from agriculture and waste water.
The optimum permissible limits of conductivity, pH for fish culture were 6.5 - 9.0, 50 – 1500
µs/cm (Boyd, 1979)respectively and for temperature 20-30 0C (Hamed et al., 2013). The results
of the study indicate that the Conductivity and temperature of the two lakes weresignificant
difference (ANOVA, P< 0.05) between the Lakes (Table 2).
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Table 2: Pair wise comparison of a biotic parameters (Conductivity, transparency, Temperature

and pH) between lakes (ANOVA, P< 0.05)
Parameters Lake Ardibo
Lake Lugo pH 0.58579
Conductivity 0.00394*
Temperature 0.000546*
Secchi Disc 0.08615
* Significant (P < 0.05)
There has been no physico-chemical parameters variation within the study lakes across sampling
sites except transparency in Lake Ardibo (p < 0.05) (Table 3).
Table 3: Pair wise comparison of a biotic parameters (Conductivity, Transparency, temperature

and pH) within sampling sites at confidence interval of (ANOVA, P < 0.05)
Sites Parameters Lugo Pelagic Lugo Ankerkha Ardibo Pelagic Ardibo Borsho
Lugo Gedam Conductivity 0.9486 0.62878
Sefar pH 0.9789 0.4618
Temperature 0.9465 0.59578
Transparency 0.16024 0.343795
Lugo Pelagic Conductivity 0.6009
pH 0.4808
Temperature 0.55464
Transparency 0.064455
Ardibo Conductivity 0.624 0.6236
Hulluko pH 0.59015 0.4313
Transparency 0.00134* 0.0046*
Ardibo Pelagic Conductivity 0.979
pH 0.9537
Temperature 0.6094
Transparency 0.09546
Table 4: Pair wise comparison of a biotic parameters (Conductivity, Transparency, temperature

and pH) within the study lakes (ANOVA, P< 0.05)
p-value
parameters Lake Lugo Ardibo
Conductivity 0.753 0.3148
pH 0.709 0.3133
Transparency 0.0764 0.00044*
* Significant (P < 0.05)
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Spatial Distribution of Fish Species
The spatial distribution of commercially important fish species were presented in Table 5. The
type of fish species recorded in the six sampling sites (Hulluko, pelagic, Borsho, Gedam Sefar,
pelagic, and Ankerkha River mouth) two and three in Lake Ardibo and Lugo, respectively.
Fish diversity should be depending on type of sampling techniques, the time of sampling, the
magnitude of sampling and the number and types of gears used.
Table 5: Fish distribution commercially important fish species among six sampling sites during
sampling periods from 2013-2017 in both Lakes (absent - , present +)
Sampling site Lake O. niloticus C. carpio C. gariepinus
Gedam Sefar/S1 Lugo + + +
Pelagic/S2 Lugo + + +
River mouth/S3 Lugo + + +
Hulluko/S1 Ardibo + + -
Pelagic/S2 Ardibo + + -
Borsho /S3 Ardibo + + -
Species Composition in Lake Ardibo and Lugo
A total of 2383 specimens representing three commercial fish species in two families were
collected from six sampling sites which represent the whole Lakes, River mouth (Ankerkha),
pelagic and Gedam Sefar in Lake Lugo and Hulluko, Pelagic, Borsho. The minimum, maximum
and mean length and weight of captured fishes with standard deviation is shown in Table 6.
Table 6: The Minimum, Maximum and mean sizes of the caught fishes in both lakes.
Mini Max Mean Mini Max Mean
Species Lake TL TL TL±SD TW TW TW ±SD
O. nioticus Ardibo 15 35.4 18.2±3.88 31 460 113± 95.3
Lugo 12 35.4 18.74±5.75 43 655 130.3±139.5
C. carpio Ardibo 10 46.2 21.4±5.8 24 1161 144.7±115.4
Lugo 12 57.2 29±9.75 47 1545 377.3±348.7
C. gariepinus Lugo 17.1 89.5 39.7±11.7 55 6515 644±806
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Catch numbr and weight (%) 60

40
20
0
ArdiboLugo
Ardibo Lugo Ardibo
Lugo Ardibo
2005 Lugo Ardibo
2006 Lugo
2007
2008
2009
Key Number (%) Year class
Figure 2: Fish catch trends in both lakes from 2013 to 2017 the study periods
Spatial Distribution of Fishes
Spatial distributions of fish population in Lakes Lugo and Ardibo across the six sampling sites
were show in Table 7. The species diversity and the fish population spatial distribution show that
these two parameters may not necessarily correlate positively.
positively. This was showed that even if Lake
Ardibo fish species diversity is low the number of captured fish were considerably higher than
Lugo. This implies that the Lake Lugo fishes were more severe than Ardibo through
anthropogenic activities.
Table 7: Spatial distribution of commercially important fish population at the study lakes
Lake Sampling site Number of species N N% TW TW%
Ardibo Hulluko 2 491 29.2% 64626.1 27.2%
Pelagic 2 666 39.6 80696 34.5%
Borsho 2 522 31.2 89897 38.3%
Total 2 1679 235219.1
Lugo Gedam Sefar 3 289 41% 94260 27.9%
Pelagic 3 167 23.7% 56967.5 16.9%
Ankerkha 3 248 35.2% 185442.5 55.2%
Total 3 704 336670
Overall Species Abundance
The most abundant species were C. carpio, O. niloticus in Lake Ardibo and C. carpio, C.
garipenius and O. niloticus in order of abundance in Lake Lugo. The results of this study
indicate that C. carpio was more abundant in both Lakes especially in Ankerkha River mouth
and Borsho sampling sites in Lake Lugo and Lake Ardibo, respectively the reason
reason was in Lake
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Lugo the river mouth has good substrates and better vegetation cover in Lake Ardibo and O.
niloticus was the lower abundant species in both lakes. The current fishery resources status in
both lakes decline radically. The study conducted from 2013-2017 the proportion of C. carpio,
O. niloticus fish species sampled from Lake Ardibo were 85.5%, 14.5% and the proportion of C.
carpio, O. nilotius, C. garepinus were 83.9%, 4.5%, 11.5% collected from Lake Lugo,
respectively. Where as in the previous study conducted from 2009-2013 the proportion of C.
carpio, O. niloticus fish species sampled from Lake Ardibo were 85%, 15% and the proportion
of C. carpio, O. nilotius, C. garepinus were 10 %, 58%, 32% collected from Lake Lugo,
respectively.
Length-Weight Relationship
The relationships between total length and total weight for the dominant commercial species of
C. carpio, O. niloticus, and C. gariepinus were curvilinear and statistically significant (P < 0.05)
Figures 3 and 4. The line fitted with the data described by the regression equation shown in
Figures 3 and 4. In fishes, the regression coefficient, b = 3 describes isometric growth. This
means the fish retain the same shape and their specific gravity remains unchanged during their
lifetime (Ricker, 1975). If the weight increased according to the fish length, it is said to be
isometric growth. However, fishes may have “b” value greater or less than 3, a condition of
allometric growth (Bagenal and Tesch, 1978). Allometric growth is assumed when the increase
in any of the parameters (length or weight) is not proportional to the other (Olurin, Aderibigbe,
2006). Therefore, according to the results of present study conducted from 2013 to 2017, C.
carpio, O. niloticus and C. gariepinus in Lake Ardibo and Lugo exhibits negative allometric
growth (Figures 3 and 4). The value of “b’’for combined sexes data in this study is comparable
to the value of b calculated for the same species (O. niloticus) i.e., 2.91 in Lake Awassa (Demeke
Admassu, 1990), 2.74 in Lake Tina (Zenebe Tadesse, 1997) and 3.12 in Lake Tina (Dereje
Tewabe, 2014). Similarly, C. carpio in Amerti Reservoir showed b value of 2.923 (Mathewos
Hailu, 2013) and 2.93 in Lake Ziway (Lemma et al., 2015). However, C. gariepinus showed
negative allometric 2.67 in Lake Tana (Dereje Tewabe, 2014). According to Bagenal and Tesch
(1978) and Froese (2006) the variation in the value of ‘b’ happen due to season, habitat, gonad
maturity, sex, diet, stomach fullness, health, preservation techniques and annual differences in
environmental conditions.
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700 y = 0.020x2.934 1400

A B
600 R² = 0.936 1200 y = 0.019x2.845
Total Weight (gm)
Total Weight (gm)

n = 243 1000 R² = 0.927
500
n = 1436
400 800
300 600
200 400
100 200
0 0
0 20 40 0 20 40 60
Totla Length (cm) Total Length (cm)
Figure 3: length-weight relationship of O. niloticus (A) and C. carpio (B) in Lake Ardibo
2500 y = 0.018x2.85 7000 800 y = 0.064x2.53

C y = 0.015x2.80 D E
Total Weight (gm)

Total Weght (gm)
R² = 0.93 6000 R² = 0.90 R² = 0.86

Total Weight (gm)
2000
n = 591 5000 600 n =32
n =81
1500 4000
400
3000
1000 2000 200
500 1000
0 0
0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40
0 20 40 60 80
Total Length (cm) Totla Length (cm) Total Length (cm)
Figure 4: Length-weight relationships of C. carpio (C), C. garepinus (D), O. niloticus (E), in

Lake Lugo
Length Frequency Distribution of the Most Dominant Commercial Important Fish Species
The length-frequency distributions indicated that greater proportion of sampled fishes for both
sexes occurred in size between 14 -18 in Lake Ardibo (Fig.5), while in Lake Lugo for C. carpio,
O. niloticus and C. garipenius were 19-23, 15-19, 31-53 respectively (Fig.6).
Fishes did not occur in length classes longer than 50 cm and shorter than 10 cm in Lake Ardibo
(Fig.5). In Lake Lugo the length groups below 7 cm and above 93 cm fishes were not caught. C.
garipenius was more represented than C. carpio, O. niloticus in size greater than 89 cm total
length (Fig 6.).
204
480
450
420
390
360
330
Frequancy
300
270
240
210
180 tilapia
150 carp
120
90
60
30
0
10-14 14-18 18-22 22-26 26-30 30-34 34-38 38-42 42-46 46-50
Length interval (cm)
Figure 5: Length-frequency distributions of commercial important fishes caught in Lake
Ardibo
120
100
80 carp
Frequancy
60 cat fish
tilapia
40
20
0
7-11 11-15 15-19 19-23 23-27 27-31 31-35 35-39 39-43 43-47 47-51 51-55 55-59 61-65 89-93
Lenght interval (cm)
Figure 6: Length frequency distribution of commercial important caught fishes in Lake Lugo.
Size at First Maturity
The total length at which L50 reached maturity of the O. niloticus, C.gariepinu and C. carpio in
Lake Ardibo and Lugo were get by using L50 = shown below in Table 8.
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As the fishing mortality by fishing effort increases, they reach maturity at lowering size in order
to perpetuate their own progenylosses due to illegal fishing practices. Length of maturity in
many fish species relies on demographic conditions and is determined by genes and
environment, change in Lake water level and associated factors, poor condition or overfishing
lead to a dramatic decrease in size at L50% maturity fish (Lowe-McConnell, 1987 and Cowx,
1990).
These differences the size at first maturity (L50) is a function of influenced by the size and age
and may be the abundance and seasonal availability of food, temperature, predation and
competition, photoperiod, dissolved oxygen and other environmental factors (Babiker and
Ibrahim, 1979; Bwanika et al., 2004).
Table 8: Length at maturity (TL50%) of fish species as determined by different authors at

different times
Present study Previous study Dereje Fasil et al.,
(2013-2017) (2009-2013) (2014) Tana (2012) Fincha
Species Lake F M F M F M F M
Ardibo 16.5 15.4 18.12 21 21.2 23.4 21.8 24.5
O. niloticus Lugo 14.6 15.3 13.09 16.17
Ardibo 19.23 19.24 24 20
C. carpio Lugo 19.2 19.3 32 30 37.5 24.5
C.gariepinus Lugo 31.7 31.05 32 30 57.7 43.2
Sex Ratio
The overall sex ratio of males to females were 1:0.96 i.e.1214 (50.94%) were males and 1169
(49.06%) were females; this ratio was significantly different the predominance of 1214 males
than 1169 females in Lake Ardibo and Lugo from the hypothetical ratio of 1:1 (χ2, P < 0.05)
(Table 9). The sex ratios for O. niloticus in both Lakes and C. carpio and C. gariepinus in Lake
Lugo showed significant difference (χ2, p < 0.05). It was insignificant for Cyprinus carpio (χ2, P
> 0.05) in Lake Ardibo. We conclude that except C. carpio in Lake Ardibo, the three species in
both Lakes not equally distributed.
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Table 9: Sex ratio estimation of the dominant commercially important fishes in Lake Lugo and
Ardibo
Species Lake Females Males F:M χ2=Chi-square
C. carpio Ardibo 690 746 0.92:1 2.2ns
O. niloticus Ardibo 171 72 2.38:1 40.3*
C. carpio Lugo 236 355 0.66:1 12.0*
C. garipenus Lugo 50 31 1.61:1 4.5*
O. niloticus Lugo 22 10 2.2:1 4.5*
Total 1169 1214 0.96:1
Fishing Practice and Gears of Fishers
The fish resource in Lake Lugo and Ardibo has been utilized by the local community without
adequate information for the fish resource and regulatory mechanism. The major adverse
problems in Lake Lugo raised by fishermen were overfishing trends of fishers, unlimited and
unlicensed fishermen/open access/, application of inappropriate fishing gears and fishing during
reproductive seasons, destruction of shore line machrophytes, lack of government follow up, the
construction of railway and lack of awareness fishers’ about the wise use of fishes. In Lake
Ardibo the fishermen organized by cooperative however they have challenges like destruction of
shore line machrophytes, less government support, the construction of railway, the individual
fishermen were not protect the closing season.
Table10: The Number of fishermen and gears of fishers in 2017 in Lake Lugo andArdibo
Number of fishermen
Number of boat Number Number Number of
Un of of gill hook and Way of
Lake Licensed Unlicensed Licensed licensed Tankwua net line organized
Lugo - 274 - - 229 229 15 individual
Ardibo 60 19 60 10 81 4 cooperative
Source: Tehuledre Worda Agricultural and rural development office, 2017
In general the fisherman say we are highly frustrate by the reduction of fish production since we
have no any alternative job opportunities because our life depend on the lakes fishes. The jobless
youth fishermen who continuously perform their fishing activity in the day full time and also
throughout the year including fish reproduction seasons by applying monofilament gillnets that
have mesh sizes less than 8 cm the fish catch before produce eggs to replenish the stock while
the farmers practice part time at early morning and late afternoon. Lake Ardibo fishermen used
207
non-motorized boat to transport captured fishes from the lake to shore area fish landing sites
(Figure 7a). However, individual fishers in Lake Lugo mainly use local craft made of bamboo
tree called “Thanqwa” (Fig. 7b, c, d) to set their nets into the lake and to transport fishes to fish
landing site. Presently the fishing gears used in both lakes were monofilament gillnets hooks and
lines. The gill nets used by the local community fishers were nylon monofilament gillnets drive
from Sudan (4-5 cm stretched mesh size) made by the fishers themselves. The descriptive statics
results indicated that the mean value of the growth parameters of Lake Lugo captured fishes
were better than Lake Ardibo (Table 6).
A B C D
Fig 7: Fisherman fishing practices by using destructive gears (monofilament gill net) (A=in lake
Ardibo, in Lake Lugo (B, C & D)
Degradetion of Fisheries and Lake Ecosystem
Population growth and growing demand for water is diminishing the amount, quality and
regularity of water available for our ecosystems. A number of anthropogenic activities, including
the wetland changing to farm lands, intensive irrigated farming, land subdivision, lake
fragmentation for agricultural land, the distraction of fish breeding ground grazing by cattle, the
draining of marshlands, deforestation, poor land-use practices in the upper catchment, the
wetland changing to farm lands by expansion of agriculture have resulted in pollution and
sedimentation of lakes, these implies to decreased the productivity of fisheries and the water
level. This is causing a loss and degradation of biodiversity in ecosystems of all types. It is also
diminishing the ability of ecosystems to provide essential services that keep people healthy and
out of poverty.Degradation of the catchment area’s environment results in the decline of lakes.
Humans have lived for ages around the Lakes with their cattle, relying on the lakes and on the
vegetation grown in the wetlands. In recent years, a growing number of farmers have migrated to
the areas. They have settled around the local Lakes for irrigation and by using water pumps to
convert the water to annual and perennial crop production.
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In summary, Lake Ardibo and Lugo fish species diversity are consisting of only two and three
species. The length weight relationships of fishes in our study were curvilinear and negative
allometric growth. Except Cyprinus carpio in Lake Ardibo the overall sex ratio of males to
females was significantly difference from 1:1 ratio. The fishes in both lakes attained sexual
maturity at smaller size. The results of the present study from 2013 to 2017 indicate that C.
carpio was more abundant in both Lakes and O. niloticus was the lower abundant species. In
contrary, compared to the result of the study conducted from 2009 to 2013 O. niloticus, C.
gariepinusand C. carpio were in order of abundance respectively. However, the current fish
resources status of Lake Lugo and Ardibo were highly decline compared to the previous. Lake
Lugo and Ardibo valued for its wide biodiversity of flora and fauna, but the lakes ecology and its
catchment areas and its natural resources face a number of threats that are largely influenced by
natural fluctuations in water-levels, a phenomenon currently aggravated by several
anthropogenic activities. Consequently, more runoff, silt and nutrients have been discharged into
the Lakes through inflow line or flood plain, increase jobless youths, absence of effective lakes
management system particularly overfishing of fishes by illegal individual fishers. Hence it is
recommended that limit the number of fishing efforts and gear types, greater than 8 cm mesh size
gillnet used, Protect closing area, Prohibited from fishing in peak spawning seasons, Creating
awareness to fishing communities and Effective watershed management systems should be
applied, Concern has been expressed about the possible effects of intensive irrigation activities it
is often more serious during dry seasons around the Lakes on aquatic resource and protecting
sensitive areas of the habitat (breeding, feeding and resting sites of fish and birds).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I am greatly obliged to thanks the Amhara Agricultural Research Institute (ARARI) for financing
this research project. I would also like to thank some individuals for their special contribution:
Assefa Biru and Wubu Kassaw (boat and car drivers). My thanks also go to Hayk Agricultural
Research Sub-Center, Sirinka Agricultural Research center and the whole Livestock staff
members for their warm hospitality and support in all aspects of my inquiry regarding to this
program.
209
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211
Compositions and Relative Abundances of Fish Species at Ayehu and Birr Rivers in Blue
Nile Basin, Ethiopia
Benyam Hailu, Dereje Tewabe and Getinet Temesgen

ABSTRACT
The study aimed to assess fish species composition, diversity and relative abundance in Ayehu
and Birr Rivers. Data on fish species composition and relative abundances were collected at two
times in the wet season (June 2016 - October 2017) and two times in the dry season (November –
May, 2017) from the two rivers. The Physico-chemical parameters of the rivers were measured
using portable (YSI-54) instruments and using standard procedures. Gillnet with mesh size of
6,8,10 and - 12 cm and monofilament gillnet (5 – 55mm) were used to catch the fish species.
Shannon diversity index was used to compare species diversity in both rivers between the
seasons. Univariate analysis and ANOVA test were used to test species composition, species
diversity and relative abundances difference in both Rivers between sites and season. The result
of the physico-chemical parameters showed significant differences among seasons and between
sites (p<0.05). In both rivers the relative abundance and the number of spacemen collected were
more in the dry season than the wet season. The Shannon diversity index (H') values were 0.15
and 0.00 in Birr and Ayehu rivers, respectively. In Birr River two types of fish species were
caught in both seasons, but in Ayehu River onle one species was caught in both seasons. The
dominant fish species in Ayehu River Were V. beso (136 speciemen), where as in Birr River V.
beso (480 speciemen) and O. niloticus (57 speciemen) were the dominat fish species. The
dominant fish species at Birr River in dry season were V. beso (293 specimen) and O. niloticus
(40 specimen) and in wet season V. beso were (187 Specimen) and O. niloticus (17 specimen)
were collected where as in Ayehu River totally dominated by Varicorhinus beso (136 specimen)
were caught in both season. The total fish specimens collected in Birr River were higher in the
dry season (333 specimen) than the wet season (204 specimen), but the total fish specimen
collected in Ayehu River were higher in dry season (85 Specimen) than the wet season (51
specimen). There was significant difference in composition and relative abundance of fish
specimens collected in season and site (P<0.05) between rivers. This study confirms that in both
212
rivers the fish species composition and relative abundances were very low in both seasons. The
present results suggested, therefore, that better management and aforestation program probably
will enrich the aquatic biodiversity and improve the productivity of the rivers.
Keywords: Physico-chemical parameters, Season, Shannon diversity Index, Rivers, and

