CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction

Miri is the birthplace of Malaysian petroleum industry. The oil exploration

began in 1909 and the first exploration well, Miri-1, was drilled in 1910. Six years
later, by February 1916, 50 wells had been drilled and the production reached a
cumulative volume of 1.25 million barrels with a daily production rate of 2700 BOPD.
However, water and sand problems affected the field development in between 1916
and 1919. These problems were resolved and by 1929, some 500 wells had been
drilled with peak production of over 15,000 BOPD. In the 1930s, activities started to
decline. Production dropped to less than 11,000 BOPD in 1931, 7000 BOPD in 1933,
and 2400 BOPD in 1941, shortly before the Japanese invasion.

During the war, the Japanese produced a total of 700,000 barrels. After the
war, it took 2 years to bring the field back on stream. The post-war history of the Miri
Field was characterized by two conflicting forces: (i) the uphill struggle to keep the
dying field alive; and (ii) the necessity to release increasing areas of the field for town
expansion and development. Despite efforts to boost production, including field
rehabilitation and water injection projects, the field continued to decline. By the end
of 1971, the field was producing only some 675 BOPD, with more than 10 times as
much water from 98 wells. The battle was finally lost and the Miri Field was totally
abandoned on 20 October 1972 (Tan et al., 1999). However, geologically Miri
remains one of the most interesting and challenging place to be resolved
stratigraphically and structurally.

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1.2 The Study Area

The location of this research is in around the Canada Hill area in the
northeastern part of Sarawak, Malaysia (Figure 1.1). It is located between latitudes
4o20’28’’ N and 4 o26’16’’ N and longitudes 113 o57’03’’ E and 114o03’01’’ E.
Geologically, the area is called Miri Formation and composed of only less than one
third of the total Baram Delta Province which is known as the Miri Field.

1.3 Previous Studies

The studies on Miri Formation began in 1909 by Josef Theodor Erb who
evaluated the prospectively of the various locations in the Miri Field and identified a
number of structures of oil traps. Erb mapped the structure and recognized the Miri
Hill as the top of an asymmetric anticline, with a gentle northwest flank and a steep
overturned southeast flank. Erb expected disclosure in the deeper level of the anticline.
Later drilling results proved the stratigraphy and Erb’s structural model based on
single anticline was unable to explain the occurrence of oil traps in other parts of Miri.
Large reservoirs were discovered in the plains at the foot of the hill near Miri town
center. These reservoirs appeared to be narrow elongate strips extending away from
the anticlinal axis towards the way down to the Miri River. Although folding as
represented by asymmetric anticline did exist, closure appeared to be due to the fault
system which intersected the structure (Tan et al., 1999). Thus L.C. Artis (in
Schumacher, 1941) conducted a paleontology study which established a
biostratigraphic zonation based on benthonic foraminifera. The study solved many
correlation problems and showed that the southern part of the field had consistently
been mis-correlated to the northern part by Erb where each sand in the south had been
correlated to the higher sand in the north. Based on these two studies, Schumacher
(1941) conducted a detail structural study and produced the current structural model
of the Miri Field. Liechti et al. (1960) developed a detailed onshore lithostratigraphy
of the Miri Formation. As a further development model of the previous study by
Liechti et al., Wilford (1961) divided the Miri Formation into a lower and upper part
based on lithological differences and small benthonic foraminifera.

2
Figure 1.1 – (A) Study area with exposures of Miri Formation at the northeastern part
of Sarawak, Malaysia. (B) Satellite image of the Canada Hill.

3
 In 1986, Hamid Mohammad assigned a Middle Miocene age to the Miri
succession then produced a geological map of Miri which shows a subdivision into
several producing reservoir units (Ecomedia, 2000). The structural study was
followed by M.K. Shuib in 2003, which considered that the Miri structure evolved
under a single deformation by NNE trending dextral strike-slip tectonics event. It was
concluded because the evidence for a systematic thickening of the hanging wall block
which considered the Miri structure (Shell Hill fault and an associated normal fault) to
be a growth fault was absent. Shuib also analyzed that this dextral strike-slip
deformation could have commenced from Middle Miocene right up latest Miocene to
Pliocene times. Completing the structural studies, van der Zee and Urai (2005)
developed a model based on the main structural elements that were formed during the
early stages of fault development in the Miri Field. This study observed more than
450 segmented faults of the Airport Road outcrop which contains clay smear or lenses.
These clay smears or lenses are useful for bedding correlation. The numerical model
shows that the deformation in lenses inside the fault zones can be expected to be
higher than outside the zone.

The stratigraphy of the Miri Formation was defined into 10 different facies by
Abdul Hadi (in Tan et. al., 1999) based on the lithology, bed geometry, sedimentary
structures and bioturbation. These facies are: (i) medium-scale trough cross-bedded;
(ii) small-scale trough cross-bedded; (iii) herringbone cross-bedded; (iv) flaser-
bedded; (v) wavy-bedded; (vi) sand-clay alternation; (vii) lenticular-bedded; (viii)
mud crack surfaces and associated mudstones; (ix) hummocky cross-stratified
sandstone; and (x) massive coarse sandstone facies. On the basis of the stratigraphic
succession of these 10 facies, two facies associations namely: tidal facies and wave-
and-storm-dominated facies are recognized (Tan et. al., 1999).

Another sedimentological and facies study was carried out by Abeida (2006)
on five outcrops namely Padang Kerbau, Hilltop Garden, Airport Road, Riam Road,
and Miri Hospital Road outcrops. Abeida recognized 12 facies based on the lithology,
sedimentary structures, fossil traces, bed geometry and thin section information.
These facies are: (i) trough cross-stratified sandstone with mud drapes; (ii) parallel
stratified sandstone with mud drapes; (iii) wavy-bedded sandstone; (iv) rhythmic

4
stratified sandstone and mudstone; (v) lenticular bedding; (vi) homogenous coarse
grained sandstone; (vii) swaley cross-stratified sandstone; (viii) thick amalgamated
hummocky cross-stratified sandstone; (ix) fine grained bioturbated sandstone; (x)
interbedded to bioturbated siltstone and fine sandstone; (xi) bioturbated siltstone; and
(xii) mudstone interbedding with parallel stratified to hummocky cross-stratified
sandstone. These facies then was grouped into 2 facies associations, namely tide-
dominated estuary facies and storm-and-wave-dominated facies.

1.4 Scientific Problems

The Miri Formation is a siliciclastic sequence consisting of a succession of

clay-sand packages that are coarsening upwards where its sand member were very
important oil and gas reservoirs in the early production in Malaysia. The outcrop
localities in the Miri Field have been reported by many authors on various aspects,
however the definite structural and stratigraphic model of this formation is still
questionable until today. The outcrops have shown a very puzzling geology both
structurally and stratigraphically. For example one of the outcrops, i.e. the outcrop at
Miri Hospital Road 2, shows a very big contrast of a thick vertically dipping section
with a sub-horizontal or gently dipping sequence situated side by side. This was
interpreted by Schumacher (1941) as the Canada Hill Thrust which is marked by the
sudden change in topography and bedding orientation. However, the high angle (
55o) fault plane in the area is not indicative of thrust fault. The absence of the
significance folded fault plane in the field and the evidence of a very short contact
zone of a very big contrast between a thick sequence of vertically dipping section with
a sub-horizontal or gently dipping sequence situated side by side at the Miri Hospital
Road 2 outcrop suggest there is a serious weakness in the early theory of the Miri
deformation processes proposed by Schumacher (1941), which was based on two
phases of deformation; extension followed by compression.

Thirty years after the oil wells abandonment, many studies for capturing new
geological information from the Miri Formation outcrops are still being conducted,
simply because new outcrops are exposed resulting from earth works during the latest

5
urban development in the Miri Town. These outcrops particularly the Boulevard 1,
Boulevard 2 and Miri By-pass Road outcrops reveal new structural and stratigraphic
information that indicate more detailed study to be conducted. The presence of
hydrocarbon seepages in several outcrops in the area indicates that there may still be
accumulations of hydrocarbon in the reservoir also warrant further investigation.

1.5 Objectives of the Study

The primary objective of the present study is to provide additional

interpretation on the stratigraphy and structural geology of the Miri Formation in the
Miri Field based on the new information gathered from new outcrops in the area. Four
main sub-objectives are developed as follows:
(1) To describe the facies characteristics of the Miri Formation, and to
identify the depositional environment within the investigated facies.
(2) To develop the facies model of the Miri Formation based on the facies
association.
(3) To identify and analyze the bedding and faults orientation particularly in
the investigated outcrops of the Miri Formation.
(4) To develop the structural framework of the Miri Formation based on the
structural patterns of the investigated outcrops and its correlation to the
regional structure of Miri, Sarawak.

1.6 Thesis Outline

This thesis consists of five chapters. Chapter 1 is the introduction including

the scientific problems and objectives of the study. Including in this chapter is
overviews of the previous works were done in the Miri Field. Chapter 2 presents the
literature review on the geological setting of the Miri Formation and fundamental
concept of geology applicable on Miri. Chapter 3 presents the material and methods
that were used in this research. Including in this chapter is overview on the outcrops

6
description. Chapter 4 explains the results of field observation, discussion on facies,
structural geology, and the structural framework of the Miri Formation based on the
structural patterns of the outcrops and its correlation to the regional tectonic of Miri.
Chapter 5 includes the conclusions and recommendations for further study.

7
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

This chapter is brief and focused on: (1) geological setting of the Miri
Formation, and (2) fundamental concept of geology which applicable in Miri. The
geological setting of the Miri Formation reported by the previous workers on this field
is a very important literature to be reviewed. This information is very fundamental in
understanding the geology of the study area, and valuable for guiding the field
investigation and analysis conducted in this study. Due to the large scope of
fundamental geological concept which may applicable in Miri, thus only concepts
which relate to the objectives of the research were selected to be reviewed in this
chapter.

2.2 Geological Setting of the Miri Formation

Regionally, Miri Formation represents the lower part of the Sarawak Basin
which is Late Eocene to Recent in age (Mazlan, 1999). Sedimentation in the Sarawak
Basin was mainly in the coastal to shallow marine environments during the Oligocene
and Early Miocene. It was a foreland basin in collisional setting during the Oligocene
to Early Miocene subjected to active extensional and strike slip tectonic, but later
underwent a phase of coastal-shelf progradation and passive continental margin
during the Middle Miocene to Recent accompanied by phases of deformation
involving extensional, wrench faulting and thrusting (Mazlan, 1999).

8
 Although regionally the Miri Formation is part of the Sarawak Basin but
geologically, it is situated as an extended onshore part of the West Baram Delta which
is roughly triangular in shape, with its apex occurring onshore and centered in Brunei
and the northeastern coastal area of Sarawak (Tan et al., 1999). The Baram Delta
depocentre developed throughout the early Miocene as faults controlled depression,
formed at the intersection of two major crustal-scale faults; the West baram Line and
the Jerudong-Morris Fault (Figure 2.1). The appearance of Baram Delta which is
limited between major crustal-scale basement faults is an example of a continental
embankment founded by extreme sediment loading on transitional-oceanic crust.
Following an Early Miocene tectonic event, uplift and erosion were accompanied by
the deposition of a thick pile of clastic sediments which prograded seaward
throughout Neogene times. Relatively coarse sediments, predominantly sand, were
deposited in coastal plain, deltaic and coastal environments. Sedimentation was
strongly influenced by tectonic activity and very thick sequences accumulated in sub-
basin (Mazlan, 1999; Tan et al., 1999)

Since Middle Miocene, the Baram Delta has been subsiding relative to the
more stable Central Luconia and Balingian provinces to the west. Within the Baram
Delta, major increases in sedimentary thickness occur across growth fault, which
generally trend NE-SW in the main depocenter but swing towards the NW-SE
direction, on trend with the West Baram Line to the west (Berbeito, 2003). The West
Baram Delta comprises up to 9-10 km long of Miocene to Recent siliciclastic
sediments derived from the south-southeast, along the trend of the present-day Baram
River, and from the west and southwest across the West Baram Line. The distal part
of the Baram Delta is situated on the continental slope and extends into the Sabah
Through (Tan et al., 1999).

2.2.1 The Miri Formation

Rock successions outcropping around the city of Miri, which stratigraphically

belonging to the Miri Formation of Middle to Late Miocene, are the uplifted part of
the oil-bearing reservoirs in the Miri Field. The stratigraphic relationship between the
Miri Formation and surrounding Formations is shown in Figure 2.2.

9
Figure 2.1 – Baram Delta Province structural map (modified from Mazlan, 1999).

Figure 2.2 – Schematic Stratigraphic successions and correlations of Neogene

formations in Miri area (Tan et al., 1999).

10
 Artis (in Schumacher, 1941) established a biostratigraphic zonation based on
benthonic foraminifera, resulting in the lithostratigraphic scheme (Table 2.1) which is
still in use today. The study solved many correlation problems encountered by the
previous workers. Liechti et al. (1960) described the formation consists
predominantly of sandstones with shale and clay restricted mainly to the lower part.
The base of Miri Formation forms a conformable transitional contact with the
argillaceous Setap Shale and Lambir Formations. The predominated arenaceous Miri
Formation is conformably overlain by the Seria Formation.

The difference between the Lower and the Upper Miri is not clear in order to
be mapped based on the boundary on lithology alone. The Lower Miri, is composed
of interbedded sandstone and shale that grades downwards into Setap Shale
Formation. The Upper Miri is more arenaceous. This unit is composed of more
numerous and irregular shale sandstones alternations, with sandstones beds passing
gradually into clayey sandstone and sandy or silty shale (Wilford, 1961). From the
identification of marine microfauna and lithological characteristics, Liechti et al.
(1960) concluded that these sediments were deposited in a litoral to inner neritic
shallow marine environments.

Table 2.1 – Stratigraphic framework of the Miri Field (Hutchison, C.S., 2005 based
on Tan et al., 1999).

11
2.2.2 The Miri Structure

A structural model of Miri was developed after the identification of the fossils
by paleontologists was introduced by L.C. Artis (in Schumacher, 1941). Schumacher
(1941) then combined the results of the new correlation with the results of various
detailed fault studies (Figure 2.3a). This map that was improved by the Sarawak Shell
shows a subdivision of several producing reservoir units (Figure 2.3b).

Figure 2.4 is the cross sections through the Miri Field (Schumacher, 1941). It
illustrates the following elements of the structure:
(1) a set of steep normal faults hading to the northwest, one of which (the
Shell Hill fault), with a vertical displacement of thousands of feet.
(2) a set of flat normal faults, hading to the southeast with a combined throw
of some 1000 ft.
(3) a set of merging reverse faults, hading to the northwest (the Canada Hill
Thrust)
(4) an asymmetric, slightly overturned, anticlinal fold.

The development of the present day Miri structure was interpreted to be

attributed to two separate periods of deformation (Schumacher, 1941):
(1) an early period of extension, indicated by two sets of normal faults.
(2) a later period of compression, indicated by the reverse faults and the
asymmetric anticline.

The early period of extension, which prevailed during and shortly after the
deposition of the sediments (Late Miocene) gave rise to three features according to
the interpretations by Schumacher (1941):
(1) a large normal fault (the Shell Hill Fault) with a throw up to 2500 feet.
(2) a set of more or less parallel normal faults, which tend to merge with the
Shell Hill Fault at greater depth, but with much smaller displacement.
(3) a set of normal faults (antithetics) which head in the opposite direction
and may have formed as reaction to the space created during deformation.

12
 (a) (b)

13
Figure 2.3 – (a) Miri Field structural map (modified from Tan et al., 1999). (b) The Sarawak Shell geological map of the Miri Hill, showing
the subdivision of the hill into different reservoir producing units (after Ecomedia, 2000).

13
Figure 2.4 – The NW-SE cross section of the Miri Field and the stratigraphic-
structural position of the different reservoir units according to the Shell interpretation
(modified from Tan et al., 1999).

Similar composite fault systems have often been related to growth faulting.
The Shell Hill fault, also is called a growth fault, evidence for thickening of the
sediments in the down-thrown blocks is not obvious, but the regional context supports
the idea that the Miri structure does not stand on its own but as a part of a system of
similar structures with more or less the same orientation, extending all over the Baram
province. This fault system is thought to be induced by a regional system of tensional
stress which may also have been responsible for the very high rates of subsidence in
the Baram Delta and perhaps for the Baram Delta Basin itself (Berbeito, 2003).