Varicorhinus beso
INTRODUCTION
Fishes are the important elements in the economy of many nations as they have been a stable
item in the diet of many people. According to Ehrlich and Willson (1991) biodiversity is
essential for stabilization of ecosystem, protection of overall environmental quality for
understanding intrinsic worth of all species on the earth. Ethiopia is the water-tower of East
Africa and has a number of inland water bodies. The Lakes and rivers cover a total area and
length of about 7400 km2 and 7700 km, respectively (Wood and Talling, 1988).
In Ethiopia, there are nine major river basins (Abebe, 2005). The Blue Nile basin is the largest
basin in Ethiopia. Rivers of this basin drain the great central and north-west plateau. It accounts
for almost 20% of Ethiopia’s land area and 50% of its total average annual run-off (BCEOM,
1999; Getahun, 2005). These water bodies harbor more than a hundred edible fish species, and
the annual potential fish yield of the main lakes is roughly between 30,000 and 40,000 metric
tons (FAO, 1995).
Some of the families of fish identified within the Nile basin and its tributary rivers are
Mormyridae, Characidae, Cyprinidae, Bagridae, Schlibidae, Mockokidae, Clariidae and
Cichlidae (MoWR, 2010). The family Cyprinidae is the only group of fish that is more diverse in
the Blue Nile drainage system than in White Nile system (ref). Studies on species diversity and
abundance are important to obtain information on the quality and quantity of the available
habitats. However, knowledge on the fish diversity, species distribution in Ethiopian ichthio
fauna is scarce (Getahun, 2005).
Relatively a large number of small, medium and even large rivers have not been well studied
including the ones explored in this study, Birr and Ayehu River. Knowledge on diversity,
213
population structure, distribution, and population of the Ethiopia Icthyofauna has been poorly
known; relatively a large number of small, medium and even some large rivers have not been
well studied and explored (Abebe, 2005). Therefore, further study on the rivers is vital and a
time demanding task. Amhara Region has high fish production potential from major lakes, Lake
Tana, Lake Logo, Lake Ardibo and other small water bodies. Moreover, the region has also a
considerable fish potential from rivers like, River Shinfa, River Sanja and others (Dereje, 2008).
Relatively major rivers in Amhara Region were investigated for their fish diversity.
The absence of information about fish species composition and relative abundance in theserivers
triggered the necessity to conduct this study. Therefore, the studies to addressed the following
research questions: 1) What is the species composition and relative abundance of fishes in the
tributary of ‘Blue Nile River? 2) Does the fish species composition in the Study Rivers different
from Rivers and Lakes?
Study Area
Ayehu and Birr Rivers are tributaries of the Blue Nile River found in Amhara Region, Awi and
west Gojam zone respectively. The source of Ayehu River is highland of Awi zone and it crosses
Gimjabet woreda and Birr River originates from high land of Sekela Woreda and crosses
JabitehnanWoreda crosses throwBirr Shelleko district and Joins Blue Nile River which is also
one of the significant tributary River (Figure 1).
214
Figure: 1 Maps of the study area
Site Selection and Sampling
In this study, four sampling sites were selected, two from each river (Table 1). Site selection was
done by considering nature and velocity of the flowing river, interference by human beings and
other farm animals and substrate type of the sediments and accessibility. Each sampling site was
sampled attwo times in dry and in wet seasons. Gillnet
Gillnet of stretched mesh size of 6,8,10 and - 12
cm were used to sample the fish by setting the net at deeper part of the river. Monofilament with
meshes size of 20 mm was set on the rivers for one hour and half to sample small
small-sized fish
species. Then, total
al length, weight of all specimens of fish was measured to the nearest cm and
gm, respectively.. Picture of fish specimen was taken for each species.
215
Table 1: Sampling sites, estimated distance from the near district and coordinates in the rivers
Sampling Site Distances Altitude Width
Fishing site (km) (m) Habitat (m) Coordinate (GPS)
Ayehu River From Ayehu district
Site 1 5 1486 Turbid,Rocky,Sandy 200 10°26'35.4"
037° 09 ‘ 04.9”
Site 2 (Mender 15 1486 Turbid, muddy 250 10°26'20.9"
145) 037° 08 ‘ 35.9”
Birr river From Birr Shelleko district
Site 1 15 1500 Turbid, muddy 200 10° 34' 53.9"
036°43’ 43.9”
Site 2 (near 25 1580 Turbid, Rocky 200 10° 34' 41.4"
JjubaBridge) 036°43’ 48.4”
Species Diversity and Abundance
Estimation of abundance of fish was made by the contribution of the catch in each sampling site
using percentage. Shannon diversity index (H′) was used to estimate the diversity of fish.
Shannon Index of Diversity (H′)
The Shannon index of diversity (H′) is a measure of species weighed by the relative abundance
(Begon et al., 1990). Shannon index of diversity (H′) was calculated using the formula below
H' = -∑ Pi lnpi
Where, pi-the proportion of individuals in the ith species. Shannon index was used to indicate
diversity of fishes at different sampling sites or rivers.
The Relative Abundance (IRI)
Estimation of relative abundance of fish was made by the contribution of the catch in each
sampling effort. An Index of Relative Importance (IRI) was used to evaluate relative abundance
of fish. An index relative importance (IRI) is a measure of relative abundance or commonness of
the species based on number and weight of individuals in catches as well as their frequency of
occurrence (Kolding, 1989). IRI gives a better replacement of the ecologically important species
rather than the weight, number or frequency alone.
(% +% )%
= ∗
∑( ∗ )%
216
Where % Wi and % Ni are percentage weight and number of each species of total catch,
respectively. % Fj is a percentage frequency occurrence of each species in total number of
settings. % Wj and NJ are percentage weight and number of total species in total catch.
Descriptive statistics was used to analyze the mean value of the biomass, _ weight during wet
and dry seasons and also the mean, range and standard error of the species length frequency. The
significant difference of speciescomposition, diversity and relativeabundance betweenseason was
analyzed using t-test. One-way ANOVA was used to determine the significant difference of
species_composition, diversity and relative abundances between sites. SPSS version 20 and
Microsoft Excel sheet 2007 was used to analyze and manage the data.
Physical and Chemical Parameters
Physical and chemical parameters (temperature, pH, Turbidity, Dissolved Oxygen and
transparency, phosphate, nitrate, silicate, sulphate, ammonia and total hardness test) that were
taken from all sites in Ayehu and Birr Rivers were analyzed using independent t-test and the
result of the analysis showed significant difference in the physico - chemical test between the
two rivers (Table 2 A & B).
Table 2: Mean of physico-chemical parameters in Ayehu and Birr River (Temperature in °C,
Turbidity in NTU, pH in pH scale and transparency in cm)
A: Physical Parameters
Cond Sp.Cond
Site Depth(m) Temperature (C ) (Us/cm3 (Us/cm3) TDS(g/l) Sal(g/l) DO(mg/l) %DO PH
Birr 1 1.6 22.0 292.0 275.0 0.2 0.1 7.1 81.6 7.4
Birr 2 1.7 18.9 287.0 254.0 0.2 0.1 6.8 73.1 6.8
Mean 1.6 20.4 289.5 264.5 0.2 0.1 6.9 77.4 7.1
Ayehu 1 1.4 18.8 144.0 139.0 0.1 0.1 5.8 65.5 7.4
Ayehu 2 1.6 19.0 142.0 138.0 0.1 0.1 6.2 71.4 7.4
Mean 1.5 18.9 143.0 138.5 0.1 0.1 6.0 70.0 7.4
Note: Cond (us/cm3) is the conductivity in micro semen per centimeters, Sp. Cond is specific
conductivity, TDS (g/l) is the total dissolved substances in gram per liters; Sal (g/l) is the salinity
in gram/liters, DO (mg/l) is the dissolved oxygen in milligram per liters; %DO is the percentage
of dissolved oxygen
217
B: Chemical parameters
Phosphate Nitrate Nitrite Ammonia Total-hardness Alkalinity
Site (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/) (mg/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) Turbidity
Birr 1 0.7 4.0 0.0 0.1 175.0 158.0 32.0
Birr 2 0.7 2.0 0.1 0.1 75.0 90.0 390.0
Mean 0.7 3.0 0.1 0.1 125.0 124.0 211.0
Ayehu 1 0.3 4.4 0.0 0.0 65.0 52.0 64.0
Ayehu 2 0.4 4.0 0.1 0.0 70.0 47.0 61.0
Mean 0.4 4.2 0.0 0.0 67.0 49.5 62.5
The mean phosphate values of Birr River (0.7 mg/l) were higher than Ayehu River (0.4 mg/l).
There for, thefinding of the mean value of phosphate concentration in these Rivers were less than
2 mg/l and similar result were observed. The value of phosphate concentration in fresh water or
river was less than 2 mg/l which is the limit for aquatic life According toHauer and Hill (1996).
The nitrate concentration of Birr River was (3.0 mg/l) lower than Ayehu River (4.2 mg/l).The
result agrees with the nitrate concentration range from 4 to 5 mg/l it is optimal for most
organisms According to Campbell and Wildberger (1992).
Species Composition
A total of two species were identified, namely: Varicorhinus-beso and Oreochromis-niloticus

(Table 2). They are represented by 2 orders (Cypriniformes and Cichiliformes), 2 families
(Cyprinidae and Cichilidae) and 2 genera. In the studied Rivers, the family Cyprinidae followed
by Cichilidae werethe dominant family. The freshwater fish fauna of the studied Rivers contains
highlands of East African forms (V. beso and O. niloticus). O.niloticus was not found in
AyehuRiver (Table 2). The number of fish specimen was low at Ayehu River in site 1 and site 2
as compared to Birr River at both sampling site (Table 2). Thus, V. beso were collected from all
the sampling sites in both seasons (Table 2).
218
Table 3: Fish distribution among the four sampling sites during both wet and dry seasons (NB:
present, +, absent, -)
Species
River Sites Season V. beso O. niloticus
Wet + +
Birr Site 1 Dry + +
Wet + +
Birr Site 2 Dry + +
Wet + -
Ayehu Site 1 Dry + -
Wet + -
Ayehu Site 2 Dry + -
Numerical Abundance and Species Composition
All the fishes collected belong to family Cyprinidae and Cichilidae. The fish fauna of Ayehu and
Birr River was a mixture of East African highland an endemic (V.beso) and (O. niloticus)
species. A total of 537 fishe’s weighing 57.83 kg in Birr and 136 fishe’s weighing 9.04 kg in
Ayehu River were caught. The total number of fishes collected was 673 from the two Rivers
(Table 4). The total length of the fishes ranged from 6.1 cm to 34.6 cm for V.beso, 20 to 30 cm
for O. niloticus from Birr River and 16.1 cm to 31.6 cm for V.beso from Ayehu River. The
weight ranges from 16 gm to 303 gm and 44 gm to 313 grams for V. beso in Birr River and
Ayehu Rivers, respectively.
Table 4: Number and species composition of fishes

River
Birr River Ayehu River
Species Number Weight Number Weight
V. beso 480 53.03 kg 136 9.04 kg
O. niloticus 57 16.1kg 0 0
Species Diversity and Relative Abundance
Shannon diversity index (H') was used to evaluate species diversity in all sampling sites.
Shannon diversity index explains both variety and the relative abundance of fish species (Naesje
et al., 2004). V. besowas the most dominant fish species (89.39 %), followed by O.
niloticus (10.61 %) in Birr River and V. beso (100 %) in Ayehu River was the most abundant
219
species. All the two species were collected from Birr River and were common to all sites. While,
O. niloticus were collected only from Ayehu River (Table 3). The number of specimens caught
were higher in Birr River with (537 number of spacemen) and lower at Ayehu River (136
number of spacemen). The Shannon diversity index were higher (H’=0.15) at Birr and lower
(H’= 0) at Ayehu River (Table 5).
Table 5: The Shannon diversity index (H’) value of the fish specimen in the two Rivers at both
sampling sites
Spp River N Pi In Pi Pi * In Pi H'
spp 1 Birr 480 0.89 -0.05 -0.04
spp 2 Birr 57 0.11 -0.97 -0.10
Total 537 -0.15 0.15
spp 1 Ayehu 136 1 0 0
spp 2 Ayehu 0 0 0
Total 136 0 0
The value of Shannon diversity index in Birr River in sampling site were relatively higher than
the Shannon diversity index value of Ayehu river sampling site this indicate the diversity of fish
in Birr River were higher than the fish diversity in Ayehu River.From the head of Blue Nile
River Oumer et al. (2011) reported that occurrence of 17 species while (Tedlo Awoke , 2015)
observed 8 species from below the tisisat fall. It was generally accepted that the low species
diversity of fishes may be related to the flow variability which has an effect on fish assemblage
and productivity of Rivers as high flows could destroy fish habitat and wash away the already
laid fish eggs. The presence of few fish species and dominance of few families in this study area
seemed that cyprinid fishes being Riverine in origin were specifically segregated or adapted in
the Blue Nile Rivers and its tributaries. Biodiversity patterns are directly and indirectly
influenced by the geomorphology of Riverine landscapes, which may be perceived as a nested
hierarchy According to (Wardle, J.V, 1998). The numbers of fish species in this River appears to
be negatively correlated with altitude.
Relative Abundances
Index of relative importance (IRI) indicates both the relative importance and abundance of fishes
using number, weight and frequency. In Birr River, V. beso and O. niloticus were the most
220
important fish species with IRI value of 80.37% and 13.63%, respectively in wet season (Table
6). V. beso and O. niloticus were the most important fish species in Birr River during dry season
with IRI values of 81.06% and 18.96%, respectively (Table 7). V. besowere the most important
fish species in Ayehu River during wet season with IRI values of 100% (Table 6) and V. beso
also was the most important fish species in Ayehu River during dry season with IRI value of
100% were recorded (Table 7).
Table 6: Index of Relative Importance (IRI) in Birr and Ayehu Rivers during wet season
Site Fish N %N W %W F %F IRI %IRI
Birr River V. beso 187 91.67 20.66 81.08 1 50 8037.49 80.37
O. niloticus 17 8.33 4.82 18.92 1 50 1362.51 13.63
Total 204 25.48 2 10000
Ayehu River V. beso 51 100 3.4 100 1 100 20000 100
Total 51 3.4 1 20000
Sum Total 255 28.88 30000 200
Table 7: Catch composition and index of relative importance (IRI) at Birr River and Ayehu River
during dry season
Site Fish N %N W %W F %F IRI %IRI
Birr River V. beso 293 87.99 32.38 74.13 1 50 8105.90 81.06
O. niloticus 40 12.01 11.3 25.87 1 50 1894.10 18.94
Total 333 43.68 2 10000.00
Ayehu
River V. beso 85 100 5.64 100 1 100 20000.00 100
Total 85 5.64 1 20000.00
Sum Total 418 49.32 30000.00 200
There was significant difference in percentage IRI of dominant fish species, V. besoand O.
niloticusin dry and wet seasons at Birr River and V. beso in Ayehu River (ANOVA, P<0.05).
The percentage IRI of V. beso and O. niloticus were higher in dry season than wet season in Birr
Rivers but Percentage IRI of V. besowas higher in both wet season and dry season in Ayehu
River like that of Birr Rivers.
221
Length-Weight Relationship
The relationship between total length and total weight of V. beso (0.95), and O. niloticus (0.99)
urvilinear and highly b = 3.16 since the R2 varied between 0.95-0.99(
was curvilinear 0.99(Figure 1) and
positively correlated in Birr River and the relationship between total length and total weight of V.
urvilinear and highly b = 2.83 since the R2 varied
beso (0.98), was curvilinear ied between 0.92
0.92-0.98. This
indicates
ates that weight of the fishes increased
ed with increase in length and the result agree
with (Layèyè , 2006) and (Ayoade
Ayoade and Ikulala , 2007) on different fish species from various
water bodies.
Figure 1: Length- weight relationship of V. beso in Birr River. (N = 142)
weight relationship of V. beso in AyehuRiver. (N = 36)

Figure 2: Length-weight
222
Condition Factor
The mean Fulton condition factor values obtained in the present study for V.beso, in Birr and
Ayehu Rivers were 1.01, 0.01, respectively. V. beso in Birr River were in better condition than
AyehuRiver in this study area. Fulton condition factor for L.Intermedius was (1.06) reported by
(Genanaw, 2006) fromAngereb and Sanja Rivers. V.beso and L. intermedius were 1.02 and 0.9
respectively as reported by (Moges, 2007) from Ardi and Dura Rivers, respectively.
Sex Ratio of Fishes
From the total number of 673 fishes collected during the study period, 2 (0.30%) specimens were
unsexed, hence excluded from sex ratio whichstudy of 560 (83.46%) were females and 111
(16.54%) were males in the two Rivers. The male to female sex ratio of the fish in the two rivers
were 1:0.20 or (5.05:1). 518 specimens were sexed of which 428 (82.63%) were females and 90
(17.37%) were males in Birr River. The total males to female sex ratio were 1:0.20 or 4.6:1
therefore in this area female were more numerous than males and from the total 57 species of O.
niloticus14 (24.56%) male and 43 (75.44%) were females.
The total males to female sex ratio were 1:0.33. Here also Females were more numerous than
males in the total sexed specimens in Birr River. While from the total number of 136 fishes
collected during the study period of which 120 (88.24%) were females and 16 (11.76%) were
males in Ayehu River. The total males to female sex ratio in this area were 1:0.13 or 7.5F: 1M
was shown. Here also females were more numerous than males in the total sexed specimens
(Table 8).
Table 8: sex ratio of V. beso and O. niloticus in Birr River and Ayehu River
Specious Sex No Sex Ratio No Sex Ratio
Male 90 16
V. beso Female 428 120
Total 518 1:0.20 136 1:0.13
Male 14 0
O.niloticus Female 43 0
Total 57 1:0.33 0
223
CONCLUSION
The mean temperature values of Birr River were (20ºC) which was higher than Ayehu River
(18ºC) but in all case it was optima for fish growth in the area. In general, the physico - chemical
parameters of the two rivers were good for fish growth. Though, the fish species diversity was
less in Ayehu River (1 specious) than Birr River (2 specious). The total fish specimen collected
from Birr River was higher (528) than Ayehu River (136). V. Beso was the most dominant fish
species (98.48 %), followed by O. Niloticus (1.52 %) in Birr River and V. beso (100 %) in Ayehu
River were the most abundant species. In Birr River there were commercially important fish
species that can contribute for food security and nutritional quality of food to be eaten by the
local people around the River. However, there were no fishermen and no fish consumption habit
in the area. Ayehu River was one of the best belt areas for V. beso fish species in the Amhara
region. In Ayehu River especially around the bridge, there are fishermen that are using
traditional fishing gears. Sell the collected fish at Ayehu city market and use the fish for their
family consumption.
RECOMMENDATION
 Fishery development should be implemented in both River to use the fish resource
sustainably without affecting the by catch and in addition to this Community service training
should be given for local people living around the Rivers.
 Give how to catch fish with using legal fishing gears and fish preparation, consumption and
full training in all aspect should be given by Bahir Dar fishery and ARARI institution,
Livestock agency and Rural Development office.
 Finally, further study should be conducted on feeding and reproductive biology of V. beso in
the two Rivers.
REFERENCES
Abebe, Getahun. 2005. An overview of the diversity andconservation status of Ethiopian

freshwater fish fauna. In proceeding of the Pan Africa fish and fisheries society, Cotonou,
Benin, Nov. 2003.and Aquatic Conservation. Biological Conservation 83 (3): 269 - 278.
Begon, M., Harper, J.L. and Townsend, C.R. 1990. Ecology: Individuals, Populations and
Communities, 2nd ed. Black well Scientific Publications. Pp. 945.
224
Campbell, Gayla, Steve, Wildberger. 1992. Edited by NinaFisher, Marisa Feltham, and Eleanor
Ely. LaMotte Company. The Monitors Handbook. Chestertown, Maryland. 71pp.
Dereje, Tewabe. 2008. Diversity, relative abundance and biology of fishes in Gendwuha, Guang,
Shinfa and Ayima Rivers, North Gondar, Ethiopia. MSc Thesis, Addis Ababa University,
Ethiopia.
Ehrlich, P.R., Willson, E.O. 1991. Biodiversity studies.Science and Policy 253, 758-762.
Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO). 1995. Code ofconduct for responsible fisheries.
Genanaw, Tesfaye. 2006. Diversity, relative abundance andbiology of fishes in Angereb and
Sanja Rivers, Tekezebasin, Ethiopia, MSc Thesis, Addis Ababa University,Ethiopia. 89pp.
Hauer, F.R., Hill, W.R. 1996. “Temperature, light, andoxygen.” In Hauer, F.R. and Lamberti,
G.A. (Eds), Methods in Stream Ecology. Academic Press: San Diego.
Kolding, J. 1989. The fish resource of Lake Turkana and theirenvironment. Thesis. University of
Bergen, Norway 262Pp.
Lawson, O. E., Moduke, O. O. 2010. Fish diversity in three tributaries of River Ore, South West
Nigeria. World Journal of Fishery and Marine Science 2, 524-531.
Lawson, O. E., Moduke, O. O. 2010. Fish diversity in threetributaries of River Ore, South West
Nigeria. WorldJournal of Fishery and Marine Science 2, 524-531.
Leveque, C. 1997. Biodiversity dynamics and conservation: the freshwater fish of tropical
AfricaCambridge, Cambridge University Press. pp 1-438.
Mo WR. Assessment of Abay River basin master plans project and programs hydrology, Addis
Ababa, Ethiopia, 2010
Moges, Beletew. 2007. Diversity, relative abundance andbiology of fishes in some rivers, and
cestode parasites ofAfrican catfish (C. gariepinus) in some lakes of Ethiopia.
Naesje, T.F., Hay, C.J., Nickansor, N., Koekemoer, J.H., Strand, R. 2004. Fish population;
gillnet catch and gillnetselectivity in the Kwando River. Namibia. NorwegianInstitute for
Nature research Tungasletta 2, No-7485.
Tadlo A., Minwyelet .M and Abebe. G. 2015. Abundance and species compositions of fishes in
Blue Nile River, Ethiopia. IJFAS 2015, 2(6): 334-339.
Wardle, J. V. 1998. Riverine landscapes: Biodiversity patterns, Disturbance Regimes andAquatic
Conservation. Biological Conservation. 83: 269- 278.
Wood R, Talling J. Chemical and algal relationship in salinity series of Ethiopian waters.
Hydrobiology 1988; 158:29-67.
225
Assessment of Some Invasive Aquatic Weeds and Water Hyacinth Effect on Fishery and
other Aquatic Biota in Lake Tana, Amhara region, Ethiopia
Dereje Tewabe and Erkie Asmare
ABSTRACT
The study was conducted from July 2014 to December 2017 in Lake Tana to assess effects of
invasive aquatic weeds on fishery and other aquatic biota. Sampling sites were chosen from
Fogera, Libokemkem, Dembia, Bahir Dar zuria and Takusa Woredas and sampling sites were
selected purposively from each Woreda based on invasive weed infestation. Plant sample was
collected from infested areas using quadrant and different parameters were recorded using
sensitive balance and tape meter. Water samples were collected from each sampling station up to
a depth of 1 m using a bucket of known volume. Dissolved oxygen (DO), pH, specific
conductance (K25), total dissolved solids (TDS), salinity (sal) and temperature (T) were measured
in situ using YSI 556 multi-probe system. Measurements of ammonia (NH3-N), phosphate (PO4-
P), nitrate (NO3-N) and total hardness were carried out using a portable water analysis kit
(Wagtech International, Palintest transmittance display photometer 5000). Zooplankton and
phytoplankton samples were collected by 80 µm and 50 µm mesh net filtering device.
Identification and enumeration of invasive weeds and planktons was made using standard
procedures. As a result Water hyacinth, Azola, Potamogeton foliosus and water lettuce were
investigated. In the case of water hyacinth hundred four plants/m2 and 8.22±0.45 kg fresh weight
t/m2 which equals to 82.16 tons/ha fresh weight could be harvested during the dry season of a
year. But, 583 plants/m2 (27.0±0.61 kg fresh weight/m2) which equals 270 tons/ha fresh weight
could be harvested during the wet season of a year. The present assessment also noted that no
major management strategy had been employed in the infested water body areas, despite many
efforts had been applied by the community and the government.
Keywords: Control strategies, impact, integrated approach, macrophytes, nutrient load
226
INTRODUCTION
Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crasspies) is widely recognized as the world’s worst aquatic weed.
Originally exported from its native Amazonian basin because of its attractive flowers, the species
rapidly established and spread throughout tropical, subtropical and warm temperate regions of
the world (Julien et al., 1999). It was indicated that this weed forms a dense impenetrable mats
across water surface, limiting access by man, animals and machinery. Moreover, navigation and
fishing are obstructed, and hydropower, irrigation as well as drainage systems become blocked.
The weed was first introduced into Africa through Egypt sometimes between 1879 and 1882
(Friend, 1989). It has been recognized as the most damaging aquatic weed in Ethiopia since its
first presence in 1965 (Stroud, 1994; Luis et al., 2000; Rezene, 2005). It has been recognized its
presence in Lake Tana in 2011 (Dereje, 2015). Even though several efforts have been made by
different parties, its expansion increased year after year. Therefore, there is a need to study some
of its biology, impact on water quality, biota and current management options.
Objectives
 To examine some biology and biomass at different periods of a year