Much later, in Pliocene times after the Miri Formation had been buried below
the Seria Formation, tectonic conditions changed. Compressional forces pushed the
previously stretched Baram Basin and buckled the sediments in a row of more or less
parallel anticlines some 10 km apart. Most oilfields in the Baram Delta province,
including the Miri Field, appear to be situated on the intersection of extensional
growth faults and compression anticlines (Berbeito, 2003).

14
 This later (Pliocene) period of compressional movements modified the
original Miri structure: the whole package of sediments was folded and the first
generation of faults was rotated anti-clockwise, so that the West headers were
steepened and the East headers flattened (Figure 4.1). Locally the formation was too
competent to buckle and break thus, creating the thrust faults (eg. Canada Hill thrust
fault) at the back of the Hill (Berbeito, 2003).

2.3 Fundamental Concept of Geology Applicable to Miri

A sedimentary facies is defined as a sediment (or sedimentary rocks) that

displays distinctive physical, chemical, and/ or biological characteristics that make it
readily distinguishable from the associated facies in the locality (Stow, 2005). As the
product of the deposition, a sedimentary facies can simply express the characteristic
of a particular depositional environment or a particular depositional process. Thus
facies model have been proposed to show the lateral and vertical relationships
between facies (Tucker, 2001).

Structural geology is the study of the architecture of the earth—especially of

the Earth’s crust. The word ‘structure’ means ‘that which is built or constructed’. In a
specific point of view, the objective of structural geology is to improve the
understanding of the internal architecture of the crust, of how that form came into
existence, and of how it has been modified (Spencer, 1988). The structural geology
study thus leads to consider the ‘setting’ or the structural framework of the
surrounding region. Simply, the study on structural framework attempts to fit the
mapped beds, folds, and/ or faults of the study area into the pattern of folded or
faulted blocks of the regional area.

2.3.1 Stratigraphy

Based on studies of modern and ancient sedimentary environments,

processes and facies, generalized facies models have been proposed to show the
lateral and vertical relationships between facies (Tucker, 2001). These models

15
facilitate interpretations of sedimentary formations and predictions of facies
distribution and geometries. However, facies models are just snap shots of an
environment; sedimentary systems are dynamic and a facies model may only relate to
a particular state of relative sea-level change (Tucker, 2001). The importance of the
vertical succession of facies was first appreciated by Johannes Walther at the end of
the nineteenth century in his ‘Law of the Correlation of Facies’: different facies in a
vertical succession reflect environments that originally were adjacent to each other,
providing there were no major breaks in sedimentation (Tucker, 2001). In other
words, only those environments that are laterally associated to each other
geographically may become associated in a vertical sequence. Thus the study of
vertical profiles means also the study of lateral facies relationship through time
(Reineck and Singh, 1980).

2.3.1.1 Sedimentary Environments

Selley (1996) defined a sedimentary environment as a part of the surface of

the earth that is physically, chemically and biologically distinct from adjacent areas. A
sedimentary environment may be a site of erosion, non-deposition (equilibrium), or
deposition. The third type of environment is the environment of depositions that
occurs in continental, shoreline and opens marine settings. It is the depositional
environment that is the principal concern and interest to sedimentologist, because this
is the environment that actually generates sedimentary sequences that are preserved in
the stratigraphic column (Selley, 1996).

There are some classifications of depositional sedimentary environments.

Furthermore most environments can be divided into sub-environments. Here are the
overview of the main sedimentary environments, sedimentary processes and the
resulting sedimentary structures for the selected environments which are related to the
outcrops detailed further in this thesis. The selected environments are tidal
depositional system, deltaic, and shallow marine depositional system.

16
A. Tidal Depositional System
Tides result from the gravitational attraction exerted on oceanic or lake waters
by the moon and the sun, with the moon having more than twice the effect of the sun.
Although tides have less effect on the transport of sediment and on coastal
morphology than waves, they affect coasts in two important ways. They govern: (i)
the strength and flow pattern of the regularly fluctuating tidal currents; and (ii) the
amount and timing of tidal rise and fall. Tidal currents are most effective when
operating in conjunction with waves (Reading, 1996).

Siliciclastic sediment is commonly deposited along marine shorelines in

beaches, barrier islands, tidal flats, estuaries and the shoreface-shallow offshore
(Selley, 1996). Detail environments classified by Tucker (2001) are described below:
(1) Beach-barrier island and strandplain system, develop in microtidal to
mesotidal areas, generally where tidal range is less than 3 m. A lagoon is
located behind a barrier island and connected to the open sea via tidal
inlets (Figure 2.5). In microtidal areas, tidal channel (inlet) are widely
spaced along the barrier, but in mesotidal locations it is prominent and
tidal deltas are usually developed at the ends of the inlets. Mud flats and
marshes are common around the lagoon, especially on the landward side
(Figure 2.5). Where there is an abundant supply of sand, high wave energy
and low tidal range, a strandplain of beach ridges forms.
(2) Tidal flats reach several kilometers in width and occur around lagoons,
behind barriers, and in estuaries and tide-dominated deltas. Tidal flat can
be separated into two main zones – the supratidal, above high-tide level
and intertidal, between high and low tide levels (Reineck & Singh, 1980).
Intertidal can be divided into three zones which are mud flats, mixed flats,
and sand flats (Figure 2.6). There is usually a decrease in sediment grain
size from sand in the low intertidal zone to silt and clay in the higher part.
Common sedimentary structures of the mid upper tidal flat (mix-muddy
flats) are various types of ripple, usually showing interference patterns,
and then give rise to flaser, wavy and lenticular bedding (Figure 2.7). In
sand flats and mixed flats, small-current ripples and wave ripples-mainly
asymmetrical. Cross-bedded sands with some herringbone structure are
most abundant (Figure 2.8)
17
 (3) Estuaries, usually shaped as an open funnel of a river in the sea which is
really influenced by tidal movement and mixing between river and sea
waters. Estuaries vary according to whether tides dominate over waves, or
the reverse. Mud flats and swamps also occur in estuaries (Tucker, 2001).
The characteristic feature of estuarine deposits is its position in the
transition from fluvial to marine deposits in a transgressive sequence, both
laterally and in a vertical sequence. Once the supply of sediment from
river becomes dominant, the estuary changes into delta and a
progradational delta sequence is produced, on the top of a transgressive
sequence (Reineck & Singh, 1980)

B. Deltaic Depositional System

Deltas are complex environments with characteristics that are determined by
the nature of the river system supplying the sediment, coastal processes and climate.
Deltas can be divided into several parts (Figure 2.9). The delta plain refers to the area
landward of the shoreline, and an upper delta plain, dominated by river processes, is
distinguished from a lower delta plain where there is some marine influence, mainly
in tidal inundation. The delta front includes the mouth bars, distal bars in front of the
distributary channels, and the prodelta in the deeper offshore region (Tucker, 2001).

The upper delta plain is the area where fluvial, lacustrine and swamp
sediments occurs. Both braided and meandering streams can occur, although the latter
are more common in upper delta plains. Branching of the main river channel may
occur to give smaller channels separated by floodplain. Also present are shallow lakes
mostly filled with fresh water, although it may be hipersaline if the climate is arid.
The lakes are site of mud deposition derived from overbank flooding of the
distributary channels. Frequently a river will break its banks by crevassing and a small
delta will build into a lake. A coarsening upward unit from silt and clay passing up
into sand is common, and this thin lacustrine deltaic unit would be cut through by
feeder channel (Tucker, 2001).

18
Figure 2.5 – Subenvironments for a beach-barrier island and lagoon shoreline system
(Tucker, 2001).

Figure 2.6 – Block diagram of a typical siliciclastic tidal flat (Dalrymple, 1992).