 To identify its impact on water quality, fishing activities and over all socio-economic
challenges in the community
 To identify current management options and ways taken by the assigned parties and check its
effectiveness and identify its drawbacks
 To identify its distribution, area coverage and direction from water hyacinth inception area
perspective
The study was conducted from July, 2014 to December, 2017 in the North-Eastern and Western
part of Lake Tana. Sampling sites were chosen from Fogera, Libokemkem, Bahir Dar Zuria,
Takusa and Dembia woreda. One water hyacinth infested and one water hyacinth free areas were
selected from North-Eastern part of each woreda to investigate the water hyacinth impact. Plant
sample was collected from infested areas using quadrant and different parameters were recorded
using sensitive balance and tape meter.
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 Dissolved Oxygen (DO), pH, specific conductance (K25), Total Dissolved Solid (TDS),
Salinity (sal) and Temperature (T) were measured in situ using YSI 556 multi-probe system
 Measurements of Ammonia (NH3-N), Phosphate (PO4-P), Nitrate (NO3-N) and Total
hardness were carried out using a portable water analysis kit (Wagtech international,
Palintest transmittance display photometer 5000). Nutrient analyses were made in the shore
area immediately after sample collection using water samples filtered through Whatman
GF/C
Plankton Sampling
Water samples were collected from each sampling station up to a depth of 1m using a bucket of
known volume. Zooplankton and phytoplankton samples were collected by 80µm and 50µm
mesh net filtering device. Collected specimens immediately fixed with 4% formalin and were
fixed using Lugol’s iodine solution respectively. Identification and enumeration of planktons was
made using standard procedures. GPS readings, structured questionnaire, focuses group
discussion, rapid rural appraisal, key informants have been used.
The data were described by descriptive statistics and one-way ANOVA using Statistical Analysis
System (SAS, 2013) and landsat.
This research investigated invasive weeds established at different intensities in Lake Tana at
different sites Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) in the eastern and northern part of the lake
as well as down streams in the blue Nile system, Azola (A. filiculoides) weed has been found
every corner of the lake except the western part but highly infested in all areas possibly
associated with water hyacinth in north east and eastern part of Lake Tana. On top of these it is
abundantly found in pocket areas around extreme southern gulf of the lake around Bahir Dar
town. Water lettuce found at fogera plain associated with A. filiculoides. The last one named
leafy pondweed (Potamogeton foliosus) found in the western part especially around Delgy area
(Figure. 1, 2).
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Figure 1: Leafy pondweed (Potamogeton foliosus)
Figure 2: Azola and Water lettuce around Fogera flood plain
During dry season sampling there was 13 batches/m2 area of water hyacinth. Within a batch there
was 8 individual plants which implies 104 plants/m2 and 8.216±0.45kg fresh weight/m2. This
equals 82,160kg/ha = 82.16 tones/ha fresh weight can be harvested during the dry season of a
229
year. In the contrary during the wet season it was found that 55 batches and 27± 0.61kg fresh
weight/m2 was recorded. In each batch there were a mean number of 10.6 plants, 583 plants/m2.
270,000 kg/ha= 270 tones/ha fresh weight can be harvested during the wet season of a year. Dry
weight of water hyacinth has been analyzed following the procedures of solar drying system. As
a result batches of water hyacinth root, leaf and petioles part has been dried and its dry weight
found to be 84.36%, 62.5%, and 92.11% respectively.
Similarly, the highest plant population count (308 plants/m2) was recorded in Koka Dam
followed by Lake Koka (298 plants/m2), Lake Ellen (274 plants/m2), Lake Elletoke (268
plants/m2), Afer Gedeb (261 plants/m2), Tare and Awash (211 and 186 plants/m2) (Firehun et al.,
2014).
Table 1: Root, leaf and petioles measurement of water hyacinth during dry and wet seasons
Period Different plant part measurements
Root Leaf Petioles Petioles
mean mean Leaf mean Leaf mean mean mean
length Root mean length width weight length weight
(cm) weight (gm) (cm) (cm) (gm) (cm) (gm)
Dry season 76±2.12 222±6.11 9.5±1.23 12.3±3.32 48.5±5.43 19.6±1.19 287.6±1.55
Wet season 58±3.21 1840±7.62* 8.7±2.33 12.1±2.23 172±4.22* 17.1±1.13 725±12.62*
P<0.05
Table 2: Physico-chemical analysis
parameter Weed Infested site Non-infested site
Mean±SD Mean±SD P value
0
Temp ( C) 25.57±3.4 24.12±1.95 0.346
PH 7.64±0.56 7.61±0.34 0.915
DO(mg/l) 5.34±0.87 5.99±0.67 0.140
S.Cond. (K25) (µs/cm3) 168.57 ±43.7 138.7±44.6 0.230
TDS(g/l) 0.109 ±0.03 0.092±0.03 0.306
Sal.(g/l) 0 .0757 ±0.022 0.064±0.022 0.356
PO4 (mg/l) 1.31±1.25 0.46±0.39 0.184
NO3(mg/l) 1.49±0.65 1.53±0.51 0.908
NO2(mg/l) 0.0066±0.005 0.0196±0.023 0.210
TH(mg/l) 92.5±21.1 91.2±43.9 0.950
SO4 (mg/l) 3.83±2.9 2.4±1.3 0.351
H2S (mg/l) 0.030±0.014 0.023±0.024 0.578
Alk.(mg/l) as Ca CO3 87.5±29.4 74.0±32.6 0.489
NH3(mg/l) 0.046±0.076 0.096±0.14 0.469
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Phytoplankton
Figure 3: Higher species diversity was observed in non-infested sites, while in the weed infested
site, higher density of the majority of identified phytoplankton taxa
Zooplanktons
Figure 4: Rotifers contributed 65% in the non-infested sites followed by copepod and cladocera,
but, in the weed infested sites copepod contributed 51% followed by Rotifer and Cladocera
Socio-Economic Impacts of Water Hyacinth
There are costs that result from the presence of water hyacinth in fresh water lakes like Lake
Tana. Costs are associated with: Preventing, managing or eradicating, and Ecological impacts of
those actions. In agreement with a study by kateregga & sterner (2009) the most direct impacts
are: Access for fishing ground and fish catch ability, navigation and recreation; and difficult to
pump water for recession agriculture (Figure 3, 4).
231
Figure 5: Thick mats and wide coverage of water hyacinth at its blooming period blocks all
access to open water of Lake Tana (October, 2017)
Impacts of Water Hyacinth on Fishing
Water hyacinth provides highly complex habitat structure by restricting the growth of other
submersed macrophytes. Modification at the surface of the water adds habitat complexity that
likely affect fish assemblage (Meerhoff et al., 2003). Cost of controlling water hyacinth
infestations is a function of: the rate of removal, cost of labour and cost of equipment and the
frequency of treatment (Figure 5).
Table 3: Water hyacinth impact on the livelihoods of the surrounding community

N Min. Max Mean Std. Dev.
Extra hour for detaching from the gear and boat 20 1 12 5 3.528
How much you incur for fishing gear damaged 16 200 5000 1721.7 1470.072
Birr you allocate for purchase animal feed 18 300 5000 1240 1223.461
How much you incur for cow medication 20 50 200 120 63.509
How many times you clean your farm land for sow Teff 20 1 5 2.7 .946
Labour required to clean "timad" of land per day 20 4 60 19 17
Water hyacinth can greatly affect fish catch rates because mats of water hyacinth in the way that
blocks access to fishing grounds, clogging and damaging eye of net, and increasing costs (effort
and materials) of fishing. Furthermore, water hyacinth tear gillnets and damage boat’s motor
which accrue to cost of fishing. Fishers invest extra time on detaching water hyacinth parts from
gillnet after catching. Fishers put gillnet in non infested area but when the wave starts the fishing
gear becomes covered by water hyacinth as a result loss of gillnet occurs that leads to additional
232
labor and fuel cost for finding their fishing gear and repair damaged gillnet. In the area of severe
infestation fishing is difficult especially around the shore area, this could strongly affect fishers
that use artisanal fishing boat. In general area infested by water hyacinth reduces efficiency of
fishing (Table 3).
Impacts of Water Hyacinth on Livestock
The shore area of Lake Tana was reach in submersing grass (including hippo grass) which feeds
lots of cattle before invasion history of the area. But now a day due to expansion of water
hyacinth, the submerging grasses becomes devastated. These affects benefit obtained from cattle
(Fig. 6). According the study, some respondents are purchasing supplementary feeds for their
livestock after the freely grazing land have been infested by water hyacinth and devastated.
Figure 6: Grazing land and shore side of a lake infested by water hyacinth
Impacts of Water Hyacinth on Crop Production
The collected water hyacinth (heap) has noticeable effect of farm management because of they
took large place and make the farmland fragile. Farmers in the study areas sow crops when the
water starts to shrink with simple adjustment of the plot. Unlike the last five years, managing the
farm lands for cropping becomes labor intensive After the water become shrunk water hyacinth
stay on the farm by penetrating its long root to the ground. Therefore, farmers clean their farm
land for planting crop by family and employed laborers. Based on the survey, 19 laborers in
average are required to clearing 0.25 hectare of land. The other challenge associated with
infestation of water hyacinth is where to put the collected water hyacinth. A farmer put the
233
collected water hyacinth as a terrace from many places and makes the plot fragile and makes the
plot difficult to manage (Figure 7). In addition, mat of water hyacinth and azolla during flooding
and wave time makes rice production frustrating by totally covering the rice. Most of the
interviewed farmers agree that water hyacinth makes the farmland more compacted by its long
root so that difficult to plough the farm land.
Figure 7: farmlands overcrowded by heap of removed waterhyacinth
Ecosystem Impacts
Invasive weed like waterhyacinth has negative impacts on ecosystem by restricting the growth of
other submersed or emergent macrophytes; loss of native habitat as a result affects diversity,
distribution and abundance of life in aquatic environments. High density of invasive weeds leads
to de-oxygenation of the water, thus affecting all aquatic organisms. On top of these it is known
that a dense cover of water hyacinth enhances evapo-transpiration The death and decay of water
hyacinth vegetation in large masses create anaerobic conditions and production of toxic gases
(Figure 8).
Figure 8: When the collected water hyacinth burned after dried
234
CONCLUSION
In addition to water hyacinth infestation in Lake Tana there are other invasive weeds which may
negatively impact the resources of the lake if and only if appropriate management practices could
not be timely applied. Due to anthropogenic impacts which induce to climate change, water
bodies worldwide are susceptible to worsen phenomenon like invaded by invasive weeds. As a
result continues monitoring and taking possible appropriate measures are mandatory. Water
hyacinth which was ca. 80-100 ha in 2011, eventually, it spread into eastern part of the lake and
reaches ca. 50,000 ha. The impact of water hyacinth on water quality was not significant at this
moment. The present assessment also noted that no major management strategy had been
employed in the infested water body areas, despite many efforts had been applied by the
community and the government. Eichhornia crassipes remains a major lake Tana ecosystem
problem, especially in fisheries, irrigation, transportation, hydropower and ecotourism sectors.
RECOMMENDATIONS
 Multidisciplinary research should be carried out on:
◦ Their effects on the aquatic systems
◦ Potential benefits to both humans and other organisms;
◦ Relationship with submersed vegetation, cattle health and farm productivity
 Invasive weeds control strategies should take into account to reduce potential effects on the
flora and fauna found in Lake Tana.
 Manual control method which currently applied should be revised based on the biological
nature of each invasive weed.
 Integrated approach has to be implemented such as manual, mechanical, chemical and

biological methods through scientific procedures
 There is need for improvement of land use management in the catchment and along the rivers
so as to reduce silt and nutrient loads
235
REFERENCES
Firehun, Y., Struik, P. C., Lantinga, E. A. and Taye, T. 2014. Water Hyacinth in the Rift Valley
Water Bodies of Ethiopia: Its Distribution,Socioeconomic Importance and Management.
International Journal of Current Agricultural Research Vol. 3, No. 5, PP.067-075
Julien MH, MW Griffiths and AD Wright. 1999. Biological control of water hyacinth. The
weevils Neochetina bruchi and N. eichhorniae: biologies, host ranges, and rearing, releasing
and monitoring techniques for biological control of Eichhornia crassipes. ACIAR
Monograph No. 60,87pp.
Rezene, F. 2005. Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes): A review of its weed status in Ethiopia.
Arem, 6: 105-111.
Stroud, A. 1994. Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes [Mart.] Solms) in Ethiopia. In: Rezene,
F.,(Ed.), Proc. 9th Ann. Conf. EWSC 9-10 April 1991, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, Addis
Ababa, pp.7-16.
Tewabe D. 2015. Preliminary Survey of Water Hyacinth in Lake Tana, Ethiopia. Glob J Allergy
1(1): 103.
236
Survey and Enhancement of Small Water Bodies for Culture Based Fishery Development
in Amhara Regional State
Tizazu Yitayew, DerejeTewabe and Birhan Mohammed
ABSTRACT
A survey was conducted to assess potential water bodies for culture based fishery in Amhara
region from April 2016 to April 2018. Primary and secondary data were collected from districts,
zones and the region. Information related to water quality, topography, elevation, location,
existing fish stock and surface area of water bodies with considerable size was recorded. The
opportunities and challenges of natural and manmade water bodies were identified. The fish
production potential of identified water bodies with and without culture based fishery was
estimated. During the survey, more than 40 small water bodies with a surface area between 0.5ha
and 1750ha were identified, which covers a total surface area of 3824 ha. The estimated fish
production potential of those water bodies was 238 ton per year, and 2,841 t/y with culture based
fishery.Four fish species Oreochromis niloticus, Labeobarbus species, Clarias gariepinus and
Varicorhinus beso were identified as indigenous fish from some of those water bodies. Then,
stocking has been done with priority criteria of surface area, water quality and demand. A total of
191,000 Oreochromis niloticus, carp spp. and Clarias gariepinus were stocked to selected water
bodies for fishery development. Although these water bodies have high fish production potential
and stocking is started, challenges are still imminent. The design and construction of spill ways
in dams were found to be the main challenges in fishery development. Poor catchment
development and non-existent buffer zone were the other problems which needs attention. The
other challenges for fishery development were problem in fish utilization and market linkage,
lack of inputs and lack of concepts to integrate with other field crops. So, all stakeholders have to
work on the challenges, and in magnifying the opportunities for culture based fishery
development in the region which has a potential to create jobs, fulfill nutritional needs and boost
the local economy.
Keywords: Small water bodies, enhancement, potential, fish production and challenges
237
INTRODUCTION
In recent years, irrigation and power generation have been the main focus of development
activities in Ethiopia. These have resulted in the emergence of a number of small water bodies
with primary objectives of power generation, irrigation and other activities (e.g., for domestic
uses). Though the water bodies so created by constructing dams and reservoirs offer tremendous
potential for fish production, integration of the fishery with those activities is lacking.
Meanwhile animal protein is often in short supply and therefore lacking in the diet of the
population. Fish is a superior source of nutrients, which are vital to growth and good health.
Although fish provide high amounts of quality protein, vitamins, essential minerals and
polyunsaturated fats and would assist in the government’s effort towards attaining food security
and improving the health status of the society, only 30% (29,000 MT) of this potential was
realized by the year 2013, the year of highest fish catch ever in Ethiopia (Breuil and Girma,
2014). It is also becoming apparent that the fish demand in the country is far higher than the
available fish in the market. With the upper mentioned production and an estimated population
size of100 million, the overall per capita fish consumption of the country is about 290g/year,
which is very low compared to 9.9 kg/year average consumption rate of Africa (FAO, 2018).
Therefore, there is a need to increase fish production and utilization in the country. In order to
increase production and utilization, available water resources have to be exploited through
sustainable utilization of capture fishery, culture based fishery and aquaculture.
Culture Based Fisheries is a stock and recapture strategy, where the stocked fish feed and grow
on naturally produced food resources which have extra advantage over traditional forms of
aquaculture in that it is less resource intensive; these the practices fall within the realm of
aquaculture (FAO, 1994; De Silva, 2003). Natural and manmade small water bodies are
important resources for fish production. In small water bodies, culture-based fisheries (CBF)
have been very effective in the case of China (De Silva, 2001). In Ethiopia particularly in
Amhara region, irrigation systems using stored or diverted water have increased exponentially
during the past 10 years, but fish production within these irrigation systems has not expanded
equally. Yet fisheries are beginning to be recognized as an important use of reservoir water
resources. Indeed, fishery aspects did not and still hardly command a consideration during the
planning of reservoir impoundment. In the light of increasing human population growth,
238
reservoirs are becoming increasingly important in the current millennium as an important