19
Figure 2.7 – Tidal bedding changes from (C) lenticular through (B) wavy and (A)
flaser bedding as the proportion of mud decreases, seaward (Reineck and Singh,
1980)

Figure 2.8 – Diagrams showing common types of cross bedding; (a) planar cross-
bedding, with planar bedding surfaces and tabular to wedge-shaped cross-bedded
units, (b) trough cross-bedding in horizontal, transverse and longitudinal sections, (c)
herringbone cross-bedding showing foreset lamina dipping in opposite direction, (d)
tabular, planar and trough cross-bedding interbedding (Reineck and Singh, 1980).

20
 On the lower delta, channels become more numerous as they divide into
smaller distributaries. Leeve are well developed and interdistributary bays occur at the
shoreline between channels. Bays between channels are large in some deltas and these
are gradually filled by sediments crevassing from major distributaries. (Tucker, 2001).

The delta front is the region where the sediments carried by distributaries is
deposited. At the distributary channel mouth, the flow expands, mixes with sea water
and deposited its bedload, mostly sand, at the mouth bar. Dunes giving cross bedding
and ripples giving cross lamination and flasser bedding occur on the mouth bar, but
modification takes place if wave action or tidal current are operative. Fine sediments
accumulate farther offshore in a distal bar, where fine sand and mud give laminated
and lenticular bedding. Bioturbation is common here. The delta front is the area of
progradation. Deposition on the mouth and distal bars results in a seaward building of
the delta front so that coarser sediments of the mouth bars come to overlie finer
sediments of the distal bar and prodelta. The thick, coarsening-upward unit so
produced is the characteristics feature of the deltas (Tucker, 2001). Modern deltas can
be subdivided on the strength of the fluvial, wave and tidal input into three categories;
river-dominated deltas, wave-dominated deltas and tide-dominated deltas (Tucker,
2001).

Figure 2.9 – The subenvironments of a lobate and elongate (bird’s foot) delta.
Progradation of lobate delta give rise to a laterally extensive delta front, whereas a
linear sand body is generated by an elongate delta (Tucker, 2001).

21
C. Coastal and Shallow Marine Depositional System
The coast separates continents from seas and may develop in various
geomorphic and sedimentological variants. Shallow marine environment away from
the coastline with water depths ranges from 10 to 200 m occur on continental shelves.
Coastal and shallow marine environments are characterized by the interplay between
chemical or biogenic grains and clastic sediment transported into the system by rivers
of variable current strength, and the marine processes in the form of wind-generated
waves, storm, tides and the fluctuations of relative sea-level (Reineck & Singh, 1980).
Shallow marine depositional system includes environments from beach (foreshore)
and shoreface, through inner and outer shelf settings as shown in Figure 2.10. The
backshore represents the upper part of a beach which remains normally dry, except
under unusually high water conditions, when it can be flooded and acted upon by
waves and weak currents (Reineck & Singh, 1980). Within foreshore and shoreface
environments, sediment transport is driven by waves. The waves are able to move
sediment on the sea floor at a maximum depth of about half their wavelength.
Shoreface is characterized by day to day sand transport above fair-weather wave base.
This environment is sand-dominated. The base of the shoreface can be defined at the
point where sandstones-mudstones pass upward into relatively clean sandstones.
While offshore is characterized by mud-dominated. Wave and storm may produce
some common sedimentary structures in shoreface and shallow marine, such as
ripples and dunes, hummocky cross-stratification, and swaley cross-stratification
(Reineck & Singh, 1980).

Figure 2.10 – Generalized shoreline profile showing subenvironments, processes and

facies (Reading, 1996).
22
2.3.1.2 Methods for Environments Diagnosis

There are many different techniques which can be used to determine the
depositional environment of a sedimentary rock. These vary considerably according
to whether the study is based on surface or sub-surface information. The techniques of
environmental analysis can most conveniently be discussed under the five defining
parameters of a facies: geometry, lithology, sedimentary structures, palaeocurrent
patterns, and fossils (Selley, 1985). Sedimentary facies is the result of various
processes that have operated in the environment in which the rock was deposited,
such as physical, chemical and biological processes (Table 2.2).

Table 2.2 – The relationship between the sedimentary environments and sedimentary
facies (Selley, 1985).

A. Geometry
A facies is a three dimensional body of rock having geometrical shape that
reflect its pre-depositional topography, the geomorphology of the depositional
environment and its post-depositional history (Selley, 1985). Similarity facies
geometry could be produced in one of several environments, for example channels
could be fluvial, deltaic, tidal or submarine. Geometry of sedimentary facies is not
diagnostic of sedimentary environment. Determination of geometry is relatively
simple where is exposed clearly on the outcrop surface. Tracing a sedimentary unit
provides information on lateral continuity, thickness and changing in characters.

23
B. Lithology
Simply, lithology means the description of the physical character of a rock. In
term of a sedimentary rock, lithology is considered as a function of transportation
processes on land of the type of rock from which it was originated. Rock texture is
referred to be as part of lithology study that holds many important clues to its
depositional processes and environments (Tucker, 2001). The basic descriptive
texture element of all sedimentary rocks is the grain size. Grain size of sediments is a
sign of a hydraulic energy of the environment, where the finer sediments are
transported by slower-flowing currents and tend to accumulate in quiet environments,
whereas the coarser sediments are transported and deposited by faster-flowing
currents. The spatial relationship between grain size distributions in a rock is often
described in terms of sorting. In a well sorted rock all the grains are about the same
size and shape, whereas a poorly sorted rock contains grains with different size and
shape. Sorting is one of the most useful parameters because it gives an indication of
the effectiveness of the depositional medium in separating grains of different classes
(Tucker, 2001). Three aspects of grain morphology are the shape, sphericity and
roundness. The shape of a grain is measured by various ratios involving the long (L),
intermediate (I) and short (S) axes. Sphericity is a measure of how closely the grain
shape approaches that of a sphere. Roundness is concerned with the curvature of the
corners of a grain. Grain fabric in a sedimentary rock refers to the grain orientation
and packing, and to the nature of the boundaries between the grains (Tucker, 2001).

C. Sedimentary Structures
Sedimentary structures are the larger-scale features of sedimentary rocks and
include the familiar cross bedding, ripples, flute and load cast, dinosaur foot prints
and worm burrows. The majority structures are formed by physical processes, before,
during and after sedimentation, whereas some are the results of organic and chemical
processes. Sedimentary structures particularly those formed during sedimentation
have a variety of uses: (1) for interpreting the depositional environment in term of
processes, water depth, wind strength, etc.; (2) for determining the way-up of a rock
succession in an area of complex folding; and (3) for deducing the palaeocurrent
pattern of the palaeogeography (Tucker, 2001).

24
 Sedimentary structures can be classified into primary and secondary classes
(Selley, 1988). Primary structures are formed by physical processes in sediments
during or shortly after deposition such as cross bedding, , ripples, flute marks, slumps,
etc. Primary sedimentary structures are divisible into inorganic structures including
those already mentioned and organic (biogenic) structures such as burrows, trails, etc.,
while the secondary structures that formed sometime after sedimentation is the result
of chemical processes, which generally caused diagenetic formation of concretions.

D. Palaeocurrent Patterns
Many sedimentary structures can be used to determine the sense, and
sometimes the flow direction of the current from which they deposited the sediment.
Palaeocurrent analysis is very important for mapping the palaeogeography of
sedimentary basins, and as an aid to interpreting depositional environment.
Furthermore it is a very powerful tool in predicting the geometry, and trend of mineral
deposits and petroleum reservoir characteristics in sedimentary rocks. The structures
that may be used to interpret palaeocurrent range in scale from channels, down to the
orientation of fossils and sand grains (Selley, 1996).

E. Fossil
Fossil and trace fossils are regarded as one of the most important methods of
identifying the depositional environment of sediment. Fossils is related to the remains
of animal and plant in sediments such as shells, leaves and fish scales, while the
sedimentary structures that formed by organism, the way in which fossil lived,
behaved and their influence by their environments are known as trace fossils (Selley,
1985). A group of fossils that occur at the same stratigraphic level are largely
controlled by certain related parameters that reflect their environment. such as
gradients in water temperature, salinity, dissolved oxygen, turbulence, sedimentation
rates and current activity are the main parameters controlling the occurrence of
various fossil types. Trace fossils such as tracks, trails, burrows and borings may often
be the only evidence of life in sediment if body fossils were not preserved.