provider of animal protein and employment opportunities, particularly to poorer sectors of the
community, which also often happened to be rural (De Silva, 2001; Lorenzen et al., 2001; FAO,
2015).
However, utilization of small water body resources for fish production is in its infancy in spite of
the fact that environmental and socio-economic conditions favor its development in the region.
The practice that is implemented in most developing countries is stocking the available small
water bodies with the appropriate fish species and thereby integrating fish farming with
agriculture to increase the overall production of the farm. This approach seems appropriate and
practical in Amhara region. Hence this study was conducted to identify potential small water
bodies which naturally exists or made for water storing purpose, and to stock with appropriate
fish species and thereby enhance fish production.
Objectives
• To identify potential small water bodies and micro-dams for culture-based fisheries
development
• To investigate some morphometric, biological and physico-chemical features of small water
bodies and micro-dams
• To estimate fish production potentials of small water bodies and micro-dams
• To identified potential water bodies with appropriate fish species and aquatic plants
Study Area
This study was conducted in Amhara regional state which is one of the large regional states of
Ethiopia which covers an estimated area of 170,752 square kilometers. The region has altitude
ranges from 500 m a.s.l to 4620 m a.s.l (Ras Dashen Mountain), the highest peak in the country,
and has average annual rainfall amount ranges from 600 mm to 1600 mm meanwhile the annual
mean temperature for most parts of the region lies between 15°C-21°C. The state receives the
highest percentage (80%) of the total rainfall in the country hence the region is endowed with a
239
variety of water bodies (FDRE, n.d.). The state of Amhara has three main river basins, namely
the Abbay (Blue Nile), Tekeze and Awash drainage basins. The Blue Nile (Abbay) River is the
largest of all and which contributes about 40% of the total surface runoff in the country (Eshetu,
2018). In addition, Anghereb, Millie, Kessem and Jema are among the major rivers, which are
found in this region. Lake Tana, the largest lake in Ethiopia is located at center of the region
which covers an area of 3,041 km2 (Poppe, 2013). Besides, the region has other crater lakes like
Hayq, Hardibo, and Zengena, and number of dams constructed for electricity, irrigation and
other purposes at different range of elevations.
Survey
Survey of potential small water bodies was conducted throughout the region from April, 2016 to
April, 2018. Basic information needed in this assessment was collected from Bureau of
agriculture, Bureau of water and irrigation, and respective lower administrative structures.
Desktop review and Google earth pro were used to gather further information on location and
area of water bodies. Natural and manmade small water bodies with a size between 0.5ha and
1000ha (with an exception of Koga reservoir which is 1750ha) were included in this study. Due
to resource and time limitation, water bodies were visited at least once to collect information.
Data related to biological and physico-chemical characteristics of small water bodies was
recorded. Physico-chemical characteristics such as Dissolved Oxygen (DO), pH, specific
conductance (K25), Total Dissolved Solid (TDS), Salinity (sal) and Temperature (T) were
measured in situ using YSI 556 multi-probe system. The altitude of water bodies was recorded
with geographic positioning system GPS GARMIN version with a minimum accuracy +7 m.
Fish stock of water resources were investigated by setting gillnets with mesh size 8, 10, 12 and
14cm each stretching to 100m panel length for 12hrs overnight. One gillnet with 100m length
composed of 8, 10, 12 and 14cm mesh size was used for very small sized water bodies. Fish
species identification, sex, total length and total weight were collected at data collection sites of
each water bodies. Very close observations were made for fry and fingerlings to assess the
establishment of stocked water bodies.
240
Information related to fish consumption culture of communities in the vicinities of small water
bodies were gathered by opening conversation with the local people (informal interview).
Furthermore, observations were made to identify problems related to spill way fish blocking
structures, fish ladder, aquatic plants, catchment handling and related characteristics of water
resources.
Estimation of Potential Fish Yield
Cruel’s model was used to estimate fish production potential of small water bodies without
culture based fishery interventions.
Yield (tons/year) = 8.32*A0.92 (A is surface area in km2)
Asian countries have very good experience in culture based fishery. So that the highest possible
culture based fishery potential was calculated following experience and reports from China
where culture-based fisheries have been very effective with a production of 743 kg/ha/yr (De
Silva, 2001):
Yield = 743*A (743kg/ha/y)
Enhancement Approach
Selected small water bodies were enhanced through stocking and habitat modification. Stocking
has been done with priority criteria of surface area, water quality and demand. The stocked fish
species were selected based on agro-ecology, proximity to Lake Tana, fish availability and water
quality. The water bodies were stocked assuming at a rate of 800-1,000 fingerlings/ha mainly
with Nile tilapia (some water bodies with common carp and African catfish). The habits were
modified with aquatic plants to create breeding grounds and wetland forages as buffer zone and
dairy feed.
Data Analysis
Descriptive statistics was done with SPSS version 20. ArcGIS 10.1 was used for spatial analysis
(surface area) and to create map of small water bodies.
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More than 40 natural and manmade small water bodies which cover an estimated surface area of
3824 ha were identified in Amhara regional state. The identified water bodies are presented in
Table 1 and figure 1, which shows distribution of both natural and manmade small water bodies.
Naturally existing water bodies were less than 20% of identified resources. The others were built
mainly for irrigation purpose with different size and capacity. The number and size will still
grow since there are dams, reservoirs and diversions under design and construction for irrigation
function. Almost 23% of those identified water bodies which accounts for 6% of total area lie on
highlands of the region, above 2500 ma.s.l. These water bodies are relatively in colder area of the
region which may suit for fish adapted to cold areas like carp and trout. Fortunately, more than
95% of surveyed water bodies were found to be suitable for fish production. Only Bahiregiorgis
and Gomit were not in a condition to support fish production and reproduction due different
reasons. Bahiregiorgis was abandoned from fishery because of siltation and water quality issues
while Gomit aborted fishery with siltation and spillway fish blocking problems. Overall, small
water bodies were found unexploited resources for fishery production.
From visited water bodies 35% had fish stock and only 12.5% were being utilized to some
extent. A few of these water resources like Ribb dam, Koga dam and Kuritbahire had indigenous
fish species. Labeobarbus spp, African catfish (Clarias gariepinus), Nile tilapia (Oreochromis
niloticus), Beso (Varicorhinus beso) and rarely Garraspp were the common indigenous fish
species. Natural water bodies Lake Maybar, Golbo, Tirba and Zengena were stocked at different
times before this work. Since fish stock was found poorly established at Tirba and Zengena, they
were stocked again to enhance fishery resource, and promote its establishment and production
capacity. Meanwhile the stocked fish in South Wollo lakes Maybar and Golbo were established
well. Fish resource of Lake Golbo was being utilized but fish resource in Maybar was
unexploited due lack of awareness and skill in utilization as explained by local community and
experts.
Table 2 shows physicochemical characteristics of small water bodies. This physico-chemical

data was collected inconsistently in season and time of a day, some recorded once and others
twice or more due to resource and time limitations. Physicochemical quality of all except
242
Bahiregiorgis were in recommended levels for fish production. Bahiregiorgis was very turbid
with high suspended particles which maybe a reason for abortion of existing fish stock. The
water color was brown (figure 1.) and its turbidity was 410NTU. High turbidity of water bodies
may decrease fish production by reducing light penetration into the water and thus oxygen
production by water plants (Carballo et al., 2008). This high turbidity also may affect the
function of gills by clogging and visual ability by decreasing light penetration. Besides this, the
water body had very high phosphate 0.97 mg/l which might be due to agricultural inputs coming
from poorly handled catchment farm lands.
At Melkaqerbe and Legemera cold temperature, 14 and 16.8 0C were recorded, respectively,
which were too cold to support growth and reproduction of Nile tilapia. These can be stocked
with cold water fish species.
Figure 1.Surface area and spatial distribution of small water bodies in Amhara regional state
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Table 1: List of small water bodies with their surface area and fish presence (present + and absent -)
Water body Coordinates Elevation (masl) Surface area (ha) Fish District Zone
Lake Zengena 10°54ʹ50ʹʹ N 036°58ʹ0.01ʹʹ E 2515 54 + Banja Awi
Lake Tirba 10°49ʹ39.2ʹʹ N 036°50ʹ41.0ʹʹE 2206 54 + Ankesha
Abrajit dam 10°37'39.89" N 38°11' 46.90" E 2450 30 + Enarjenawuga East
Shinburit dam 10°22ʹ42.0ʹʹ N 037°24ʹ08.8ʹʹE 2125 48 + D/Elias Gojjam
Gemborie 11°09'60.00" N 38°00' 0.00" E 2300 30 - Gonchasiso
Bahiregiorgis 10°58ʹ15.5 N 38°09ʹ14.5E 2601 112 - Enesie
Lay &TachBahir 10°57'33.51" N 38°1'29.98" E 3274 & 3150 14 - Mertolemariam
Yenechpond 10°28ʹ14.9ʹʹ N 037°34ʹ14.8ʹʹE 2433 0.75 + Machakel
GirarBahir Dar 10° 22' 6.57" N 37°47'25.32" E 2426 30 - Gozamen
Ribb dam 12°1ʹ51.6" N 38°0ʹ28.8"E 1873 1000 + Farta/Ebinat South
Selamiko dam 11° 52ʹ37.9''N 038°2ʹ6''E 2513 11.6 + Farta Gondar
Gomitreservoir 10°33ʹ47.9ʹʹ N 03801ʹ22.01ʹʹ E 2419 21.5 - Estie
Mitsili dam 11° 46' 60ʹʹN 37°34' 0ʹʹE 1890 5 - Dera
Koga dam 11°23′32.74″N 37°10′29″E 2017 1750 + Mecha West
Geray dam 10°39'56"N 37°17'14"E 1813 15 + FinoteSelam Gojjam
Lake Gudera 10°53'38.76"N 37°14'2.76"E 2362 125 + Sekela
Kuritbahir 11°11′24.41″N 37° 4′ 39.9″E 2105 10 + Mecha
Legemera 10° 45'0" N, 38°46' 0" E 2450 7 - Borena South
Lake Maybar 10°59'4"N 39°39'16"E 2470 30 + Albuko wollo
Lake golbo 11°25'39.13" N 39°36'1.64" E 1786 10 + Ambasel
Chimit&Tebi dams 11° 12'15.09"N 39°6' 25.21"E 2800 10 - Mekedela
Wassie 08 dam 11° 12'15.09"N 39°6' 25.21"E 2800 5 - Mekedela
Anjeb dam 10°49ʹ24.1ʹʹN 038°5ʹ54.6ʹʹE 2536 12 + Tenta
Borshe reservoir 11° 48'13.3" N 39° 47' 32.64" E 1459 25 + Habru North
Hara wetland 11° 50' 54.86" N, 39° 46'8.9" E 1466 35 - Habru wollo
Mylomi& others 12°50'29.6"N 38°59'33.6"E 2000 25 - Sekota Waghimera
Kersa 11°13ʹ0.41"N 40°0′57.22"E 1686 19 - Bati South
Bira reservoir 11°15'42.77"N 40°3'5.85"E 1383 10 - Bati Wollo
Chacha dam 9° 35'2.37"N 39°23'5.09"E 2744 10 - Angolela&Tera N. shewa
Zubier 029, Wosi 08, 06, 012 11° 30′ N, 38° 45′ E 2268 3 - Mekedela S. wollo
Gedeb diversion 10°23ʹ35.02ʹʹN 037°24ʹ8.39ʹʹE 2017 10 - Machakel East gojjam
Melkaqerbe 11°19′N 39°15′E 2870 2.5 - Tenta S. wollo
Others 1500-3000 300 Amhara R.
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Table 2: Some water quality parameters recorded from selected water bodies of Amhara region.
Water body Temperature pH Dissolved Total dissolved Conductivity Salinity PO4 NO3 Turbidity
(oC) oxygen (mg/l) Solids(g/l) (µS/cm) (g/l) (mg/l) (mg/l) (NTU)
Zengena 20 7.48 6.55 0.03 44 0.02 0.44 0.44 8
Tirba 21.7 8.20 6.65 0.075 109 0.05 0.22 0.75 5
Rib 21.1 8.22 6.76 0.073 113 0.05 0.22 1.25 -
Shimburit 22.3 7.29 6.03 0.067 142 0.07 0.51 0.88 11
Selamiko 22.6 7.5 6.99 0.092 141 0.07 - - 35.7
Yenech 18 8.51 8.48 0.025 39 0.02 - - -
Anjeb 23.3 7.59 6.96 0.113 104 0.08 0.54 1.36 72
Bahiregiorgis 20.6 7.57 7.47 0.034 53 0.02 0.97 2.42 410
Legemera 16.8 7.10 9.41 - 200 0.09 - - -
Gedeb 23.3 7.06 5.9 0.092 142 0.07 0.16 1.06 38
Gomit 21.6 8.28 7.03 0.15 230 0.11 0.41 2.51 104
Abrajit 19.6 8.27 8.05 0.118 182 0.09 - - -
Borshe 25.2 9.0 5.2 0.156 239 0.11 - - -
Melkaqerbe 14 7.1 9.4
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Enhancement of newly constructed dams was important since they lack appropriate fishes for
standing water, fish breeding grounds and buffer zones. The existing fish species of Ribb dam
and Koga dam were riverine fishes blocked and assembled from their own river system. These
fish species were adapted to lotic water ecologies for their reproduction and growth, so that they
might be inefficient to fill the newly created lentic ecology. These water resources demand
introduction of fish species which have faster growth and better adaptation for impoundments
(Marmulla, 2001). So that Koga and Ribb were stocked with 20,000 and 3500 Nile tilapia,
respectively, to enhance existing fish stock.
Table 3 shows the stocking of fish to different water bodies in the region. More than 190,000 fish
was stocked to increase fish production of the region by exploiting water resources lacking fish
or having limited fish stock. Shinburit, Selamiko, Borshehara, Abrajit, Yenech, and other water
resources were recently introduced with selected fish species. Selamiko was stocked with only
Nile tilapia and it has already well-established for sustainable utilization. Meanwhile Abrajit and
Yenech were stocked with Carp and Nile tilapia which is being utilized. Recently, Borshehara
was introduced with Nile tilapia, African catfish and Garra spp. which expected to be successful
due the warm temperature of the area.
Stocking of water bodies was based on their agro ecology, proximity to Lake Tana, and water
quality. The selected fish species for stocking were Nile tilapia, common carp, Labeobarbus and
African catfish. Nile tilapia was stocked in all selected water bodies since it is relatively easy to
adapt, grow and reproduce in all parts of the region except in very cold areas like chacha dam
where only Carp was introduced. Likewise, colder areas were mainly introduced with cold water
adapting Carp species. This species was excluded in Lake Tana watershed since the lake is
considered as living laboratory for ongoing evolution of Labeobarbusspp, as introduction of any
exotic species like Carp which may disturb the existing ecology is forbidden.
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Figure 2: Lake Bahire-giorgis water was brown colored due to poor watershed management
where fishing abandoned (gonchasisoenesieworeda)
Table 3: Number and fish species stocked in some of small water bodies in the region
Waterbody Existing Fish Stockedfish spp. #stocked fish
L Zengena Tilapia, Carp Tilapia and carp (Enhanced) 10,000
L Tirba Tilapia, Carp Tilapia and carp (Enhanced) 35,000
Abrajit No Tilapia, carp (Introduced) 10,000
Labeo&tilapia (Enhanced)
Ribb Labeobarbus, Catfish, Tilapia More tilapia required 5,000
Shinburit No Tilapia,catfish &carp (Introduced) 25,000
Selamiko No Tilapia (Introduced) 25,000
Borshe No Tilapia& catfish (Introduced) 13,500
Yenech No Tilapia and carp (Introduced) 3,500
Chacha No Carp (Introduced) 4,000
Labeoburbus, A. Catfish, Beso,
Koga Tilapia Tilapia 20,000
Others Tilapia, carp and A. catfish 40,000
Fish stock establishment and status was monitored in small water bodies and presented in table
4.With the available data, mean weight of tilapia at Selamiko, Tirba and Abrajit were 321, 326,
and 307 gm, respectively. Nile tilapia introduced in Selamiko dam has established very well, and
fish with a weight of 953gm was found. These shows that fishery resources of small water bodies
can be exploited with appropriate fishery management.
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Table 4: Established fish species of some stocked water bodies in Amhara regional state
Sex
Water Sampling Fish ratio Total Length in Total Weight in
body Fish spp day catch F:M cm (mean+SD) gm(mean+SD)
Selamiko O. niloticus 3 15 1.14:1 180.6 + 126.8 321.1+ 255.0
Tirba O. niloticus 2 8 1:1 28.9+38.2 336.7+124.0
C. gariepinus 2 4 49.3+1.42 983.8+37.3
G. dembecha 1 1 F 9.4 10.7
V. beso 2 1 M
Ribb Dam L. intermedius 2 57 1.6:1 22.7+2.7 119.4+50.8
L. nedgia 2 100 1.9:1 29.0+ 7.0 294.2+ 303.7
V. beso 2 3 F 24.4+3.5 167.8+81.8
C. gariepinus 2 4 1:1 54.1+5.8 1180.5+455.7
O. niloticus +
Zengena O. niloticus +
C. caracius 1 3 33.7+8.2 405+267.5
Maybar C. carpio 1 +
O. niloticus 1 +
Golbo O. niloticus 1 +
C. gariepinus 1 +
Koga L. nedgia 1 10 2:1 26.7+2.9 312.3+133.7
L. intermedius 1 19 1.7:1 26.3+4.7 280.4+178.2
C. gariepinus 1 17 1:1.5 47.5+105.2 996.6+544.4
L. brevicephalus 1 1 M 15.0 49
Kuritbahir C. gariepinus +
Abrajit O. niloticus 1 18 26.6+2.5 307.1+97.9
Tilapia zillii 1 5 26.0+0.8 284.0+16.9
C. carassius 1 13 29.1+2.2 334.2+85.7
+sign is for presence of fish but lacking data
Estimation of Fishery Potential
Fish production potential of the small water bodies was estimated to be 238 tons per year. This
fish production would be a huge addition of animal protein to improve local communities’
nutrition. The productivity of these water bodies can be maximized through culture based
fishery. The predicted potential of these water resources under culture based fishery was
2,841tons per year. These culture based fishery application to those water resources may increase
their estimated productivity by 11 fold. Culture-based fisheries have been very effective in small
water bodies, particularly in the case of china, with a production of 1,165,075 Mt from a total
area of 1,567,971ha (De Silva, 2001). It is estimated that this activity yields on average 743
kg/ha/yr. This is possible with knowledge, appropriate management and sufficient fingerling
provision. Phuc and Sollows (2001) reported that with good monitoring and annual stocking, fish
yields can range 350–700 kg/ha in reservoirs of 10–300 ha. The yields can reach 1000 kg/ha in
248
Vietnam reservoirs of less than 10 ha. Similarly, large reservoirs in India (where reservoirs
classified based on size) are estimated to have an annual production potential of 65–190 kg/ha,
medium-sized reservoirs 145–215 kg/ha and small reservoirs 285–545 kg/ha based on
hydrochemical factors and primary productivity (Sugunan, 1995). Asian countries have a good
experience in culture based fishery, but this practice is not yet properly started in Africa. This
successful utilization of small water bodies for fish production depends on incorporation of fry
and fingerling production facilities in most reservoirs, stocking uniform-sized fingerlings,
generally exceeding 12.5 cm, species ratio at stocking maintained to enable efficient utilization
of food niches, prevention and/or minimization of escape from the reservoir through the
incorporation of barrier nets and efficient harvesting (De Silva, 2001; Lorenzen K. et al., 2001;
FAO, 2015).
Problems Identified and Mitigated In Small Water Bodies’ Fishery
Poorly developed ecology of newly constructed water bodies, poor catchment management,
construction of dam spillways without considering fishery, lack of hatcheries for fingerling
distribution, lack of skill and knowledge on fish resource utilization and lack of input (like seed
source by species, gears, boat and refrigeration) were main problems in small water bodies.
Different interventions were made to mitigate these problems and presented here below.
Habitat Enhancement: The catchments of majority of manmade water bodies were poorly
managed, characterized with bare grazing lands, connected with farmlands without buffer zones
and without aquatic plants. This may cause siltation and habitat loss which results in loss of fish
production capacity as happened at Lake Bahiregiorgisand Gomit reservoirs. Habitat
modification is started at Selamiko and Shimburit dams with papyrus,typha spp. And other
aquatic plants to create buffer zones, breeding and nursery habitat for fish as pictured in figure 3.
More than 25,000 splits of Elephant grass and vetiver grass splits were planted along the shore
lines. This plantation can buffer silt and pollutants entering to the system. Such effort needs to
continue as habitat modification is one of the techniques of enhancement of water resources to
improve the fish production and productivity (Lorenzen et al, 2001).
Spill ways: All dams found in the region had no fish friendly spill way or fish ladder constructed.
Due its lack of consideration of fishery production, the spillways let go any fish coming through
249
over flows and outlets. This hinders establishment and growth of introduced fish in dams. This
passage through spillways may be a direct cause of injury or mortality, or an indirect cause. The
mortality rate varies greatly from one location to another which may reach at 37% mortality
which was reported in some places (Marmulla, 2001). A workshop was conducted to create
awareness among decision makers and stakeholders, to set solutions for dams which are already
constructed, and to consider fishery for dams which are under construction and design phase.
Higher regional officials from regional state president office, agricultural and livestock bureau,
water resources, design agencies, Amhara agricultural research institute and other decision
makers were involved to set solutions. So fish block were made for some water bodies like
selamiko and shinburit dams, and it was effective to protect fish from escaping and loss though
damages.
Fish management and utilization: Fish eating culture is still limited only in certain areas where
fish resources had been available for a longer time. These areas are vicinities of lakes like Lake
Tana andHayq, and rivers like Abay, Tekeze and Milie. The communities in other large part of
the regionhad no fish eating experience and even some places do not know what fish is. So, those
communities living near to recently constructed dams and stocked water bodies had lack of
knowledge, skill and inputs for fishing, processing, cooking and marketing of fish. We started to
give training to fill these gaps, and about 250 trainees were beneficiaries. The training was given
to communities in Lake Tirba, Lake Zengena, Selamiko, Abrajit and Shinburit. Fishery
management training was also given to the experts and administrators of these water bodies. In
addition, we provided fishing, processing and handling materials to fishery cooperatives
organized at Lake Tirba, Selamiko and Shinburit.
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Amhara region have high surface water resources from small water bodies which can be used for
capture based fishery to increase fish production and productivity. These untapped water
resource needs to be exploited with a strategic introduction, enhancement and utilization. The
water bodies can produce 238 tons of fish per year which can be maximized to 2841 tons/year
through culture based fishery. Furthermore, fish production potential of those water bodies needs
to be estimated separately based on their specific productivity measurements. During the survey,
only a few were stocked with fish or naturally fish exists which indicates the importance of
250
stocking. Introduction and enhancement of these water bodies with fish and aquatic plants is
started and need to continue strongly. Developing of hatchery sites is mandatory to introduce and
enhance these small water bodies and utilize the resource at its optimum potential. Meanwhile
the catchment of most water bodies was poorly managed, and the design and construction of
reservoirs lack consideration of fishery production, so impounding fishery development need to
be incorporated in reservoir study, design and construction. Stakeholders have to work on the
challenges and magnifying the opportunities for fishery development in the region which has a
huge potential to create jobs, fulfill nutritional needs and boost local economy.
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De Silva, S.S.,ed. 2001. Reservoir and culture-based fisheries: biology and management.
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2000. ACIAR Proceedings No. 98. 384pp.
De Silva, S. 2003. Culture-based fisheries: an underutilized opportunity in aquaculture
development. Aquaculture 221.pp 221-243.
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Ethiopia with Special Emphasis on the Kesem Dam in the Awash River Basin and Grand
Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD) on the Abbay River in respect of Irrigation &
Hydropower Development in Ethiopia. Addis Abeba, Ethiopia.
FAO. 1994. Aquaculture production 1986-1992. FAO Fisheries Circular.Vol.815, Revision 6,
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Office for Asia and the Pacific. Bangkok. RAP Publication 2015/11.142 pp.
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C.J., Hartmann, W.D., Kapetsky, J.M., Laleye, P., Moreau, J., Sugunan, V.V. & Swar, D.B.
2001. Strategic review of enhancements and culture-based fisheries. In: R.P. Subasinghe, P.,
P. Bueno, M.J. Phillips, C. Hough, & S.E. McGladdery. (eds). Aquaculture in the Third
Millennium. Technical Proceedings of the Conference on Aquaculture in the Third
Millennium, Bangkok, Thailand, 20-25 February 2000. pp221-237.
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Marmulla, G. 2001. Dams, fish and fisheries. Opportunities, challenges and conflict
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252
Magnitude and Causes of Cattle Morbidity and Mortality under On-Station Setup at
Andassa Livestock Research Center
Lissanework Mola, Yeshwas Ferede, Mehari Ayalew and Zelalem Asmare
ABSTRACT
A longitudinal observational study on cattle morbidity and mortality in Andassa Livestock