25
2.3.2 Structural Geology

The primary goal of structural geology mapping is to use measurements of

present-day rock geometries to uncover information about the history of deformation
(strain) in the rock and ultimately to understand the stress field and link it into
important events in the regional past geologic processes. On a large scale, structural
geology is the study of the three dimensional relationships of stratigraphic units to one
another within geological regions as a result of deformation processes.

2.3.2.1 Deformation Processes

Deformation is often described as strain. Strain is the measure of the

deformation of a body. It involves the displacement of the parts relative to each other
that is a change in shape or in volume, or both. Changes in shape are called distortion,
and in volume are called dilatation. When forces are applied to the external surface of
a body, they set up internal forces within the body, which is then called as stress (Hills,
1975). The response of a rock to stress depends on the type of stress, the amount of
pressure, the temperature, the type of rock, and the length of time the rock is subjected
to the stress. Based on Hills (1975), there are three types of stress:
(1) Compressional stress is forces which directed toward one another that tend
to decrease the volume of a material.
(2) Tensional stress is stretching stress that tends to increase the volume of a
material, and
(3) Shear stress is forces that is parallel but in opposite directions, resulting in
displacement of adjacent layers along closely spaced planes.

As a response to stress, strain on a rock may be taken as two types of

deformation (Hills, 1975):
(1) Elastic deformation where strain is proportional to stress. Rock will return
to original volume/shape if stress is removed.
(2) Plastic Deformation is a permanent deformation caused by flowing and
folding at stresses above the elastic limit at high confining pressure and/or
temperature. Warm rocks tend to deform plastically.

26
 Once the elastic limit is surpassed, the rocks behavior can be different. Rocks
will deform plastically if the rock is ductile—called ductile deformation, or they will
fracture (rupture) if the rock is brittle—called brittle deformation. Rocks at or near the
surface (cold, low pressure) tend to deform by brittle rupture.

2.3.2.2 Geological Structures of planar Type

Geological mapping is one of the most important sources of structural data

which is usually dealing with outcrops. The rocks at the vast majority of outcrops
posses some kind of planar structure. A frequently used way of describing the attitude
of a planar structure is to measure and record the strike, dip and direction of dip.
Geologists use the concept of strike and dip to describe the orientation of deformed
rock layers

In most sedimentary rocks a planar structure known as bedding is visible. This

is a primary feature formed at the time of deposition and layering is characterized by
compositional, textural or grain size variations (Leyshon and Lisle, 1996). Other
planar geometry in rocks is joint, fault and fold planes which the elements of
deformation product. Joints are fractures in rocks along which little or no movement
has taken place. Assessment of the orientation of joints is an essential part of any
stability analysis. Joints can be caused by compression or tension. Compressional
stress can produce joints in the area of a fold axis. Whereas faults are planes along
which the rock on one side is displaced relative to the other. The directions of
principal stress axes at the time of faulting can be estimated from the orientation of
fault planes (Leyshon and Lisle, 1996). Joints and faults are the features of brittle
deformation. Folds are structures produced when an originally planar surface becomes
bent or curved as a result of deformation (Park, 1997). Folds are produced by ductile
deformation during compressive stress. Axial plane of fold is another planar structure
which bisects the angle between two limbs of a fold. Fault and fold will be the main
point discussed later in this thesis.

27
A. Faults
Faults are the results of brittle deformation where the breaks move relative to
each other. The forces that are acting in the block can be compressional, tensional or
shear stresses. Several classifications of faults may be used to give a more complete
description of faults (Spencer, 1988). The most commonly used terms are based on
the apparent relative movement of the fault blocks as follows:
(1) Normal fault: the hanging wall (block above an inclined fault) is down
relative to the foot wall (block below the fault). Commonly normal fault
have steep dips (± 60 o), but in many cases the dips become less at depth
and can become sub horizontal.
(2) Reverse fault: the hanging wall is up relative to the footwall. Reverse
faults dip at steep angles—commonly 45o or more.
(3) Thrust fault: a reverse fault with a low average angle of dip. Lateral
displacement is generally much greater than the vertical displacement.
Dips may vary from horizontal to steep along the same fault.
(4) Strike-slip fault: lateral movement of the blocks parallel to the strike of the
fault.

Normal faults, is form in response to extension. The fault zones associated

with them are quite different from thrust or strike slip zones. Most normal faults have
steeply dipping fault plane, but many are curved and have shallower dips at depth and
some curve until they become parallel to bedding at depth. The following are some
common structural patterns along the normal faults classified by Spencer, 1988:
(1) Grabens, down-dropped blocks bounded by more or less parallel normal
faults that dip toward one another, and horsts, up thrown blocks bounded
by normal faults, are characteristic features of lateral extension.
(2) Antithetic faults are a minor, secondary fault, usually one of a set and
have an orientation opposite to its associated major and synthetic faults.
Antithetic-synthetic fault sets are typical in areas of normal faulting.
(3) Reverse drag is distortion of layering near normal faults caused by drag
of the layering along the fault as the result of frictional forces set up in
the fault zone. Drag on the downthrown side of the fault usually in the
opposite direction from the block movement orientation (Figure 2.11)

28
 (4) Listric fault is a normal fault where the dip of the fault decreases with
depth (Spencer, 1988). Listric fault may be accompanied by an
accommodation fold, known as a rollover anticline. The accommodation
may take place by the formation of a set of antithetic faults, which have
the effect of extending and thinning the hanging wall (Park, 1997).

Figure 2.11 – Features associated with normal fault zones. (A) Rotation of one block
on a curved fault. (B) Reverse drag. (C) A small graben formed along the fault zone
as a result of movement on antithetic faults (Spencer, 1988).

Figure 2.12 – Cross section of St. Genevieve fault zone, Ozora, Missouri, showing
drag along one of the reverse faults in the zone (Spencer, 1988).

29
 A reverse fault is one on which the hanging wall moves up relative to the
footwall. This type of fault is the result of compressional stress. Generally reverse
fault have a high (45o or more) average dip. This distinguishes them from thrust faults
which have low average dips and generally involve large amounts of lateral
movement of the rocks above the fault zone (Spencer, 1988). The following are some
common structural patterns along the reverse faults classified by Spencer (1988):
(1) Synthetic and antithetic faults usually accompanied a major reverse
faults.
(2) Extensional features are another structural pattern formed along the
reverse fault. As the uplifted block rises, a high relatively unconfined
surface is formed along the margin. This surface tends to bend and
expand, and the resulting extension leads to the development of grabens
and step faults oriented parallel with the block margin.
(3) Drag is likely resulted by a deformation of stratified rocks along reverse
fault. This may appear on either the upthrown or the downthrown side of
the fault; it may appear on both sides and only a single side (Figure 2.12).

The term thrust fault is applied to faults of low average dip (< 30o) on which
the hanging wall has moved up relative to the footwall (Spencer, 1988). This fault is
also the result of compressional stress. Folding that usually accompanies thrusting,
especially of thin bedded sedimentary layers within and adjacent to thrust fault, is
probably due to drag produced as the overthrust sheet moves laterally. Development
of folds presumably progresses from open to asymmetric and finally to overturned
form. The next step in this progression would presumably be a thrust fault forming
parallel to the bedding and cutting through the layers on the overturned limb of the
asymmetric fold.

Strike slip fault is also called wrench faults because they involve lateral
shearing. Where they cut local structures, they may be called tranverse faults, but
many strike slip faults are parallel to the regional trends of the deformed belts in
which they occur (Spencer, 1988).

30
 Another type of fault which is related with the topic in this thesis is growth
fault. Growth fault is a type of fault on which there were displacements at the same
time as the sediments on either side of the fault were accumulating (Spencer, 1988).
Most growth faults are normal faults. A growth fault is characterized by the strata on
the hanging wall side of the fault tend to be thicker than those on the footwall side
(Figure 2.13). It is commonly formed in the delta front or prodelta region. With time,
offsets of marker beds increase with depth, and sediment thickness increases abruptly
across the fault. The fault angle decreases with depth and commonly associated with it
are rollover folds or reverse drag structures (Tucker, 2001).

Figure 2.13 – Features of growth fault shows the thickening strata on the hanging wall.