Research Center was conducted from June 2015 to March 2018 with the aim to determine the
magnitude and causes of cattle morbidity and mortality. Four years of data collected from
clinically examined cattle was analyzed for the effects of year, season, age and breed. All cattle,
which were sick and/or died during the study period, were enrolled for the study. The overall
magnitude of morbidity and mortality was 16.73% and 2.83% respectively. Mortality of calves
growers and adult were 7.5%, 3.58% and 1.9%, respectively. Mortality was more in Fogera x
Holsten Friesian crossbred cattle (9.15%) than in Fogera breed (1.93%) which is statistically
significant. Higher mortality of cattle was observed in November 14.5%, March 14.5% and the
lowest mortality was observed in morbidity grower (32.06%) followed by adult (15.42%) and
calf (12.96%). Higher morbidity of cattle was observed in August (18%), and the lowest
morbidity was observed in April (3.3%). Mastitis was more prominent having highest morbidity
16.94% followed by managemental health problems 14.59%, systemic infection 11.53%,
gastrointestinal parasite 8.24%, bloat 8%, Injury 8%, infectious kerato conjunctivitis 6.12%,
diarrhea 4.47% and external parasite 3.76%. The current clinically identified causes of morbidity
have short-term and long-term detrimental effects on dairy production by suppressing growth
rate of the calves and replacement capacity of the herd. This study has indicated that cattle
morbidity is a matter of serious concern in rearing Fogera and Fogera x Holsten Frisian cattle
under current management and therefore suggests an existing clinically identified cattle diseases
should be confirmed laboratoricaly to optimize cattle disease control and prevention options,
frequently diseased cattle should be screen out and examined in detail for productivity and health
status especially during calf weaning, rainy and spring seasons.
Keywords: Cattle, Morbidity, Mortality, Risk Factors
253
INTRODUCTION
Amhara National Regional State has about 15.9 million cattle population (CSA, 2016). However,
its economic benefits remain marginal due to poor genetic potential, feed shortage, poor
husbandry practices, low technological support and livestock disease. Livestock diseases
contribute to an important set of problems within livestock production systems towards
achievement of poverty reduction goals based on improved livestock technologies. These include
animal welfare, productivity losses, poor feed utilization, impaired future performance, uncertain
food security, loss of income and negative impacts on human health. Cattle morbidity and
mortality are the problems of major concern in all countries (Chaudhary et al., 2013).
Studies have been conducted on different cattle diseases at Andassa Livestock Research Center
by Yeneneh et al. (2012) reported prevalence of cattle fluke infection (60.42%). Similarly,
(Hossain et al., 2014) reported the neonatal mortality rate is 3.6 % and preweaning mortality rate
6.5 %, incidence of Foot and Mouth diseases mortality on Fogera cattle were 2.22% and 2.50%
cross respectively. Morbidity and mortality patterns in research center serve as a useful indicator
for assessing the status of herd health and management programs and their efficiency. A rise in
the morbidity and mortality among a group of cattle can indicate sub-optimal health care and
welfare (Bangar et al., 2013). The important factors of cattle mortality and morbidity include
disease and poor management conditions.
Currently a total of 616 cattle are kept at Andassa Livestock Research Center for the purpose of
conservation and improvement of local indigenous Fogera cattle. However, there is no enough
information about cattle morbidity and mortality for the last 54 years, despite high level of
antimicrobial and anthelmintic drug usage. In this regard, studying on the magnitude of cattle
morbidity and mortality under on-station setup is fundamental part for successful cattle breeding
program. Thus, the present study was aimed to address the following objectives.
 To determine the magnitude of cattle morbidity and mortality in Andassa Livestock Research
Center
 To identify and quantify risk factors associated with cattle morbidity and mortality
254
Study Area
The study was conducted at Andassa Livestock Research Center from June 2015 to March 2018,
which is located 600 km northwest of the capital, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. It is far from 22 km
south of Bahir Dar on the way to Tis Abay. The center is situated 11029' N latitude and 37029' E
longitude at an altitude of 1780 meter above sea level. The annual temperature and rainfall in the
study area were about 9-34 OC and 900-1500 mm, respectively (CSA, 2016). The wet season
lasts from April to September whereas the dry season extends from October to March.
Study Population
The study population includes all age groups and breeds of cattle managed by Andassa Livestock
Research Center. Cattle were conventionally grouped in to three age groups, calf (0-8-month),
grower (8-19-month) and adult (> 19 month) and regularly monitored the health status of herd
during the whole study period. Cross breed cattle are fed concentrate and cultivated forage and
partially kept in door during night; however, indigenous Fogera cattle are kept with minimum
inputs mostly free grazing and hay feeding during dry season.
Study Design
A longitudinal study design was conducted to collect morbidity and mortality data. The diagnosis
of the disease was made on the basis of clinical signs manifested and history from the herd
attendant. Diseased cattle with the clinical signs of any abnormality were isolated, recorded,
clinically examined for presence of disease and followed separately until they recovered or died.
Sampling and Data Collection
All cattle that show clinical disease and disorder were selected purposively to examine clinically
on the bases of clinical history and the major clinical signs. Data were collected based on the
farm records of all cattle morbidity and mortality over a period of 4 years (2015 to 2018).
Information on the date of birth, sex and breed, date of death and causes of death were collected
from the research center at the individual animal level. Data on the causes of morbidity and
mortality were obtained from the reports routinely prepared by the veterinarians in the animal
255
health research case team. Season, type and frequency of vaccination, deworming spraying and
diseased animal history were recorded.
Disease Intervention
Disease control and prevention measures such as deworming, vaccination and spraying were
applied. Observational assessment of cattle disease, management, herd health monitoring and
treating of sick animal was conducted by veterinarian.
Data Analysis
The morbidity and mortality data were entered in to excel 2016 and analyzed using SPSS version
22 for descriptive statistics to estimate morbidity and mortality magnitude. Chi-square (χ2) test
was used to measure the association between morbidity and mortality magnitude. A significance
level (P<0.05) and confidence level (95%) was set to determine morbidity and mortality
magnitude of statistically significant difference between the given parameters. Formulae used to
calculate morbidity and mortality were:
Number of diseased animals in a given age group

Morbidity = x100
Total population in a given age group
Number of died animals in a given age group

Mortality = x100
Total population in a given age group
Mortality and Morbidity
The overall cattle morbidity and mortality during the follow up period was 16.73 and 2.83%
respectively. This finding is incongruent with Swai et al. ( 2010) who reported overall mortality
(8.5%) in Tagna and (14.2%) Iringna and Islam et al. (2015) who reported the incidence of
morbidity (56.17%) and mortality (6.9%).This incongruent might be due to management and
agro-ecological difference between the study area. There is statistical significance difference
(P<0.05) between breed. Among the two breed Fogera X Holstein-Friesian showed highest
morbidity (50.85%) flowed by Fogera (11.69%). This might be due to cross breeds sensitive to
hardship environment and common dairy farm disease Among the three age groups growers
256
(29.54%) showed highest morbidity flowed by adult (13.74%) and calves (12.4%), which is
incongruent with (Sarker et al., 2014) in calf (17.16%), grower (2.27%) and adult (73.93%) and
(Tadesse et al., 2017) over all calf mortality (4.68%). There is statistical significance difference
(P<0.05) between age groups. This might be due to growers were not provided proper feeding
management during the weaning period that can cause weaning shock.
In calve overall morbidity and mortality reported in this study were 12.96 % and 7.5 %,
respectively which was incomparable with previous reports (Asmare & Kiros, 2016) who
reported crude calf morbidity was 66.7 % and mortality 20 % Similarly, (Wudu et al., 2008)
reported in crude calf morbidity (62.5%) and crude calf mortality (22%). The difference in calf
morbidity and crude mortality rates might be resulted from calf management difference.
257
Table 1: Overall cattle mortality and morbidity across year, age and breed during the study period
Morbidity Mortality
Age Age
Category Calf Grower Adult Total Calf Grower Adult Total
Year N % N % N % N % % % % %
2015 178 24 (13.48) 104 59(56.73) * 214 23 (10.75) 491 106 (21.58) 20 (11.24) 10 (9.62) 8 (3.74) 38 (7.74) *
2016 205 45 (21.95) 136 53 (38.97) 226 61 (26.99) 562 159 (28.29) 4 (1.95) 2 (1.47) 3 (1.33) 9 (1.60)
2017 218 30 (13.76) 135 26 (19.26) 264 48 (18.18) 611 104 (17.02) 5 (2.29) 3 (2.22) 3 (1.14) 11 (1.80)
2018 263 7 (2.66) 99 2 (2.02) 242 5 (2.07) 616 14 (2.27) 5 (1.90) 3 (3.03) 0 (0) 8 (1.2)
Breed
Fogera 729 49 (6.72) 405 106 (26.2) * 833 75(9.00) 1967 230 (11.69) 13 (1.71) 12(2.96) 13(1.56) 38 (1.93)
F x HF 135 55 (42.96) 69 34 (53.62) 91 52 (60.44) * 295 150(50.85) * 21(15.56) * 5 (7.25) 1 (1.10) 27(9.15) *
Overall 864 104(12.4) 474 140(29.54) 924 127(13.74) 2262 380(16.80) 33(3.81) 17(3.58) 14(1.52) 65(2.87)
258
The present study revealed that the magnitude of cattle morbidity and mortality was higher in
August 18%, September 10.2%, June 9.8% and November 14.5%, March 14.5%, August 11.6%
respectively (Figure 1).
18
14.5 14.5
10.2 9.8 11.6

8.4 8.9 9.1
6.9 10.1 7.5
6.2 7.2
7.2 4.9 5.8
5.8 5.8 5.8 5.8 3.3 2.9 5.8
Morbidity Mortality
Figure 1: Cattle morbidity and mortality on monthly basis in Andassa Livestock Research Center
Identified Cattle Disease
Among clinically examined cattle disease mastitis was more prominent having highest morbidity
16.94% Which is comparable with the previous proportional prevalence of mastitis (78.02%),
report by Sarker et al. (2014) followed by feed shortage 14.59%, systemic infection11.53%,
gastrointestinal parasite 8.24%, bloat 8%, Injury 8%, infectious keratoconjunctivitis 6.12%,
diarrhea 4.47% and external parasite 3.76% was the most important cause of calf morbidity in
the study area. Among clinically examined cattle disease, the prevalence of mastitis was highest
(16.94%)
This study showed that dairy production system was significantly affected by mastitis,
managemental problems, systemic infections, GIT parasites and mechanical injuries. This could
be associated with milking system, house hygiene, grazing practice in study areas (Table 2).
259
Table 2: Tentatively identified cattle disease in the study areas across age in Andassa Livestock
Research Center
Age
Type of Disease Calf % Grower % Adult % Total %
Omphalitis 7(6.31) 0 (0) 0 (0) 7 (1.65)
Gastrointestinal Parasite 9 (8.11) 16 (10.46) 10 (6.21) 35 (8.24)
Diarrhea 13 (11.71) 1 (0.65) 5 (3.11) 19 (4.47)
Bloat 7 (6.31) 14 (9.15) 13 (8.07) 34 (8)
Mastitis 0 (0) 0 (0) 72 (44.72) 72 (16.94) *
Feed Shortage 9 (8.11) 37 (24.18) 16 (9.94) 62 (14.59)
Paraphimosis 0 (0) 1 (0.65) 0 (0) 1 (0.24)
Infectious keratoconjunctivitis 3 (2.70) 16 (10.46) 7 (4.35) 26 (6.12)
Injury 9 (8.11) 13 (8.50) 12 (7.45) 34 (8)
Systemic infection 12 (10.81) 26 (16.99) 11 (6.83) 49 (11.53)
Calf scour 3 (2.70) 0 (0) 0 (0) 3 (0.71)
Dystocia 0 (0) 0 (0) 1 (0.62) 1 (0.24)
Heart Water 8 (7.21) 3 (1.96) 0 (0) 11 (2.59)
Actinomycosis 5 (4.50) 4 (2.61) 2 (1.24) 11 (2.59)
Coccidiosis 11 (9.91) 0 (0) 0 (0) 11 (2.59)
Tumor 0 (0) 4 (2.61) 1 (0.62) 5 (1.18)
Pneumonia 2 (1.80) 0 (0) 0 (0) 2 (0.47)
External Parasite 7 (6.31) 9 (5.88) 0 (0) 16 (3.76)
Retained Placenta 0 (0) 0 (0) 5 (3.11) 5 (1.18)
Dermatophytosis 0 (0) 3 (1.96) 0 (0) 3 (0.71)
Glossitis 5 (4.50) 3 (1.96) 4 (2.48) 12 (2.82)
Abortion 0 (0) 0 (0) 1 (0.62) 1 (0.24)
LSD 1(0.90) 1 (0.65) 1 (0.62) 3 (0.71)
Black Leg 0(0) 2 (1.31) 0 (0) 2 (0.47)
* = Significant (P<0.05)
260
Morbidity Frequency
The frequency of unhealthy state of an individual animal was described as flows (Figure 2)
84.59
10.44
0.78
3.13 1.04
One x Two x Three x Four x > Five x
Figure 2: Morbidity frequency for individual cattle in Andassa Livestock Research Center
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The present study provided insight in to the magnitude of morbidity and mortality in cattle at
Research Center. The overall magnitude of cattle morbidity and mortality due to disease and
disorders was found to be relatively high 16.73 and 2.83% respectively in the examined area and
can have short-term and long-term
term detrimental effects on dairy production by suppressing growth
rate of the calves and replacement capacity of the herd. The major identified factors limiting the
health status of cattle in the study area were mastitis 16.9% followed by systemic infection 11%,
physical damage 10%, bloat 8.8% and gastrointestinal parasite 6.8%. The current finding showed
that dairy production system was significantly affected
affected by mastitis, management problems,
systemic infections, gastrointestinal parasites
parasites and mechanical injuries. This could be associated
with milking system, house hygiene, grazing practice in study areas. Adult Holsten Friesian
cattle showed that higher morbidity 60.44% followed 56.18% Grower fogera breeds and higher
mortality was recorded
ded on Holsten Friesian calves 15.56% followed by grower 7.25%.
7.25%.Therefore,
based on the above facts the following recommendations are forwarded. The existing clinically
identified cattle diseases should be laboratorial confirmed to optimize cattle disease ccontrol and
prevention options. Frequently diseased cattle should be screen out and examined in detail for
productivity and health status. Special attention should be given for grower during weaning time.
261
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We would like to thank Gedamu Endalamawu from Andassa Livestock Research Center for
invaluable assistances during data collection and treatment of diseased animals
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morbidity and mortality rate in cattle in village areas of Pune division in the Maharashtra
state. Veterinary World, 6(8), 512. https://doi.org/10.5455/vetworld.2013.512-515
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and Mortality at CIG Dairy Farms of Muktagacha Upazila in Mymensingh District.
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Major Causes and Risk Factors Associated with Calf Mortality in Small Scale Dairy Farms
in Gondar Town, Ethiopia. 8.
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262
Investigation on Major Health Problems of Small Ruminants in Selected Districts of

Waghemira zone, Amhara Regional State, Ethiopia
Adane Bahiru and Ayalew Assefa

ABSTRACT
Though small ruminants are crucial for the nutrition and economy of the country poor animal
nutrition, inadequate feed supplies and poor health facilities stands as the most important
constraint for small ruminant production in Ethiopia. Major animal health constraints and
efficient livestock husbandry practices are yet to be identified in this study area. To this end, a
longitudinal study on major diseases of small ruminants was conducted in Waghemira zone of
Amhara region, Northern Ethiopia was conducted with the objectives of identifying major small
ruminant hailments in the study area, quantifying the four-year incidence risk of various disease
conditions of small ruminants and designing possible cost-effective control strategies of the
diseases with high incidence. The study was conducted from April 2014 to December2017 in
selected villages of Abergelle and Ziquala districts. Sick sheep and goats in the study areas were
recorded by categorizing in age, sex and species of the animal by a community animal health
assistant stationed in the study area. Accordingly, a total of 1525 clinical cases categorized in to
18 diseases of sheep and goats were recorded. Mange mite (24.6%), PPR (24.3%), diarrhea
(18.9% and abortion (6.7%) were the most commonly occurring diseases. The highest risks of
occurrence of cases were recorded in Sazba (Abergelle district) were significantly higher than
Bilaqu (Ziquala) (2 = 393.9, P-value = 0.0001). The highest peaks of clinical disease occurrence
were observed during October, May and September. Ewe/doe, weaned female and female kid
were among the most susceptible age groups. The highest numbers of death were associated with
digestive disorders (diarrhea) and respiratory distress (PPR). The study provides a true picture of
the disease spectrum of the target population, which is used for rational planning of disease
prevention and control program. It is now clear that the production system has many complicated
health problems. Further monitoring studies will be better to be done on the way to have
information of the recurrence ability of the disease.
Keywords: Ethiopia, goat, sheep, Abergelle, Ziquala, longitudinal study
263
INTRODUCTION
Small ruminants are very important in the economy and nutrition, and has the potential for using
it as a tool for poverty reduction in developing countries(Rola-rubzen & Bent, 2001). They are
generally considered as a key asset for rural livelihoods with advantages over other large
livestock. They also have greater tolerance to less favorable conditions, suffering less mortality
during periods of drought than large ruminants. In addition, subsistence farmers prefer sheep and
goats as the risk of losing large ruminants is often very high (Sölkner et al., 1998). Sheep and
goats have many advantages over large ruminants for most smallholder farmers, including: lower
feed costs, quicker turnover, easy management and appropriate size at slaughter (Kosgey et al.,
2004). They also have greater tolerance to less favorable conditions, suffering less mortality
during periods of drought than large ruminants (Seleka, ,2001).
The sheep and goats population of Ethiopia, including expert estimates of the pastoral areas, is
66 million head of which some 35 million are sheep and 25 millions of goat (Negassa et al.,
2011). They provide 46% of national meat consumption and 58% of the value of hide and skin
production (Duguma et al., 2012). Though small ruminants are crucial for the nutrition and
economy of the country poor animal nutrition, inadequate feed supplies and poor health facilities
stands as the most important constraint for small ruminant production in Ethiopia. Of the various
factors contributing to suboptimal productivity of small ruminants, disease conditions appear to
cause substantial economic losses (Akhtar & Khan, 1995).
Sheep and goat health is also considered as the major challenge for goat production in the study
area(Legese et al., 2014). However, the available data on diseases of small ruminants are
fragmented and do not represent the whole spectrum of health problems of small ruminants in
many areas of the country as well as the study area. Despite realization of the need for valid
estimates of the incidence of health problems in small ruminants in Ethiopia cross-sectional or
longitudinal field investigation has been conducted very well. Knowledge of disease can be
gained from either surveys or specifically-designed follow-up studies, depending on the purpose
for which data are needed. Such data must be available to enable improvements in the health and
productivity of animal populations world-wide. To this end, a pilot study was initiated in a dry
land area of Waghemira zone, where the rearing of small ruminants is an integral component of
264
the agricultural economy with the objectives of investigating and establishing the relative
importance of the incidence of various health problems as perceived by farmers and veterinary
stock assistants under field conditions. In addition, the study has specific objectives determining
the magnitude and occurrence of major diseases of small ruminants occurring in the study area.
Study Area
The study was conducted at selected districts of Wag Hemira zone (Abergelle and Ziquala) in
northern Ethiopia, Amhara Regional State. The average temperature in the area is 34oC with an
annual rainfall ranging from 200-300 mm. The altitude of the study area ranges from 1470-
1600m above sea level and the districts have various topographic features. The study sites were
selected purposively as the areas are targeted for goat improvement program through selection.
There are no adequate veterinary services in case of drug availability, only some broad-spectrum
drugs were administered.
Study Animals
All sheep and goats found in the two villages of goat improvement program were our study
subjects. These flocks were a sample of convenience, as the owners expressed a willingness to
co-operate in the study. Clinical cases were recorded by categorizing in age, sex and species of
the animal. The study populations were vaccinated against anthrax, goat pox, and pesti des
petites ruminants (PPR) once a year while ovine pasterollosis was given twice a year based on
the epidemiological pattern of those diseases. Animals were sprayed for prevention and control
of ectoparasites with acaricide like Diazinon 60% and given anthelminthics such as Albendazole
bolus for internal parasites regularly for treatment and prophylaxis measures. The data were
recorded between April 2014 and December2017 by an animal health assistant stationed in the
study area.
Study Design
Longitudinal study design was employed to determine the frequency of major diseases occurred
in the village. Data were collected from clinical cases of a total of 1525 sheep and goats and it
265
includes: age, sex, month and year of disease occurrence, tentative diagnosis and response to
treatment. The diagnosis was based on history and physical examination. The recorde
recorded data
consisted of all health-related
related events occurring after the initiation of the study.
Data Analysis
The data gathered was coded and exported to SPSS version 25 computer program. Descriptive
statistics such as proportion was used to summarize the analyzed
analy data. The chi-square
square test at 5%
confidence level was applied to test the existence of association and to see level of significance
between observed health problems and associated risk factors respectively.
Eighteen different smalll ruminant diseases and symptoms were identified during the study
period. Among them mange mite (24.6%),
( PPR (24.3%),
%), diarrhea (18.9% and abortion ((6.7%)
takes the highest incidence during the study period (fig. 1).Natnael
1). et al.,., (2013)
(2013)reported that
mange mite (36.99%), abortion (15.32%), diarrhea (13.01%) and pneumonia (9.25%) which is in
line with the current research findings.
Figure 1: Major diseases of Abergelle goat and sheep from 2014 to 2017
266
Disease Distribution across Location (District)
Among the study districts, the risks of occurrence of disease cases was significantly higher in
Abergelle district than Ziquala District (2 = 393.9, P-value = 0.0001). This difference in the
number of cases across the study sites might be associated with the number of study animals
followed which was in fact higher in Abergele.
Table 1: Disease distribution across location

Sazba (Abergele) Bilaqu (Ziquala)
Diseases cases No of cases No of cases Total no of cases
Diarrhea 155 133 288
Mange mite 343 32 375
Shoat pox 138 47 185
PPR 116 254 370
TRP - 1 1
Anthrax 23 27 50
Coenuruses 3 16 19
ORF 4 - 4
Abortion 74 28 102
Actinobacillosis - 1 1
Paralysis - 2 2
Pasteurellosis 2 19 21
Wound 1 5 6
Black leg 17 43 60
Mastitis 14 26 40
Retained placenta 1 - 1
Total 891 634 1525
2 = 393.9 P-value = 0.0001
Disease Distribution by Species of the Animal
There was statistically significant variation (P- 0.0001, 2= 154.070) in the number of cases
recorded among the species. A significantly higher number of cases were recorded in goats than
sheep. This difference in the number of cases can be due to the population number of goats in the
study districts was much higher than sheep. This variation may lead to recording a much higher
disease in goats than sheep.
267
Table 2: Disease distribution by species of animals

Species 2 P-value
Name of disease Goat Sheep Total 154.070 0.0001
Diarrhea 243 45 288
Mange mite 340 35 375
Shoat pox 179 6 185
PPR 305 65 370
TRP 1 - 1
Anthrax 26 24 50
Cenurosis 10 9 19
ORF 4 - 4
Abortion 88 14 102
Actinobacillosis 1 - 1
Paralysis - 2 2
Pasteurollosis 20 1 21
Wound 0 6 6
Black leg 54 6 60
Mastitis 40 - 40
Retained placenta 1 - 1
Diarrhea 1312 213 1525
Disease Distribution across Study Years
Significantly higher number of disease cases were recorded in 2016 (792/1525) whereas the list
number of cases were observed in 2014 (74/1525). This variation can be attributed to a long
drought season in 2016 capable of favoring the predisposing factors for the occurrence of
disease.
Monthly Distribution of Diseases Cases
Most of the cases recorded in October (12.85%) followed by May and September (11.21%) and
11.15%, respectively and the lowest peaks of clinical diseases were observed during the months
of December (6.36%), January (6.1%) and February (5.77%) and there was a significant
difference in distribution of disease occurrence among months of the year (2 = 1210.5, P-value
= 0.0001).Most of the digestive disorders tended to occur during periods when there was a
scarcity of green fodder and shortage of available grazing during May and April, and the risk of
reproductive disorders were high during February and March where there is high shortage of
feed. Similarly, risk of occurrence of respiratory disorders (PPR) was greater during September
268
to October. Seasonal occurrence of these health problems due to such factors has been reported
in small ruminants in Pakistan (Egenolf
( P. 1990).
). 39.22% of cases of abortion were seen in
March. This might be associated with environmental and nutritional stress during the dearth
months of February and March.
Table 3: Disease distribution across study years

Year 2 P-value
Name of disease 2014 2015 2016 2017 Total 584.113 0.0001
Diarrhea 3 15 172 98 288
Mange mite 32 48 184 111 375
Shoat pox 3 48 - 134 185
PPR 4 60 254 52 370
TRP - 1 - - 1
Anthrax 4 2 17 27 50
Cenurosis 2 7 4 6 19
ORF 3 1 - - 4
Abortion 15 9 78 - 102
Actinobacillosis 0 1 - - 1
Paralysis 1 1 - - 2
Pasteurollosis 2 7 2 10 21
Wound 2 2 2 - 6
Black leg 1 - 58 1 60
Mastitis 2 9 20 9 40
Retained placenta - - 1 - 1
Diarrhea 74 211 792 448 1525
Figure 2: Frequency of cases across months of study years
269
Disease Distribution across Age Groups
Ewe/doe, weaned female and female kid were the most vulnerable age groups while castrated
male and adult male were less susceptible (2 – 309.68, P-value - 0.0001). PPR had the greatest
risk in sheep and goat population especially for yearlings. In adult goat and sheep, the highest
four-year risk of occurrence was observed for mange mite, diarrhea, abortion, pox and PPR.
Table 4: Disease distribution across age groups of animals

Age category
Name of disease Kid(<3 month) Weaning – 1year >1year Total
Diarrhea 101 67 120 288
Mange mite 74 131 170 375
Shoat pox 35 64 86 185
PPR 157 136 77 370
TRP 1 - - 1
Anthrax 2 15 33 50
Cenurosis 3 7 9 19
ORF - 1 3 4
Abortion - 2 100 102
Actinobacillosis - 1 - 1
Paralysis - 1 1 2
Pasteurollosis 3 8 10 21
Wound 1 3 2 6
Black leg 13 21 26 60
Mastitis - 2 38 40
Retained placenta - - 1 1
Total 390 459 676 1525
2 = 309.68 P-value = 0.0001
Recovery Rate of Diseased Animals
Among disease cases recorded, anthrax and coenuruses were fatal than other cases. However, the
highest numbers of deaths were associated with digestive disorders (diarrhea) and respiratory
distress (PPR). Thus, diarrhea and PPR appear to be the most important causes of mortality in
both sheep and goats, inflicting heavy economic losses. Recovery rate of animals with
coenuruses and anthrax is very low (these diseases have high fatality rate), it is obviously due to
the acuteness of anthrax and the absence of curative drug treatment for coenuruses.
270
Table 4: Recovery rate animals from diseases

State of the animal
Name of the disease Recovered Died Still diseased Total
Diarrhea 258 30 - 288
Mange mite 369 2 4 375
Pox 181 4 - 185
PPR 297 73 - 370
TRP - 1 - 1
Anthrax 14 36 - 50
Cenurosis 2 13 4 19
ORF 4 - - 4
Abortion 92 10 - 102
Actinobacillosis - - 1 1
Paralysis - 1 1 2
Pasteurollosis 19 2 - 21
Wound 2 2 2 6
Black leg 58 2 - 60
Mastitis 39 - 1 40
Retained placenta 1 - - 1
Total 1336 176 13 1525
2 = 705.242 P-value = 0.000
CONCLUSIONS
The study comes up with the result of 18 different diseases of sheep and goats in four years
follow up. It provides a true picture of the disease spectrum of the target population. It can be a
basis for rational planning of disease prevention and control strategies in the area. Mange mites,
PPR, diarrhea, pox and abortion were the most repeatedly observed health problems. Diarrhea
and PPR appear to be the most important causes of mortality in both sheep and goats, inflicting
heavy economic losses. PPR was highest risk of occurrence in September to October. October,
May and September months of the year were with the highest risk of occurrence of diseases.
Female sheep and goat were more prone to disease than male. Doe and ewe were the highest
susceptible age groups of sheep and goat. So, it is timely action to plan further longitudinal
epidemiological studies with parasitological, virology and microbiological isolation attempts, to
define more precisely the role of various infectious agents. In addition, vaccination against PPR
has to be done in late august and early September and should cover the whole population to
reduce its impact.
271
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Participatory Profiling of Major Cattle Disease and Seroepidemiological Investigation of

Contagious Bovine Pleuropneumonia (CBPP) and Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) in
Lalibela, Sekota and Ziquala Districts of Amhara Region, Northern Ethiopia
Adane Bahiru and Ayalew Assefa

ABSTRACT
Ethiopia is known for its huge livestock resource that stands number one in Africa and 10th in the
world. However, constraints like highly prevalent diseases, inadequate nutrition, and lack of
support services hindered the sectors potential to be exploited fully. These constraints are worse
in districts of Lalibela, Sekota and Ziquala where this specific study was carried out. Despite the
availability of scanty animal health services in these areas, information on animal health
especially cattle were never a significant focus of research. The study was conducted from July
2016 to January 2018 with the objectives of identifying and prioritizing major cattle disease with
the aid participatory epidemiology tools and estimating the Seroprevalence of these diseases.
Questionnaire and focus group discussion were used to give priority to the top five economically
important cattle diseases of the selected districts. Accordingly, the result of FGD indicated that
Ectoparasites, CBPP, FMD, Blackleg, and Pasteurellosis were the top diseases affecting cattle
production in the area. Following the completion of participatory approaches, CBPP, and FMD
were selected to be investigated serologically. A total of 383 randomly selected cattle from the
three districts were included for the Sero-epidemiological investigation. The overall
seroprevalence of CBPP with c-ELISA test was 25.3%. The highest CBPP prevalence (40.63%)
was observed in sekota district while the lowest prevalence (17.19%) was recorded in Ziquala
district (with a P- value of 0.001, OR= 2.7, and 95% CI of 1.53 - 4.7). On the other hand, the
prevalence of FMD with 3abc ELISA test was found 3.4% with no significant association with
risk factors like districts, age, sex, and body condition score. The study indicated that the level of
occurrence of CBPP needs the attention of responsible bodies to reduce its economic impact on
the poor livelihood of the area. Planning of appropriate prevention and control strategies are
required to reduce its occurrence to an acceptable level set by OIE.
Keywords: Cattle, CBPP, FMD, Lalibela, Participatory Epidemiology, Sekota, Ziquala
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INTRODUCTION
Ethiopia is well known for its huge livestock population that stands number one in Africa and
10th in the world. This huge resource is estimated to be 59.5million cattle, about 30.5million
sheep and 30.2 million goats (CSA, 2016). The livestock sector plays a great role in the countries
total GDP as a source of economy and plays a key role for the livelihood of the population as a
source of meat, milk, drought power, and income. However, constraints like inadequate nutrition,
disease, lack of support services hindered the sectors potential to be exploited fully (Yigizaw et
al., 2017).
According to the CSA 2010, Waghemira zone has a total of 339,747 cattle, 172,680 sheep,
429,240 goat population and 47,970 bee hives. Even though there is ample amount of livestock
resource in the area, livestock diseases and the prevailing drought mostly remain the significant
constraints limiting livestock production. High animal mortalities and impaired productivity
contribute to poverty and increase their vulnerability, and the disease prevalence is high due to
environmental factors like high temperature and weak animal health services.
In areas like these study districts where animal health facilities and professionals are lacking,
Participatory Epidemiology (PE) plays a significant role in profiling important health constraints
of livestock. The expanding use of PE demonstrated the flexibility of participatory methods and
the relevance of the methods in resource-poor settings. After many years of decline in
government veterinary services in developing countries, PE seemed to play an important role in
helping researchers and government epidemiologists to re-connect with livestock keepers and
gain a better understanding of diseases from a local perspective. What is far less evident is the
extent to which these activities led to improved disease control, with related benefits for people.
Other than the successes of the global rinderpest eradication campaign where PE contributed to
programs in East Africa and Pakistan, and some CAHW programs, there are few examples in the
literature where research or surveillance using PE resulted in more successful disease control
(Catley et al., 2012).
Despite the use of some scant veterinary services, information on animal health especially cattle
were never a significant focus of research in this area. However, knowing the type and extent of
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the common and major health problems of cattle in the area is very important for veterinarians,
researchers and other responsible governmental and non-governmental bodies. These kinds of
health information can assist in the development of herd health strategies and the selections of
possible interventions. By having this understanding, we designed participatory profiling of
livestock disease of the selected districts. The participatory prioritization of cattle disease was
supported by laboratory investigations to validate findings. The study has the objective of
prioritizing economically important disease of cattle using Participatory Epidemiology tools and
investigating the seroprevalence of the selected diseases in the selected districts.
The study was carried out in three selected districts (Ziquala, Sekota, and Lalibela) of Amhara
region, Northern Ethiopia. Study sites were selected based on in agroecological difference to
represent lowland, and highlands. Ziquala district is found in Waghemira zone of Amhara region,
and agro-ecologically characterized as hot warm sub-moist lowland located at an average altitude
of 1450 masl. Lalibela district, on the other hand, is found in North Wollo zone of Amhara
region located in latitude coordinates of 12° 01' 60" North and longitude coordinate of 39° 01'
60" East. The average elevation of the district ranges from 1600 to 4200masl. Sekota district is
also found in Waghemira administrative zone of Amhara region located between 12° 23' and 130
16' north longitudes and 38° 44' and 39° 21' east latitudes.The district represents from hot to
warm sub-moist agro ecology having an altitude of 1800–2200masl (Assefa & Bahiru, 2018).
Study Design, Sampling Strategy, and Sample Size Determination
A cross-sectional study was conducted from June 2016 to December 2018in a total of 7 sites
(villages) from 3 districts. Study sites were selected by stratified sampling approach. Strata were
made based on the agro-ecological difference of the administrative zone. Households from each
district selected randomly for the focus group discussion. Study animals were also selected by
simple random sampling technique. The study animals include all cattle populations with no
history of vaccination for the two selected diseases. The sample size was determined by
(Thrusfield, 2007) as follows;
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1.962 ∗ (1 − )
= 2
d
Where n, is the required total sample size, pexp is the expected prevalence of the diseases, and d,
stands for the desired absolute precision of 5%. Because there was no prior information
regarding the prevalence being estimated, a more conservative expectation of 50% prevalence
and 95% confidence interval, with the desired accuracy level of 5% precision, 384 animals was
randomly sampled.
Focus Group Discussion (FGD)
Participatory Epidemiology (PE) method was used in each study districts to get prior information
about important cattle disease of the study area. A total of 10-15 participants were selected from
each district based on their livestock production status and knowledge of important livestock
diseases. Participant groups included elders, youth, men and women to represent all gender
groups by introducing PE tools like interviews, ranking, and scoring methods. During FGDs,
participants discussed the importance of different livestock species and allocated 100 counters
across the species mentioned to indicate their relative importance. In the second part, the
participants listed five crucial cattle diseases that affect their herds and described the clinical
signs of these diseases and they were requested to distribute 100 counters to indicate the relative
importance of these diseases. Participants were also asked to list the main season of disease
occurrence in their locality and conduct proportional piling of the ‘importance counters’ of each
disease across the identified seasons. In addition, participants conducted proportional piling of
the ‘importance counters’ of each disease across age and sex categories of animals to assess
which groups of animals are affected by a disease. The last part of the FGD focused on disease
transmission. Participants were asked to explain and list up to five possible disease transmission
pathways for the top two diseases. Proportional piling was done by using 20 counters per
transmission pathway/situation to find out who (men, women, young men, young women,
children) is mainly involved in specific transmission situations. Triangulation questionnaire was
collected from local veterinarians about diseases of the study area. In addition, secondary data
from district and peasant association casebooks were utilized to give priority for economically
important and highly prevalent cattle disease of the area.
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Questionnaire Survey
A semi-structured questionnaire was administered to a total of 31 randomly selected household

heads from all the three districts. Questionnaires were developed with the main focus on cattle
health constraints, husbandry practices, feed, and feeding systems.
Important Cattle Disease Prioritization
The information generated with Focus group discussion (FGD), and interviews were used to
prioritize disease of the study districts. Accordingly, participants selected the top 5 important
cattle disease in their area. Hence, we further push to investigate these diseases serologically in
the laboratory to validate information generated by participatory epidemiology tools. Due to
logistic and budget issues, we selected only two important disease of the area to be investigated
in the laboratory. Blood samples were collected and sera were extracted and transported to
National Veterinary Institute of Ethiopia based at Debrezeit. Procedures for the serological
investigation are briefly described in the next sessions.
Blood Sample Collection Procedure
Approximately 8ml of blood sample were collected aseptically from the jugular vein using
vacutainer tubes. The samples were kept under the shade in a slant position for twenty-four hours
and transferred to cryovials, labeled with a code and held at -200C until tested. Corresponding to
each sample code, age, breed, body condition, site and sex of every animal’s information were
collected and registered on a separate casebook. A total of 383 serum samples were collected
from the study areas and were submitted to National veterinary institute (NVI), Debrezeit and
sera were examined for the presence of specific antibodies against Mycoplasma mycoides
subspecies mycoides small colony type and foot and mouth disease (FMD) virus by using
competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (c-ELISA) and 3abc ELISA respectively
following the recommendations of (Assembly, 2009).
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Serological Test Procedures
Competitive Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay
Competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (cELISA) was used based on a monoclonal