The direction of stress that causes faulting is illustrated in Figure 2.14. Three
sets of conditions in which the stresses act as recognized by Hills (1975):
(1) Maximum stress horizontal; mean stress horizontal; minimum stress
vertical. This produce reverses faults. The section of faulted rock is
shortened in the direction of maximum compression (Figure 2.14-A).
(2) Maximum stress horizontal; minimum stress horizontal; mean stress
vertical. This produce complementary strike-slip faults (Figure 2.14-B).
(3) Maximum stress vertical; minimum and mean stress horizontal. This
produces normal faults dipping at more than 45 o (Figure 2.14-C).

31
Figure 2.14 – Initial stress distribution on the mechanism of faulting (Hills, 1975).

B. Fold
The main elements of the geometry of the fold shape are, firstly, the hinge (or
closure), which is the zone of maximum curvature of the surface, and secondly, the
limbs which are the areas between hinges (Park, 1997). A single fold comprises a
hinge and two limbs which enclose the hinge. In a series of folds, each limb is
common to two adjacent folds. If it is possible to define a line along which the
maximum curvature of the fold takes place, this line is called the hinge line. Under
normal conditions where the bedding becomes younger upwards, a fold will contain
older rocks in its core is called anticline. Thus the term anticline strictly applies only
to a fold with older rocks in its core. Conversely, a syncline is a fold that contains
younger rocks in its core. Other common term related to fold is dome. It is an up-
warped structure with a circular or elliptical outcrop pattern. Beds dip away from
center of structure suggests the oldest rocks are at center.

32
 Most folds, when viewed in a section perpendicular to the axial surface, may
be described as symmetrical or asymmetrical on the basis of the symmetry of the
limbs disposed about the axial surface. Depending on the inclination of the axial
surface, folds (Figure 2.15) may be described as upright, inclined, overturned or
recumbent (Spencer, 1988).

Figure 2.15 – Example of various types of fold symmetry as viewed in cross sections
normal to the fold axis (Spencer, 1988).

Other components that can be determined in a fold are limbs, interlimb angle,
fold axis and axial plane. The interlimb angle expresses the tightness of a fold. As the
name suggests, it is the angle between the two fold limbs. Once calculated, according
to Leyshon and Lisle (1996), the interlimb angle allows the fold to be classified as
shown in Table 2.3.

Table 2.3 – Fold classification based on the interlimb angle (Leyshon and Lisle, 1996)

Class Interlimb angle

Gentle fold (180-120o)
Open fold (120-70 o)
Close fold (70-30 o)
Tight fold (30-0o)
Isoclinal (0o)

33
 In analyzing folds, the orientation attributes of folds (plunge and axial surface)
allows to be classified as in tables 2.4 and 2.5.

Table 2.4 – Fold classification based on plunge (Leyshon and Lisle, 1996)

Plunge Class
(0 -10o) non-plunging
(10-30 o) gently plunging
(30-60 o) moderately plunging
(60-80 o) steeply plunging
(80-90 o) vertical fold

Table 2.5 – Fold classification based on dip of axial surface (Leyshon and Lisle, 1996)

Dip Class
(0 -10o) recumbent
(10-30 o) gently inclined
(30-60 o) moderately inclined
(60-80 o) steeply inclined
(80-90 o) upright fold

The mechanism of folding and it relationship with stress and strain can be
examined in laboratory using a slab material of uniform internal structure. When it is
bent into a fold, it may be seen by using a square grid, or lines of circles impressed on
the side of the slab before folding. The distribution of tension and compression within
the bent slab can be analyzed (Hills, 1975). The outer, convex side is subject to an
extension parallel to the circumference of the fold, while the inner, concave side
undergoes compression (Figure 2.16).

Figure 2.16 – Distribution of tension and compression within a bent slab (Hills, 1975).

34
2.3.2.3 Stereographic Projection Techniques in Structural Geology

A stereographic projection is a special kind of azimuth projection that was

developed and refined by cyclographers (Marshak and Mitra, 1998). The idea of
stereographic projection is to project the structural line or plane onto a sphere
(Leyshon and Lisle, 1996). Figure 2.17 shows the projection of line and plane as they
are observed in the field. The final result of this projection is to produce a
representation on a flat piece of paper of three-dimensional orientations i.e. attitudes
of bedding planes, fault plane, etc. (h, i).

Besides providing a means of representing three-dimensional orientations, the

stereographic projection is used as a tool for solving a large variety of geometrical
problems such as to calculate:
(1) The plunge and plunge direction of the axis of folding of bedding planes.
(2) The angle between any pair of bedding planes and the interlimb angle of
the folds.
(3) The orientation of the axial plane of the fold (the plane which bisect the
angle between the limbs of the fold).
(4) The net slip of faults and estimating the fault trends of an area, etc.

The stereographic net is the device used for these (above) constructions. Types
of stereographic net are stereographic (Wullf) equatorial net, equal-area (Lambert/
Schmidt) equatorial net, equal-area polar net, and Kalsbeek counting net. In practice,
Wullf net and Schmidt net are almost having a same concept except that Wullf
projected directions in the centre of stereogram, thus area-distortion effect may
happen.

Leyshon and Lisle (1996) recommended simple rules on the use of the nets:
(1) Whenever the densities of plotted directions are important, the equal area
(Schmidt net) projection must be used.
(2) For all other applications, including the geometrical constructions, either
projection can be used.
(3) Some constructions which involve drawing small sircle may be more
conveniently carried out using the Wullf net.

35
Figure 2.17 – A scheme shows the idea of stereographic projection of the structural
line and plane (Leyshon and Lisle, 1996).

36
 The polar equatorial net is a tool which simplifies the construction of a
stereogram, because by polar net, it is unnecessary to rotate the net during the
procedure for plotting lines or planes. While Kalsbeek counting net is a tool which
simplifies the densities of plotted directions into contouring features. Contouring is a
way of showing the density of plotted planes or lines on a stereogram and the
variation of density across the stereogram. The effect of contouring is to produce a
smoothed representation of the data which emphasizes the properties of the
assemblage of points rather than of individuals (Leyshon and Lisle, 1996). Figure
2.18 is a scheme that shows the idea of density contouring on stereogram.

Figure 2.18 – (a) The poles of planar or linear structures plotted using a Schmidt net.
(b) The Kalsbeek counting-net. (c) The number of points occurring in each hexagon,
and (d) the resulting contour lines (modified from Leyshon and Lisle, 1996).

37
 CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

This chapter explains the materials and research methodologies that were used
in this study. A field work was conducted to investigate the sedimentology,
stratigraphy and the structural geology of the Miri Formation. The research uses
primary data collected from outcrops and secondary data from previous maps and
structural and sedimentological studies of the Miri Field. The primary data from the
field study were integrated to produce the facies model and the structural framework
of the Miri Formation, in the Miri Field, Sarawak. In this research, features in
mesoscopic and macroscopic scale were investigated.

In order to complete the field work, four field trips of accumulated 40 days
were spent in Miri town and the surrounding area. In details are; reconnaissance study
(1st-6th August 2007), field mapping (3rd - 17th November 2007), field mapping (21st
April -1 st May 2008) and field mapping (3rd – 8th January 2010). The field work
focused on sedimentological features description, structural mapping and logging of
the outcrops belonging to the Miri Formation.

3.2 Outcrop Descriptions

Eighteen outcrops were examined in detail on structural geology. In order to

simplify the data correlation between the outcrops, studied outcrops were divided into
three sections part: northern part (represented by 6 outcrops), middle part

38
(represented by 9 outcrops), and southern part (represented by 3 outcrops), as
indicates in Figure 3.1. Among these eighteen outcrops, five outcrops were chosen
also for detail sedimentology and stratigraphy studies. The choosing of these five
outcrops were based on consideration that for stratigraphy and sedimentology
purposes, an outcrop need to be well exposed, fresh, showing a thick sequences which
make it proper to do a sedimentological logging, and/ or indicate a lithology contact.
While for structural geology studies, the measurable orientation of structural elements
in the outcrop is the main consideration. Summary of the outcrops description of the
fieldwork based on the section division are as follows:

3.2.1 The Northern Part

Location 1: Boulevard 1 outcrop

This outcrop located in front of the Boulevard Shopping Complex, on Jalan Miri Pujut
is recently exposed because of construction activities in the area. It represents the
northern flank of the Miri anticline. The hill cut here exposes thick beds of sandstone.
Stratigraphically, the rocks belong to the Pujut Shallow Sands, which is the most
important reservoir in the Miri Field. The Boulevard 1 outcrop also exposes a series
of faults, which can be followed along vertical and horizontal surfaces in over large
distances. The three-dimensional view of these faults thus can be observed and
analyzed.

Location 2: Boulevard 2 outcrop

This outcrop is also located along Jalan Miri Pujut, about two kilometers to the south
of the Boulevard 1 outcrop. It is the most recent outcrop which exposed because of
construction activities in the area. The hill cut here exposes thick beds of sandstone in
relatively steeply dipping beds.

Location 3: Padang Kerbau 1 outcrop

This outcrop located behind a residential estate on Jalan Padang Kerbau and also
situated near production well Miri-611. It is represents the southern flank of the Miri
anticline. The hill cut here exposes thick beds of sandstone interbedded with thin
muddy interval. Stratigraphically, the rocks here belong to the “105” Sands.
39
Figure 3.1 – Topographic map showing location of the eighteen outcrops. All
outcrops were selected for structural studies (O), except for five outcrops ( ) which
were selected for structural, and also stratigraphy and sedimentological studies.

40
Location 4: Padang Kerbau 2 outcrop
This outcrop is also located behind a private house along Jalan Padang Kerbau, about
750 meters to the northeast of the Padang Kerbau 1 outcrop. The hill cut here exposes
thick beds of sandstone in relatively gentle dipping beds.
.
Location 5: Padang Kerbau 3 outcrop
This outcrop is also along Jalan Padang Kerbau, about 700 meters to the northeast of
the Padang Kerbau 2 outcrop. The hill cut here exposes thick beds of sandstone which
stratigraphically, the rocks here belong to the “Pujut Shallow Sands”.

Location 6: Canada Hill western flank 1 outcrop

This outcrop is located along the way to the top of Canada Hill (Grand Old Lady), not
far from road junction where Jabatan Pengangkutan Jalan Miri is located. It is
represents the western flank of the Miri anticline.

3.2.2 The Middle Part

Location 7: Canada Hill western flank 2 outcrop

This outcrop is located along Jalan Miri Pujut, beside the Shell petrol station, about a
kilometer to the south of the Canada Hill western flank 1 outcrop. The hill cut here
exposes amalgamated beds of sandstone.

Location 8: Canada Hill top outcrop

This outcrop is located behind the Miri Museum, on top of the Canada Hill. It is also
situated near the Miri-1 discovery well (Grand Old Lady) represent the crest of the
Miri anticline. The outcrop exposes sandstone in a gently dipping as a topographic
capped-stone which formed the top of Canada Hill as plateau or flat terrain.

Location 9: Hillstone Utama outcrop

This outcrop is located in the Taman Hillstone residential estate, on Jalan Hillstone
Utama, which also situated at the top of the hill cut of Hospital Road 1 outcrop. The

41
outcrop exposes sandstone in a very gently dipping beds, and stratigraphically the
rocks here belong to the upper part of the “105” Sands.

Location 10: Hospital Road 1 outcrop

This outcrop is located behind the residential estate, on Jalan Cahaya (better known as
Hospital Road) represents the east side of the Canada Hill which is characterized by
an abrupt topographical drop due to the fault scarps of the Shell Hill fault and the
Canada Hill thrust. The hill cut here exposes thick beds of sandstone interbedded with
muddy sediments, in sub horizontal or gently dipping beds. Stratigraphically, the
rocks here has been classified as part of the “105” Sands.

Location 11: Hospital Road 2 outcrop

Only a few meters to the southwest from the sub-horizontal of Miri Hospital Road 1
outcrop, exposed the Miri Hospital Road 2 outcrop as a thick vertical dipping layers.
The total measured stratigraphic thickness of this vertical beds section is in excess of
260 meters thick. The Miri Hospital Road outcrop, which reveals both sub-horizontal
and vertical dipping beds, is a complicated facies stratigraphy and very puzzling
structural geology where such as faults, fold nose and joints were exposed here. The
correlation model between these outcrops is still questionable. The correlation ideas
of these outcrops then were proposed at the last part of this chapter.

Location 12: Hospital Road 3 outcrop

This outcrop is also located along Jalan Cahaya, about two hundred meters to the east
of the three junctions Jalan Miri Bintulu. It is a small outcrop in total length is 5
meters with 2 meters in height. The outcrop exposes sandstone in relatively gently
dipping beds to the west.

Location 13: Hilltop Garden 1 outcrop

This outcrop is located in the Taman Hilltop residential apartment, which exposes
thick beds of sandstone with intensely bioturbation imprint. Stratigraphically, the
rocks here have been classified as part of the “No. 1” Sand. This was the first
reservoir to be brought to production in Miri. It started to produce 83 bbl per day in
December 1910 from the Miri-1 discovery well and maintained production until the

42
final abandonment of the field in 1972. It was nevertheless not a very important
reservoir. Total production from the No. 1 Sand never reached 2 MMbbl, and it
contributed only about 3 percent of the total production of the Miri Field.

Location 14: Hilltop Garden 2 outcrop

This outcrop is located behind a private house in the Taman Lai Paw residential estate
on Jalan Simpang and situated at the opposite site of the Hilltop Garden 1 outcrop.
The outcrop exposes thick beds sandstone.

Location 15: Miri By-pass Road outcrop

This outcrop located along Jalan Miri By-pass is recently exposed because of
construction activities in the area. It represents the most eastern part of the Miri
Formation outcrops. The hill cut exposes thick beds of sandstone that is also exposes
a series of faults, which can be followed along vertical and horizontal surfaces in over
few meters. The three-dimensional view of these faults can be observed and analyzed,
and thus provide a mesoscopic scale structural analogue for the existence of vertical
and sub-horizontal dipping beds which is situated side by-side.

3.2.3 The Southern Part

Location 16: Airport Road 1 outcrop

This outcrop located in front of Taman Awam Miri, along Jalan Miri Bintulu (better
known as the Airport Road) is one of the most famous outcrop of the Miri Formation
in Miri. The outcrop was interpreted as an exhumed part of a collapse crestal anticline
between the Shell Hill fault in the north and the Canada Hill thrust in the south. The
hill cut here exposes thick sandstone beds interbedded with thin muddy interval.
Stratigraphically, the rocks here belong to the “456” Sands. The “456” Sand did not
contribute much to the total production of the field. Its production is about 2.5 MMbbl,
which amount to some 4.2 percent to the total production of the Miri Field. The
Airport Road 1 outcrop also exposes a series of faults, which can be followed along
vertical and horizontal surfaces in over large distances. The three-dimensional view
of these faults thus can be observed and analyzed.

43
Location 17: Airport Road 2 outcrop
Only a few meters to the east from the Airport Road 1 outcrop, exposed the Airport
Road 2 outcrop. It is located in the south part of the Taman Awam Miri area. The
outcrop exposes thick beds sandstone with fold nose and joints were also exposed
here.

Location 18: Tg. Lobang outcrop

This outcrop is marked by a cliff around Tanjong Lobang area, just few hundred
meters to the southwest from the Miri bay Taman Selera. The hill cut exposes thick
beds of sandstone interbedded with thin mudstone interval, which stratigraphically
have been classified as part of the “Pujut Shallow Sands”. This reservoir unit
contributed 2.1 MMbbl to the Miri Field production, mostly in the first half of the
1920’s.

All outcrops were investigated for structural geology studies. Specifically for
stratigraphy and sedimentological studies, were conducted from outcrops in location 1,
10, 11, 13 and 16. Detail fieldwork activities which divided into stratigraphic and
structural studies thus are given at the following part in this chapter.