anti-MmmSC antibody named Mab 177/5. Microplates were coated with MmmSC purified
lysate. Samples to be tested were premixed with the specific monoclonal antibody Mab117/5 in a
separate plate (“preplate”) and content of the preplate is transferred in to the coated microplate.
Any MmmSC specific antibodies present in the sample will form an immune complex with
MmmSC antigen coated on the microplate competing with Mab117/5 for the specific epitope.
After washing away unbounded material, an anti-mouse antibody enzyme conjugate was added.
In presence of immune complex between MmmSC antigen and antibodies from the sample,
Mab117/5 cannot bind to its specific epitope and the conjugate is blocked from binding to
Mab117/5. Conversely in the absence of MmmSC antibodies in the test sample, MAb117/5 can
bind to its specific epitope and the conjugate is free to bind to MAb 117/5. Unbound conjugate
was washed away and enzyme substrate Tetra methyl Benzedrine (TMB) was added. In
presence of enzyme, the substrate is oxidized and develops a blue color becoming yellow after
adding stop solution. Subsequent color development is inversely proportional to the amount of
anti-MmmSC antibodies in the test sample. The underside of plate was wiped and optical density
(OD) of individual reactions was measured at 450 nm using a plate reader. The percentage
inhibition (PI) value for each sample was calculated by the following formula;
= ((OD Mab − OD test serum)/ (OD Mab − OD conjugate)) x 100%
where OD Mab is optical density for the monoclonal anti-body; OD test serum is optical density
for the test serum; OD conjugate is optical density for the conjugate.Interpretation of result is
based on samples with percentage of inhibition less than or equal to 40%are considered as
negative for the presence of MmmSC antibodies. Samples with the percentage of inhibition
greater than 40% and less than 50% are considered doubtful, whereas samples with percentage of
inhibition greater than or equal to 50% are considered positive for presence of MmmSC
antibodies (Mamo et al., 2018).
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3abc ELISA
Foot and mouth disease virus 3ABC-Ab ELISA Kit was used to detect FMD virus specific
antibodies in bovine serum samples. The kit procedure was based on a solid phase indirect
ELISA. In this procedure, samples were exposed to non-infectious FMD virus antigen (NSP
3ABC) coated wells on microstate plates. FMD virus antibodies (if present in the test sample)
bind to the antigen in the well. HRP conjugate added subsequently forms a complex with the
FMD virus antibodies. Unbound materials removed by washing (rinsing) before the addition of
substrate solution. Subsequently a blue-green color develops, which is due to the conversion of
the substrate by the conjugate. The reaction stopped by the addition of stopping solution. The
result was read by a micro plate photometer, where the optical density (OD) was measured at
405 nm (Tesfaye, Mengistu, & Rufael, 2016).
Data Analysis
The collected data were stored in a Microsoft office excel 2016 spreadsheet. Statistical analyses
were performed using STATA 14 software program. Chi-square test and logistic regression were
used to determine the association between the presence of disease and risk factors. In all analysis
confidence level of 95% and P-value, 0.05 were considered as a significant finding.
Demographic Characteristics of Participants in the Interview
The age of the participants ranges from 25-75 with a mean age of 45.79. Most of the participants
were unable to read and write (52.6%) and the remaining has completed primary school (21.1%),
can read and write (21.1%), secondary education (5.3%).This is due to low coverage of
education in the area compared to other part of the country. The majority of the interviewed
individuals were males (63.2%) whereas about 36.8% are female. It is because most of the
agricultural practices are under the command of men in Ethiopia as well as this specific study
site.
Majority of the participants herd their cattle alone (94.7%) and the remaining 5.3% herd their
cattle together with other animals. Most of the participants clean their house once a day (63.2%)
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and the remaining 15.8% clean once in a month, 10.5% once in three days, 5.3% once a week
and 5.3% two times a year. Participants claimed that they feed their animals in groups (36.8%)
and separately (63.2%). Majority (63.2%) claimed that they migrate their animals for grazing at a
distance of <5km, while the rest (31.6%) and (5.3%) move their cattle more than 10 and >5kms
respectively.
Majority of the participants (68.4%) have a veterinary service access at a distance less than 5kms
and the remaining 31.6% get service at a distance greater than 5kms. The level of satisfaction
with the vet service they get was high (52.6%), moderate (36.8%) and low (10.5%). Participants
indicated that the reasons for low satisfaction include no reason to describe (47.4%),
unavailability of qualified experts (31.6%), high price of the vaccines and drugs (15.8%) and
unavailability vaccine and drugs (5.3%).
Findings of the FGD
On proportional pilling of groups from Lalibela district cattle (54/100) take the highest share of
their livelihood, followed by sheep and goat (24/100), honey bee (11/100) and equine (11/100)
respectively. This can be due to the area is found above mid-altitude with a relatively suitable
environment for cattle production than the other study districts. While in Sekota and Ziquala
sheep and goat (45/100) take the highest share followed by honeybee (22/100), cattle (18/100)
and equine (12/100). In the other hand participants from Sekota and Ziquala district reported that
sheep and goat have a higher advantage than another livestock population. These districts are
semi-arid with the harsh environment in which Abergelle breed goat found predominantly than
other livestock species. It may not be amazing if they said these species are more important than
other species because the area is not ideal for cattle production.
Upon proportional pilling of the five major diseases in the study districts, they gave priority to
Ectoparasites, CBPP, FMD, Blackleg, and Pasteurellosis. The main routes and actors of disease
transmission were market route (men) (44/100), herd contact (youth male) (12/100), common
grazing land (youth male) (24/100) and communal watering routes (youth male) (22/100). It is
clear that these areas are very prone to animal mix up that leads to imminent disease transmission
to a healthy herd. In these routes (market and communal grazing) men and youth groups reported
280
being involved respectively. In the study area and other rural households in Ethiopia, men are in
selling and buying of animals while the youth group has a responsibility of herding in the field.
That is why participants indicated these groups are the main actors of disease transmission.
The clinical signs described for most of the diseases raised by farmers (Ectoparasites CBPP,
FMD, Blackleg, and Pasteurellosis were consistent with clinical signs and indicators described in
veterinary literature and textbooks, a conclusive diagnosis based on clinical symptoms is
confusing and without laboratory confirmation it looks unscientific. Therefore, laboratory
confirmation through serological examination for CBPP and FMD were made.
Seroprevalence of the Selected Diseases (CBPP& FMD)
The overall seroprevalence of CBPP in the study area was 25.3%. This overall sero-prevalence in
agreement with results of Tesfaye et.al. (2016) who reported an overall prevalence of 28.5%,
Wesley et al.( 2015) who reported an overall prevalence of 29.7%, Malicha et al. (2017) who
reported an overall prevalence of 25.3%, Mersha, 2016 who reports an overall prevalence of
28.5%. However, the findings of this study are different from the study of Zarina (2016) who
reports the overall prevalence of 8%, This difference can be due to the difference in the
environment and management system in the study areas.
The highest CBPP seroprevalence (40.63%) was observed in Sekota district while the lowest
seroprevalence (17.19%) was recorded in Ziquala district. The odds of occurrence of CBPP was
higher than Lalibela (P- 0.001, OR= 2.7, and 95% CI of 1.53 - 4.7). However, there was no
significant difference between Ziquala and Lalibela districts. Furthermore, there was no
significant variation (p>0.05) in animal-related risk factors like sex, age, and body condition with
the serological status of the animal. This finding was in line with the report of Tesfaye (2016),
with an overall seroprevalence of 28.5% and significant variation across different geographical
locations but with no remarkable variation (P>0.05) in animal-related risk factors like sex, age,
breed, and body condition status. The same report was shown on the work of Tadesse (2014)
who reported geographical difference is still an important factor and significant for the
seroprevalence. Furthermore, research conducted by Ebisa et al. (2015) in Amaro special woreda
of SNNPR Ethiopia, indicated that the environment was found to be the principal risk factor than
281
animal-related demographics. The overall prevalence and degree of association with different
risk factors for the two diseases have been depicted in table 1.
The overall seroprevalence of FMD in the study area was 3.4%. Occurrence levels of FMD in
animals have no significant association with risk factors observed. However, there were
numerical differences between these risk factors and the prevalence of FMD. The overall
prevalence and degree of association with different risk factors for the two diseases have been
depicted in table 1. This overall prevalence of FMD was relatively lower contradicting the result
of FGD which was indicated as one of the most important challenges in the study area according
to participants. Serological examination by 3abc ELISA indicated that the overall seroprevalence
was 3.4%. this finding was in line with result of (Misgana, 2013) who reported an overall
prevalence of 5% in agarfa southern Ethiopia. However, this result was different from reports of
Abdulahi ( 2011) in Jijiga, Nawaz, (2014) in Pakistan and O. H. Olabode (2013), in Nigeria with
an overall prevalence of 10.88%, 23.09%, and 14.48% respectively. This difference can be
attributed to the type of animal management practices and environmental differences in these
areas.
The study indicated that there was no significant association between seropositivity of animals to
FMD with risk factors like sex, age group, study districts, and body condition score. However,
still, there was a numerical variation between different risk factors and occurrence of FMDV.
The current result was in contrary with the findings of Rufael et al. (2008), Gelaye et al. (2009),
Molla et al. (2010), and Sarker et al. (2011), who found an increasing number of seropositive
animals in older animals. This may be due to the farming practices that confine younger animals
and prevent them from grazing with older ones, hence decreasing their exposure to FMDV. Also,
there is a tendency for older cattle to follow seasonal movement patterns in search of good
pastures and water where they go for long distances and cover large areas of land, thus giving
them a more significant opportunity to be exposed to FMD infected animals (Bronsvoort et al.,
2004). Furthermore, It was in contrary with a study in Bale zone, Ethiopia, where young’s
(18.64%) have a low prevalence of FMD than adults (22.31%) (Misgana, 2013).
282
Table 1: Association between occurrence of CBPP and FMD and risk factors
Competitive ELISA test for CBPP 3abc ELISA test for FMD
Test statistics Test statistics
Risk factor No. No. (%) Crude No. No. (%) Crude
Risk factors category Examined Seropositive P-value OR 95% CI Examined Seropositive P-value OR 95%CI
Adult 275 71 Reference 275 10 Reference
Young 95 24 0.915 .9712 .568 -1.65 95 2 0.473 .569 .12- 2.6
Age Calve 13 2 0.406 .52 .11- 2.41 13 1 0.467 2.208 .261 -18.68
Female 185 43 Reference 185 8 Reference
Sex Male 198 54 0.365 1.23 0.77- 1.96 198 5 0.337 1.28 .77- 1.96
Lalibela 127 25 Reference 127 4 Reference
Sekota 128 51 0.001 2.7 1.53 - 4.7 128 5 0.744 1.25 0.32 - 4.7
District Ziquala 128 21 0.496 .80 .42-1.5 128 4 .991 .99 0.24 - 4.05
Body Good 101 31 Reference 101 2 Reference
condition V. good 48 12 0.474 .752 .345-1.63 48 4 3.98 4.50 0.79 - 25.4
score Medium 154 37 0.240 .714 .407- 1.25 154 4 0.751 1.32 0.23-7.3
Poor 80 17 0.169 .6197 .312 -1.22 79 3 0.469 .95 .31-11.98
283
CONCLUSIONS
In conclusion, CBPP was found to be highly prevalent (25.3%) in the study area with some
degree of variation among study districts. The presence of statistically significant variation in
seroprevalence of CBPP among the districts indicates that there could be some management
related factors favoring the occurrence of disease. The study indicated that the level of
occurrence of CBPP needs the attention of responsible bodies to reduce its economic impact
on the poor livelihood of the area. Planning of appropriate prevention and control strategies
are required to reduce its occurrence to an acceptable level set by OIE. While the prevalence
of FMD was found to be low which is almost consistent among districts, and there is no
significant variation among different host and environmental risk factors.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors would like to thank interview and FGD participants for their valuable
information. We are also grateful to Community Animal Health Workers and Developmental
Agents for facilitation of this work in the field. The contribution of National Veterinary
Institute of Ethiopia was also invaluable.
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43–53. https://doi.org/10.4314/evj.v20i2.4
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and mouth disease in cattle in Borena Zone, Oromia regional state, Ethiopia. Ethiopian
Veterinary Journal, 20(1), 55. https://doi.org/10.4314/evj.v20i1.4
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https://doi.org/10.5455/vetworld.4.293
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Evaluation of Peste des Petits Ruminants Antibody Level in Vaccinated Goats in

Waghimrazone, Northern Ethiopia
Adane Bahiru1, Ayalew Assefa1 and Demeke Sibhatu2
1
2
National Animal Health Diagnostic and Investigation Center
ABSTRACT
Evaluation of the PPR level on goats was conducted from November to December 2017 in
Waghemira zone of Amhara region, Northern Ethiopia. The study area is known for its
considerable number of sheep and goat production. Despite regular vaccination being
undertaken in small ruminant population higher outbreaks of PPR has been reported. The objective
of the study was to measure the level of antibody level of live attenuated virus vaccine against
PPR.The study was conducted at Ayibramain farm of Sekota dry land agricultural research
center. For this purpose, a total of 220 goats above 1-year age were selected. The study
animals were grouped in to three treatments. Treatment I contained 100 unvaccinated goats,
treatment II contained 60 vaccinated goats and blood/serum was collected 14-day post
vaccination and treatment III contained 60 goats and blood/serum was collected 21 days post
vaccination. Competitive ELISA was used to estimate the antibody titers and percent of
inhibition (PI) was calculated. The overall antibody level of PPR in vaccinated group using
ELISA was 98.3% while 51% of positivity was detected in unvaccinated control group. There
was variation in the mean average PI values of the sera samples at 14- and 21-days post-
vaccination which were significantly (p < 0.005) higher than those of unvaccinated control
group. We found the live attenuated PPR vaccine capable of preventing PPR in goats and the
antibody titers gradually increased until 21 days post vaccination in all the animals of groups
indicating the use of this vaccine can be phenomenal in the eradication campaign of PPR
globally.
Keywords: Ethiopia, Goat, PPR, Vaccine
INTRODUCTION
Sheep and goats are one of the major livestock species reared by the world’s poor. Goats ‘the
cattle of the poor’, and sheep are reared as sources not only for milk, wool and meat for
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family consumption but also as a source of income that could be easily mobilized for paying
some of the household expenditures specially in lean times. In addition to this important
economic role, sheep and goats have significant role in socio-cultural activities such as
funerals, dowries, festivals and holidays, etc. However, sheep and goat populations are
threatened by number of diseases which have been considered as major constraint in small
ruminant development in recent years (Singh et al., 2014).
Sheep and goats are also considered the mainstay of the livelihood of rural people in
Ethiopia. However, poor animal nutrition, inadequate feed supplies and poor health facilities
stands as the most important constraint for small ruminant production. Of the various factors
contributing to suboptimal productivity of small ruminants, disease conditions appear to
cause substantial economic losses (Akhtar, 1995).
One of the most important constraints of sheep and goat disease is Peste des petits ruminants
(PPR). The World Organization for Animal Health (WOAH-OIE) defines Peste des petits
ruminants (PPR) as an acute, highly contagious, noticeable and economically important
transboundary viral disease affecting small ruminants. PPR is a disease of major economic
importance and imposes a significant constraint upon sheep and goat production owing to its
high mortality rate. The disease is characterized by fever, necrotic-stomatitis, gastroenteritis
and pneumonia (Hota et al., 2018). Its name derived from French for “disastrous disease of
small ruminants” as it is fatal disease of sheep and particularly goats it also called ‘goat
plague’.
It was in 1977 that PPR clinically suspected for the first time in Ethiopia in a goat herd in the
Afar region, east of the country (Roeder et al., 1994) and later confirmed in 1991 with cDNA
probe in lymph nodes and spleen specimens collected from an outbreak in a holding near
Addis Ababa (Roeder et al., 1994). In 1996 14.6% of sheep sampled from DebreBerhan were
seropositive (Gelagay, 1996).
PPR virus has been proposed as the next candidate after eradication of Rinder pest.
Recovering animals always develop a strong life-long immunity clearing the virus (Kerdiles
et al., 2006). There is no curative medical treatment against this viral disease. Therefore, the
only way of tackling this is by means of sanitary and medical prophylaxis. Sanitary
prophylaxis to be effective needs the existence of efficient veterinary services, the
implementation of animal movement controls with sometimes the stamping out policy. The
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cost needed for the effective implementation of these means in a short period is too high for
most of countries where these diseases are endemic like Ethiopia. Therefore, the only way for
effective control of PPR in these countries is the medical prophylaxis, i.e. the vaccination.
Homologous live attenuated vaccine provides a life-long immunity after a single
administration however; it has a low thermal stability with half-life of 2–6 h at 37°C after
reconstitution (Diallo, 2006). Therefore, objective of this paper is to evaluate the antibody
level of PPR vaccination on goats in Waghimrazone, Northern Ethiopia.
Study Site
The study was conducted at Aybra main trial site of Sekota Dry land Agricultural Research
Center (SDARC) found at about 17 Km from Sekota town and 797 Km North West of Addis
Ababa. Geographically the area is located with an altitude of 2258 m above sea level. The
area receives an annual average rain fall from 400-780ml and higher rainfall recorded during
the main rainy season between Julys to August (Kiremt). The mean annual temperature varies
from 9.1-31.56 º C with an average temperature of 20.33 º C (SDARC metrology data, 2014).
The production system of the area is mixed crop-livestock system with Livestock dominance.
Animals and Their Management
A total of 220 goats above 1year of age were selected to study the efficacy of PPR. All
recommended age and both sexes were included in this study. The animals have been
grouped in to three treatments I 100 goats which were not vaccinated, treatment II 60 goats
14-day post vaccination and treatment III 60 goats 21 days post vaccination.
Vaccine and Vaccination
A thermo stable PPR live homologous vaccine developed by National veterinary Institute
(NVI), Bishouftu, Ethiopia was used in this study. Vaccine was taken from the NVI and
transported on ice box during transportation. It was kept at -20oc up to vaccination time. 1 ml
of the diluted PPR vaccine was provided per goat for group II and III subcutaneously around
the lateral cervical vertebrae through sub-coetaneous (SC) route. While group I comprising
100 goats served as control.
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Serum Collection
Animals were restrained for safe collection of blood. Plain vacutainer tubes were used for
blood collection. From restrained animals 8-10 ml of blood were taken and placed 45 degree
slant over night to get clear serum. Serum was separated with pipette and placed in deep
freezer until serological study is conducted. Serum samples has been collected from
unvaccinated control groups (n=100), 14 days post vaccination (n=60) and 21 days post
vaccination (n=60).
Serological Test Procedures
Competitive Enzyme Linked Immune Assay (Celisa)
Competitive ELISA (with specificity and sensitivity of 98.4 % and 92.4 % respectively) as
previously described by Libeau et al. (1994) for PPRV was used to estimate the antibody
titers. C-ELISA kit was developed by FAO reference laboratory (CIRAD-EMVT,
Montpellier, France) and the standard protocol given along with kit was followed. Allow all
the reagents to come to room temperature (210c +/-50c) before use. Homogenize all reagents
by inversion or vortex following the procedure developed by(Banyard, 2015). First Add25 µl
of dilution buffer 13 to each well, 25 µl of the positive control to wells A1 and B1, 25 µl of
the negative control to wells C1 and D1 and 25 µl of each sample to be tested to the
remaining wells. Then the primary antibody was incubated for 45 min +/- min at 370c
followed by washing of each sample well 3 times with approximately with 300 µl wash
solution. Prepare the conjugate µl x by diluting the conjugate 10x to 1/10 in dilution buffer 4,
add 100 µl of the conjugate 1x to each well and incubate 30 min +/- 3 min at 210c +/-50c.
After an incubation period we washed each well 3 times with approximately 300 µl of the
wash solution followed by addition of 100 µl of the substrate solution to each well and
incubated for 15 min +/- 2 min at 210c +/-50c in the dark. Finally add 100 µl of the stop
solution to each well in order to stop the reaction and record the OD at 450 nm. Percent
Inhibition (PI) values were calculated from the OD values obtained. The absorbance was
converted to Percentage Inhibition (PI) using the formula below with the help of the ELISA
Data Interchanges (EDI) software manufactured by FAO/IAEA. PI =OD sample/OD
negative control*100. Any sample with an average Percentage Inhibition (PI) of <50% was
considered as positive, 50 < PI </= 60% considered as doubt full result, > 60% was
considered as negative.
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The collected data were stored in Microsoft office excel 2016 spreadsheet. Statistical
analyses were performed using SPSS version 25 software. Chi-square test and logistic
regression were used to determine association between explanatory variables and the sero-
status of the animals. In all analyses confidence level of 95% and p–value of 0.05 was used
for statistical test of significance.
The Percent of Inhibition (PI) values gradually increased until 21 days (maximum period of
observation) post vaccination in all the animals of 2 Groups (II, III).
Figure 1: Mean PI values in vaccinated and control Groups at different time intervals (pre and
post immunization)
Table 1: Percent of inhibition (PI) of PPR in goats in Waghimra zone, Northern Ethiopia
Frequency of vaccination
Unvaccinated 14 days post-vaccination 21 days post vaccination
Percent of inhibition (n=100) (n=60) (n=60)
Positive(PI<50) 51 59 59
Negative(PI>60) 49 1 1
There is variation in the mean average PI values of the sera samples at 14- and 21-days post-
vaccination which were significantly (p < 0.005) higher than those of non-vaccinated control
goats. The present study findings were in line with Saritha et al. (2015), Sil and Taimur,
(2001); Razzaque et al. (2005) where the authors concluded that following vaccination, the
antibody titers gradually increased. This indicates the vaccine is effective enough to develop
antibody. In spite of regular vaccination being done in small ruminant population and the PI
level is higher outbreaks of PPR has been reported. This may be due to intermixing of
vaccinated and unvaccinated animals and coverage of population for vaccination may not
reach 100%. In logistic regression analysisthe PI value at 14- and 21-days post vaccination
was 52.32 much higher than non-vaccinated control groups (OR= 52.32; CI= 6.97-392.5) at
significant level of P-value 0.0001.
Treatment groups Odd ratio 95 % CI P-value 2

Before vaccination Ref
14 days PV 52.32 6.97-392.5 0.0001 74.74
21 days PV 52.32 6.97-392.5
CONCLUSION
From the above findings, we conclude that the live attenuated PPR vaccine kept in a cold
chain is capable of developing enough antibody titer against PPR virus in goats. The antibody
titers gradually increased until 21 days (maximum period of observation) post vaccination in
all the animals of Groups. By having this idea in mind, further studies are required to
determine the total duration of immunity of PPR live attenuated vaccine in sheep and goats.
Mass vaccination in endemic area and along the routes of animal movement should be
routinely practiced.
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data and disease frequencies. Revue Scientifique et Technique (International Office of
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pubmed/8593413
Banyard, M. H. B. A. C. 2015. Peste des petits ruminants. Elsevier B.V. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j. vetmic.2015.08.009.
Diallo, A., 2006. Control of peste des petits ruminants and poverty alleviation, Journal of
Veterinary Medicine, Series B, 53(s1): 11-13.
Gelagay, A., 1996. Epidemiological and serological investigation of multi-factorial ovine
respiratory disease and vaccine trial on the high land of North Shewa, Ethiopia. DVM
Thesis, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Addis Ababa University, Bishoftu, Ethiopia.
Gomes, A.R., B.M. Veeregowda, S.M. Byregowda and V. Balamurugan. 2016.
Comprehensive review on recent developments in the diagnostics and vaccines against
Peste des petits ruminants. British Journal of Virology, 3(3s): 90-104.
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Hota, A., Biswal, S., Sahoo, N., Rout, M., Chaudhary, D., Pandey, A., & Muthuchelvan, D.
2018. Seroprevalence of PPR among Sheep and Goats of Different Agroclimatic Zones
of Odisha. International Journal of Livestock Research, 8(4), 296-302.
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Kerdiles,Y.M., B. Cherif, J.C. Marie, N. Tremillon, B. Blanquier, G. Libeau, A.
Diallo, T.F. Wild, M.B. Villiers and B. Horvat. 2006. Immunomodulatory properties of
morbillivirus nucleoproteins. Viral Immunol., 19: 324-334.
Libeau, G., Diallo, A., Colas, F. and Guerre, L. 1994. Rapid differential diagnosis of
rinderpest and peste des petits ruminants using an immunocapture ELISA.Veterinary
Record 134(12): 300-4.
Razzaque MA, Rahman MB, Kafi MA, Islam MR and Amin KMR. 2005. Antibody
responsesin ruminants species following vaccination with tissue culture adapted PPR
vaccine. Proceedings of 21st Annual Conference of Bangladesh Society of
Microbiologist. 1-2 July 2005, BINA, Mymensingh, Bangladesh.
Roeder, P.L., G. Abraham, G. Kenfe and T. Barrett. 1994. Peste des petits ruminants in
Ethiopian goats. Tropical Animal Health and Production, 26(2): 69-73.
Saritha G. and Shobhamani B., Evaluation Of Efficacy Of Ppr Live Attenuated Vaccine.
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August, 2015
Sil BK and Taimur MJFA. 2001. Final report of the: Contract research project on production
of peste des petits (PPR) vaccine and its field application. BARC funded project, BLRI,
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losses due to Peste de Petits Ruminants in small ruminants in India, Veterinary World
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293
Health and Welfare Problems of pack Donkeys in North and South Wollo Zones,
Amhara Region, Ethiopia
Negus Belayneh, Asres Zegeye, Liuel Yizengaw, Getachew Worku, Molla Bishaw and
Solomon Tiruneh
Sirinka Agricultural Research Center, P.O.Box, 74, Woldia, Ethiopia
ABSTRACT
Donkeys are one of the most important drought animals that are playing a key role in the
agriculture economy. Ethiopia is a country with the highest donkey population in Africa (8.85
million). Despite their high population and prominent role in Ethiopia, lower efforts have
been done to study the physiology, nutritional requirement, health problems and management
requirements. This study was conducted with the aim of assessing various welfare problems
of donkeys in selected districts of Eastern Amhara. Direct and indirect assessment methods
were used to collect welfare data. A total of 780 working donkeys were directly examined in
different working place and situations where donkeys were not getting adequate feed and
water in working places; owners didn’t use proper harness material; owners didn’t unload
after they reach to their destinations and donkeys tied together improperly in their work
places. A questionnaire survey (n=159) was conducted in purposively selected towns of four
districts. Many of the respondents (93%) in the study area had no knowledge and information
on donkey welfare issues. Donkey owners (46%) didn’t have a separate house for donkeys.
The FGD result indicated that heat stroke, strangles, colic, pneumonia, wound, anthrax and
papilloma are important donkey diseases respectively in the study areas. Disease (28.5%),
overloading (28.4%) and poor harnessing (25.2%) were important causes of wound. The
current study also showed that the prevalence of wound was significantly associated with
flour cooling practice (χ2=17.1; P=0.001) where donkeys loaded without flour cooling had
greater prevalence of wounds. Furthermore, most respondents had wrong attitude to donkeys
in the study areas. Most, 81.8%, of respondents prefer to ride mules than donkeys; 48%
assumed as donkeys didn’t feel any pain. In conclusion working donkeys in the study area
were experiencing a multifactorial health and welfare problems. Awareness creation on
health care, feeding and working habit of pack donkeys to owners through mass education,
training and extension service should be promoted in the study area in order to ensure better
donkey welfare and productivity.
Keywords: Donkey, Eastern Amhara, Welfare, wound
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INTRODUCTION
Ethiopia has the largest population of equine in Africa with an estimated 8.85 million
donkeys and 0.46 million mules (CSA, 2017/18). The earliest FAO estimate of the Ethiopian
donkey population was estimated to be 3.7 million (around 1961) and 5.2 million (around
1995), an increase of 41% suggesting obsolete technological advancement. Equines are also
important animals to the resource-poor communities in both rural and urban areas, providing
traction power and transport services at low cost and in the remote areas of Ethiopia, pack
animals offer the only realistic way of obtaining returns from agriculture above mere
existence. Moreover, the increasing human population in Ethiopia has resulted in an increase
in demands of donkeys for transport of foods and construction inputs to and from remote
areas (Biffa and Woldemeskel, 2006).
Internationally, poverty and lack of knowledge of animal owners are important factors that
compromise animal welfare. When working donkeys can no longer work, the owners lose
their livelihoods, either temporarily or permanently. The welfare of working donkeys in
developing countries is therefore crucially important, not only for the health and survival of
those animals, but also for the livelihoods of those people dependent on them (Kumar et al.,
2014).
Despite their invaluable contributions, equines in Ethiopia are accorded low status and are
consequently the most neglected animals (Biffa & Woldemeskel, 2006). Many of the working
donkeys are owned by poor people and the animals’ needs are often ignored. The donkeys are
forced to work in harsh environments without sufficient resources (e.g. food, veterinary
treatment and shelter) and appropriate equipment may not be prioritized (Pritchard et al.,
2005). Working equines are prone to painful, debilitating and often fatal tropical illnesses and
conditions such as tetanus, parasitic infection and colic. In addition, these animals work under
difficult environmental conditions including intense heat difficult terrain and often
inappropriate equipment, with inadequate food and water, resulting in exhaustion
dehydration, malnutrition, lesions and hoof problems (Brook, 2007). In addition, working
donkeys suffer from animal welfare problems such as gait abnormality, joint swelling, broken
skin, deep lesions (Burn et al., 2010a) and dental problems (Kumar et al., 2014).
In Ethiopia, the human population has increased and is expected to increase even more in the
near future (Worldometers, 2016). Due to the increasing population and the undeveloped
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infrastructure, the demands of donkeys have become increased. It will still take many years to
develop the infrastructure in Ethiopia due to the characteristics of the terrain and the low
economic status of the country (Mengistu, 2003). It is very important to manage the health
and welfare problems associated with working donkeys, not only for the welfare of the
animals but also for the livelihood of the people who own them (Kumar et al., 2014). In
Eastern Amhara regions of Ethiopia, no previous works were done on donkey welfare
assessment. Thus, this study was proposed with the objectives of assess the current donkey
welfare problems and associated risk factors and to gather baseline information on welfare
related knowledge, attitudes and practices of donkey owners.
Study Area
The study was conducted in North Wollo (Raya Kobo and Meket) and South Wollo (Desssae
Zuriya and Legambo) districts Eastern Amhara Region, Ethiopia.
Legambo district፡ is located between 38° 28’ E and 10° 10’ N with an average altitude of
3270 ma.s.l. The minimum and maximum average annual temperatures of the district are
about 15 and 20°C respectively. The study area is characterized by bimodal rainy seasons: the
main rainy season (Meher) occurring from June to September, and the short rainy season
(Belg) occurs from February to April.
Dessie Zuriya district: Dessie town is located in Northern part of Ethiopia in Amhara
National Regional State, South Wollo zone at a distance of 400 km from Addis Ababa. Its
location is at 11° 8’ - 11o 46’ North latitude and 39° 38’ - 41o 13’ East longitude. It has a
mean annual rainfall of 1100 - 1200 mm and the mean annual minimum and maximum
temperatures are 12.5ºC and 23.9oC respectively.
Kobo district: is located in the North Eastern parts of Amhara Regional state North Wollo
zone, Ethiopia, lying between 11o54’04’’ E and 12o20’56’’ N latitude and between
39o25’56’’ and 39o49’04’’ E longitude. The district found in an altitude range of 1400-3100
m.a.s.l. the district city Kobo is about 570kms away from Addis Ababa on the way to Mekele
(CSA, 2011). Kobo is characterized by low and erratic rain fall with mean annual rainfall of
670mm that ranges from 500-850mm. the temperature of the district varies from 19-23°C
annually with mean annual temperature 23.1°C.
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Meket district: One of the districts in the North Wollo of Amhara Region with elevations
ranging from about 1200 m.a.s.l at the North Western most point to over 3000 m.a.s.l along
the Eastern part of its Southern border.
Study Animals and Sampling Procedure
The study involved a total of 780 pack donkeys that were selected haphazardly from market
and grain mill centers (n = 247), homestead direct observation (n = 221), observation during
loading and transporting (n = 218) and direct observation for practical assessment (n = 94) in
selected districts from North and South Wollo zones. A total of n = 159 pack donkey owners,
from four respective towns of Legambo & Desse Zuriya from South Wollo and Kobo &
Mekete districts from North Wollo zones, were selected haphazardly for interview. Then,
health and welfare problems of the selected animals were assessed using direct observation
and indirect assessments (knowledge Attitude and Practice tools and assessments of the
environment).
Sample Size Calculation
The sample size for questionnaire survey (KAP), to conduct indirect assessment of health and
welfare problems of pack donkeys, was calculated with expected prevalence assumed to be as
50% and using the formula (Thrusfield, 2005), as indicated below.
N = 1.962 pexp (1-pexp)/d2
Where, N = required sample size, Pexp = expected prevalence and D = required precision
(usually 0.05).
Study Methods and Data Collection
The study employed direct observation of the haphazardly selected 780 pack donkeys and
indirect questionnaire survey of 159 pack donkey owners for signs of health and welfare
problems and observation of the environment where these animals were living, grazing and
working. Knowledge Attitude and Practice /KAP/ assessment tools such as: focus group
discussions, proportional pilings, disease impact matrix scoring and seasonal calendar of
diseases were assessed with owners and attendants of donkeys were used to collect
information regarding issues related to the donkeys’ health and welfare problems.
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Age, sex, body condition score, presence or absence of oral problems, wounds, lameness, and
clinical signs of different diseases and behavior of donkeys were observed and recorded
properly. The presence or absence of any kind of wounds such as back sore, girth sore, bit
sore, proud flesh, hobble sore, joint swelling, tail sore, hyena bites and other sores on the
body of pack donkeys were examined. The type and location of the wound were assessed and
recorded using body mapping. Abnormalities in the oral cavity and eyes were also assessed.
At the same time, the age of each animal was estimated using the eruption and wearing of the
incisor teeth.
The presence of hoof overgrowth, hoof deformity, hoof cracking puncture wound in the hoof,
fracture and hoof loss (in abandoned animal), hobble wounds, posture and gait abnormality
and musculoskeletal disorder were also assessed. The alertness, reaction to human approach,
proximity and touch, responsiveness to environment, depression (ear and head drop, tail
tuck), difficulty to catch or handle, nervousness and other abnormal behaviors of the donkeys
were assessed by approaching and closely observing all the donkeys using “The Hand” tools.
The study donkeys were carefully assessed for any typical clinical signs of various diseases
such as epizootic lymphangitis, strangles, pneumonia, African horse sickness, colic, ocular
problem and other illness.
In order to triangulate the data obtained by direct observation on the status of health and
welfare of donkeys, indirect assessment was also conducted using questionnaire survey and
focus group discussions (FGD). Focus group discussion (FGD) guide was designed and
conducted among 32 haphazardly selected pack donkey owners. All the members were males
above 24 years old and have more than five years experiences of working pack donkeys. The
participants of the discussion were grouped into four FGD each consisting of eight members.
The participants were given a chance to identify health and welfare problems of pack
donkeys in their localities and discuss severity and endemicity of the problems. Each
participant got a chance to participate in the discussion. Finally, the participants ranked the
listed problems based on their effects on the donkeys from severe to low priority. The quality
and quantity of feed and water made available to pack donkeys in the field, markets, milling
houses and homestead was also observed and recorded.
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Data Management and Analysis
The data collected from direct observation of animal and information gathered indirectly
from the owner were entered into Microsoft excel spreadsheet and analyzed using SPSS
version 20 statistical software. Descriptive statistics were used to quantify the problems and
Chi Square (χ2) was used to determine the association of the problem with the risk factors. In
all calculations, the confidence interval was set at 95% and statistically significant differences
considered when p≤0.05. Data obtained from the scoring tools were summarized using
proportions and ratios.
RESULTS AND DISSCUSSIONS
In this study all respondents were donkey owners which differ from reports of Agegnehu et
al. (2017) where only 51.3 % of respondents were donkey owners. The owners earned their
income by working as drought power, transportation and selling grain, water or other
products. This study is in agreement with reports by Usman et al. (2015) and Solomon et al.
(2013) describing that equids are mainly kept for transport purposes and only rarely as source
of meat or milk. The current study revealed that 100% of the owners were using their animals
for transportation or carrying loads.
Direct Observation
Direct Observation for Practical Assessment
The overall practical donkey usage and management were observed directly on working
donkeys. 73.4% of donkeys were used for packing purposes. Cart donkeys were loaded on
average 512 kg (range 200-1000kg) whereas pack donkeys were loaded an average weight of
62kg with a range of 26-160kg. 90.4% of donkey owners used synthetic harness materials
which contribute for the formation of wounds (17%). Owners hobble their donkeys humanely
(61.7%), inhumanely with improper material (5.3%) and 33% didn’t practice hobbling at all.
In this study donkey owners (21.6%) were provided feed while loaded and 78.4%
immediately after unloaded whereas Tesfaye et al. (2016) reported 48.3% of owners were
provided feed before loading; 24.2% after loading and 27.5% both before and after loading.
Agegnehu et al. (2017) reported that 51.3% of owners were fed their donkeys both before and
after loading at home and working places.
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Homestead Direct Observation
The feeding, housing, hobbling and hygienic practices of donkeys were directly observed in
their homestead areas. Of the donkeys that were observed directly, 65.6% were provided with
supplementary feed (grain, hay, straw or cut grass) in addition to grazing in their homestead
area. This result is lower than Samson et al. (2019) who reported over 83% of the owners
supplement their donkeys with mixture of different cereals/grain leftovers while other
provides grains and straws/grass. 46.2% of donkeys were housed with cattle and 53.8% had a
separate house of which 49.8% of the houses have had poor hygienic conditions.
Observation While Donkeys were Loaded and Transporting
Loading and transportation are the main functions of donkeys in the study areas. 60.8% of
loaded donkeys were manifesting gasping. 93% of the donkey owners were used synthetic
materials for padding of which only 47% of pack donkeys were properly padded. Only 5% of
donkeys were lame during observation. This result showed very low occurrence of lameness
from reports of Chala et al. (2019) who reported 62.5% of lameness due to hoof overgrowth
around Holeta town in central Ethiopia.
Observation in Market or Grain Mill Centers
Transporting goods and materials to market or grain mill is one of the functions of donkeys.
The abuses of donkey welfare in the market and grain mill centers discussed in table 1. There
is a significant association between flour cooling practice and wound (X2=17.1; P=0.001).
23.6% of donkey owners didn’t unload donkeys after they reach to the market or grain mil
centers, which violets the right to have a rest after work. The current study agreed with that of
Helen (2001) who reported higher prevalence of wound at the back region in the Northern
Ethiopia, which could be due to improper harnessing that cause injuries in working donkeys.
Similarly, the present result also agrees with the report of Mandefro (2008), who explained
lesions underneath the base of the tail of working donkeys as a result of improper harnessing
materials.
Prevalence of wound was lower (20.0%) than the reports of Morka et al. (2014) in and
around Nekemte Town, East Wollega Zone (38.4%) and Fikru et al. (2015) and Biffa and
Woldemeskel (2006) who reported 63.4 and 79.4%, respectively. These differences might be
due to variation in management practices and types of work where most of the donkeys
300
examined for the present study were used for packing purpose (73.4%). At the market or
grain mill centers 34.2% of donkeys were tied together within a certain fixed material
(electric pole, tree) and this contradicts the right to move freely. 81.8% of donkeys didn’t get
access to feed while they stay in the market and grain mil centers, which contradicts the
rights of animals to get adequate feed and water.
Knowledge Attitude and Practice /KAP/ Assessment Results
A questionnaire survey (n=159) was conducted in purposively selected towns of four districts
(Figure 1) to assess the knowledge, attitude and practices of donkey owners on their animals.
Proportions
11
38 56 Legambo
Dessae Zuriya
Meket
Kobo
54
Figure 1: Proportions of respondents in four study districts.
Housing, Feeding and Watering Practices
Based on this study, 46% of owners were housed their donkeys mixed with cattle during
night time. Donkeys accessed on average, 11.6 litters of water per day, but sometimes may
drank as low as 1.5 liter per day. Donkeys graze free unless they engaged in working
conditions. In a working condition 20 kg per day supplementary feed were provided. The
average life span of donkeys was 16 years in the study area. This finding is not in line with
the report of Gebreab et al. (1998) estimated the average life span of working donkeys in
Ethiopia to be about 9-13 years, but rarely donkeys can reach an age of more than 35 years
when managed well.
Health Related Problems
Donkey health related problems are important sources of welfare problems. Untreated
wounds of donkeys result a severe complication and death. The present study revealed that
76.6% of respondents provide care for their donkeys; (59.1%) take to government veterinary
clinic or private clinic; 14.3% traditional medication and 3.2% both) and 23.4% left to self-
healing (table 1). This result is closely related to those of Tesfaye et al. (2016) who reported
84.2% of the respondents provide care for their sick animal from which 48.3% took the
donkey to nearby veterinary clinic in Mirab Abaya.
Table 1: Important donkey health related welfare problems in North and South Wollo Zones,
Variables /categories/ Frequency (n=159) Proportion (%)
Causes of wound
Overloading 56 35.0
Improper harnessing 76 48.0
Loading hot flour 19 11.7
Disease 8 5.3
Clinical signs
Inappetance 63 39.0
Coughing 38 24.0
Emaciation 17 11.0
Bloat and colic 13 8.4
Others (wound & shivering) 8 5.3
Unknown 20 12.3
Common diseases
Unknown 76 48.0
Colic 15 9.7
Strangles 38 24.0
Heat stroke 9 5.8
Others (pneumonia, wart, tetanus,
anthrax, rabies) 20 12.5
Attitudes of Respondents on Donkeys
Most respondents had wrong attitudes to donkeys in the study areas. Most, 81.8% of
respondents didn’t want to ride donkey than mules; 48% assumed as donkeys didn’t feel any
pain; 22.7% believed sick donkeys didn’t became cured from illness (table 2). On average
young donkeys start to be loaded and used for transportation starting from 2 years and 6
months. A healthy and productive donkey had worked for 7 and half hours per day which is
in agreement with Biswas et al. (2013) and Panwar et al. (2008).
302
Table 2: Overall attitudes of respondents towards donkeys in North and South Wollo Zones,
Variables/categories/ Frequency (n=159) Proportion (%)
Having photograph with donkey
Agree 57 35.7
Disagree 94 59
Not sure 9 5.3
Ride donkey than mule
Agree 24 15
Disagree 130 81.8
Not sure 5 3.2
Donkey feels pain
Agree 72 45.5
Disagree 76 48
Not sure 11 6.5
Sick donkey can’t be cured
Agree 36 22.7
Disagree 108 68.2
Not sure 15 9.1
Abandoning donkeys
Agree 82 51.3
Disagree 73 46.1
Not sure 4 2.6
Donkeys go faster when beat-up
Agree 64 40.3
Disagree 85 53.2
Not sure 10 6.5
Majority of donkey owners load their animals proportional to its body condition and carrying
capacities. When donkeys became aged and stop working 38.3% respondents leave on the
street and 53.3% kept with care until dead. An important health problem that donkey owners
gave low emphasis is that 68.8% of respondents didn’t give any treatment for abnormal feet.
This result is higher than the results of Samson et al. (2019) who recorded 13.56% of
donkeys were affected by hoof overgrowth around Addis Ababa. Hoof over growth in this
study is nearly similar with Chala et al. (2019) who reported 62.5% of hoof overgrowth
around Holeta town, Walmara district in Central Ethiopia in donkeys. This results imbalances
on the overall anatomy of donkeys resulting multi-factorial welfare problems.
Major Donkey Welfare Problems /Based On FGD/
Donkey population was decreasing in the past 10-15 years. The most important donkey
problems identified in the study area includes disease, feed shortage, and poor attention
303
towards donkey and work overload. On the other hand donkeys contribute an important role
for the poor communities table 3. This result is in agreement to Biffa and Woldemeskel
(2016) reported donkeys were involved in a wide array of activities, yet very little
management was given.
Table 3: Main functions and their order of importance of pack donkeys in North and South
Wollo Zones, Amhara Region, Ethiopia
Function Proportion (%) Rank
Transportation for market 28.3 1
Water fetching 21.1 2
Transportation in harvesting 17.7 3
Grain mill transportation 16.6 4
Transporting house construction materials 13.3 5
Breeding 12.2 6
Income source 8.3 7
In general, there are minor differences in the distributions of disease in different study
districts in the study areas. However, heat stroke, strangles, colic, pneumonia, wound, anthrax
and papilloma are important donkey diseases ranked from 1-7 respectively. Based on the
proportional ranking result bloat (20%) and ascites (26.6%) were important donkey diseases
exclusively in Dessie zuriya and Meket districts respectively. Bloating is more common
during rainy seasons, whereas ascites can occur accidentally throughout the year. This might
be due to the environmental factors as the two locations are highland areas which could grow
leguminous feed types that can cause bloating. Other important donkey diseases that were
prevalent in all study districts and their seasonal occurrences are shown in table 4.
Table 4: Local and suspected scientific names, seasonal calendar and importance of donkey
diseases in North and South Wollo Zones, Amhara Region, Ethiopia
Local name of disease Probable Diseases Seasonal calendar Rank
Kuro Strangle Year round 2
Kurtet Colic September- December 3
Kuselet Wound June – August 5
Abasenga Anthrax Year round 6
Kintarot Wart, papilloma Year round 7
Mich Heat stroke Year round 1
Busa Pneumonia December - June 4
Wound is an important welfare problem of donkeys identified in the study areas. The major
causes of wound are explained by figure 2.
304
proportion
30
proportions
20
10
0 proportion
causes of wound
Figure 2: Major causes of donkey wound in North and South Wollo Zones, Amhara Region,
Ethiopia
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDA

RECOMMENDATION
The present study revealed that donkeys in Eastern Amhara were faced multi
multi-factorial
welfare problems despite its great importance. Poor attitude and concerns to donkeys, poor
harnessing equipment usage, inadequate feed and water supply, poor animal w
welfare
knowledge, wrong attitude and practice of owners, dependence of many tasks on donkeys,
overloading, overworking and poor overall managements of donkeys were major factors
causing welfare problems. Back sore, tail base sore and girth/belly/breast sore
sore were the major
wounds examined on pack donkeys. Inadequate animal welfare knowledge and less attention
to husbandry practices like feeding, housing, watering and health care management of
donkeys were indicators of donkeys as neglected animals. Therefore
Therefore,, awareness creation on
health care, feeding and working habits of pack donkeys should be given to donkey owners.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author would like to acknowledge donkey owners for their unreserved cooperation
during interview. In addition, our acknowl
acknowledgement
edgement extends to Amhara Agricultural
Research Institute (ARARI) for financing this work.
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Amhara Agricultural Research Institute

Livestock Research Directorate

April 30 - May 5, 2018, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia

Proceedings of the 11th Annual Regional Conference on

April 30 - May 5, 2018, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia

Livestock Research Directorate

Published June, 2019

Copyright © 2019 by Amhara Agricultural Research Institute (ARARI), Livestock Research

ARARI encourages fair use of this material. Proper citation is requested.

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