3.3 Stratigraphic and Facies Studies

Field sketches and sedimentological graphic logs were the principle

information recorded during the data collection. Field sedimentological logging was
conducted based on the bed thickness, geometry, lithology (includes texture, color,
etc.), sedimentary structure and fossils. Based on these sedimentary features, the
names of facies were identified called lithofacies. The end product of the logging
outcrops is a stratigraphic column, showing the major bedding surfaces and lithofacies
of the outcrops. Once the stratigraphic column was established, interpretation of the
depositional processes was carried out based on the lithofacies analysis. These facies
analysis also defined the particular sedimentary environment. An example of
sedimentology log chart that were used during the outcrops logging can be seen in
Table 3.1. Detailed facies features were also completed with photographs of the

44
outcrops. Mapping with Global Positioning System (GPS) handheld was conducted
during the field mapping. By using GPS, each of the log sections were tied up with
GPS global coordinates for positioning.

Stratigraphy and sedimentological studies were conducted on the individual

facies types which later were grouped into facies associations. The facies association
here indicates the different types of facies which commonly occur together. Based on
the facies association, the facies model was established as a summary of the Miri
depositional environments.

3.4 Structural Studies

The strike, dip and dip direction (attitude) of the rock planar surfaces (i.e. fault,
joint, fold axis, fold limbs and sedimentary bed) were the principle information
recorded during the data collection. Specifically for detail fault studies (i.e. from the
four main outcrops of location 1, 10, 15 and 16), the works include: (1) record the
orientation of the fault planes; (2) identification of marker beds for measurement of
throw; (3) sketches the style of faulting from any mesostructure outcrops and
capturing in photos. The amount of data collected for structural analysis based on
bedding, faults and folds in one location is about 15-30 measurements, then for any
location which do not indicate any faults and/ or folds element, bedding and joints
planes were measured in this location. Once the data were collected, they are plotted
in the topographic base map of Miri at the scale of 1:14,000 during the fieldwork.
Thus it is possible to visualize the geometrical relationship of geological features on
Miri.

Besides plotted the data, some geological cross-sections were also created to
show the relationship of the structural data in three-dimensional features. There are
four cross-sections were created in this work. Four section lines were constructed
perpendicular to the general strike directions of measured bedding planes (NW-SE
and SW-NE orientation),

45
 Structural data that have been collected and plotted on the base map were
interpreted and analyzed using the stereographic projection, so as to present visualized
the data in two dimensional forms. The analysis was divided into two primary works:
(1) analysis the bedding and fold trend of the Miri Formation for each section and (2)
analysis the fault trend of the Miri Formation. Only general bedding and fault trend
were selected for these analyses. In this research, the stereographic analysis was
conducted using a software of stereonet 32 version 1.0.1 created by Klauss Roller and
Claudia A. Trapmann, 2008 with combination of free hand method.

Detail analysis of the bedding and fold data of the Miri Fomation was
conducted as follows:
(1) All readings of the beddings from all locations which represent one
section area were plotted on a single stereogram (Schmidt-net). For
example data from six outcrops of the northern section of the Miri
Formation were plotted as poles.
(2) Density contouring were conducted using Kalsbeek net
(3) The point which indicates the highest density was choosen as a
representation point of the bedding trend.
(4) The point was then projected as a great circle by Schmidt net projection.
(5) If a single great circle was found, it means that the bedding trend of that
section area just tilted without folded, but if the great circle was more
than one, it is then considered as limbs which means the section area was
folded, thus axial plane and fold axis was generated.
(6) The relationship of the bedding trend of all sections area was produced
by comparing the general trend of each section.

The above method was repeated for all three sections: northern, middle and southern
parts of the Miri Formation.

Detail analysis of the fault data of the Miri Fomation was conducted as
follows:
(1) Faults were projected at the same way as the beddings data where all
readings of the fault plane from all locations which represent one section

46
 area were plotted on a single stereogram (Schmidt-net). For example the
data from six outcrops of the northern section of the Miri Formation
were plotted as poles.
(2) Density contouring were conducted using Kalsbeek net
(3) The point which indicates the highest density can be choosing as a
representation point of the fault trend.
(4) The point was then projected as a great circle by Schmidt net projection.
(5) If a single great circle was found, it means that there is only one fault
trend in that area, but if the great circle is more than one, it can be
considered as there are more than one fault trend in that area were
considered. Intersections between two faults considered as the
intermediate stress axis (2), thus 1 and 3 can be determined.
(6) The relationship of the fault trend of all sections area was produced by
comparing the general trend of each section.
(7) The structural framework was produced by comparing the stress
orientation of all sections.

The above method was also repeated for all three sections: northern, middle and
southern parts of the Miri Formation.

47
Table 3.1 An Example of Sedimentology Log Chart.

48
 CHAPTER 4

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Introduction

This chapter presents the results of field observation and discussion on the
facies, stratigraphy, and structural analysis carried out on the Miri Formation outcrops.
The stratigraphical and structural interpretation of these rocks includes the facies
descriptions, its association and model in term of the depositional environment, the
structural relationship among the investigated outcrops, and the correlations between
the local and regional structure on Miri are given in this chapter.

4.2 Facies Characteristics and its Model

Five outcrops that were chosen for sedimentology and stratigraphy studies
namely outcrops at location 1, 10, 11, 13 and 16 are well exposed and composed of a
wide range of siliciclastic lithofacies, which may reflect variety of depositional
environment. Photographs of each of the outcrops are shown in Figure 4.1, 4.2, 4.3,
4.4, and 4.5. Based on lithology, sedimentary structures, bedding geometry and trace
fossil, the sediments in these outcrops can be grouped into lithofacies, thus were
grouped into two main facies associations: tide-dominated estuary and wave-and-
storm dominated facies association. At the Airport Road 1, Hilltop Garden 1 and
Hospital Road 2 outcrops, the facies are more tidally influenced environment. While
at the Boulevard 1 and Hospital Road 1 outcrops, wave-and-storm generated facies
was dominant. Based on the facies and facies association, a summary of the Miri
depositional environments are explained as the facies model and presented at the last
part of this sub-chapter.
49
 a

FA-2
FA-2
FA-2

50
b

Figure 4.1 – Photograph shows an overview of the stratigraphy at the Boulevard 1 outcrops exposes thick beds of sandstone. (a) Zoom for the
south view of the outcrop. (b) The overall view of the outcrop (picture taken from the west side). FA-2 (Facies Association-2) represents
wave-and-storm dominated facies association.
50
 FA-1
FA-1
FA-1

51
Figure 4.2 – Photograph shows an overview of the stratigraphy at the Airport Road 1 outcrops exposes thick sandstone beds interbedded with
thin muddy interval. FA-1 (Facies Association-1) represents tide-dominated estuary facies association.

51
 FA-1
FA-1

52
FA-2

Figure 4.3 – Photograph shows an overview of the stratigraphy at the Hilltop Garden 1 outcrops exposes thick beds of sandstone with
intensely bioturbation imprint. FA-1 (Facies Association-1) represents tide-dominated estuary facies association and FA-2 (Facies
Association-2) represents wave-and-storm dominated facies association.

52
 FA-2

53
FA-1

Figure 4.4 – Photograph shows an overview of the stratigraphy at the Hospital Road 1 outcrops exposes thick beds of sandstone interbedded
with muddy sediments in sub horizontal or gently dipping beds. FA-1 (Facies Association-1) represents tide-dominated estuary facies
association and FA-2 (Facies Association-2) represents wave-and-storm dominated facies association.

53
54
Figure 4.5 – Photograph shows an overview of the Hospital Road 2 outcrops exposes vertical dipping beds.

54
Figure 4.6 – Stratigraphic succession of the Boulevard 1 outcrop, complete with brief
facies description and the interpreted depositional environment.

55
Figure 4.7 – Stratigraphic succession of the Airport Road 1 outcrop, complete with
brief facies description and the interpreted depositional environment.

56
Figure 4.8 – Stratigraphic succession of the Hilltop Garden 1 outcrop, complete with
brief facies description and the interpreted depositional environment.

57
Figure 4.9 – Stratigraphic succession of the Hospital Road 1 outcrop, complete with
brief facies description and the interpreted depositional environment.

58
59
60
4.2.1 Facies of the Miri Formation

Fourteen facies were recognized from the field study. The description in terms
of its characteristic and the sedimentary environments are presented in Figure 4.6, 4.7,
4.8, 4.9, and 4.10. The figures show the logged sedimentological sections of the
stratigraphic succession on the five outcrops, together with brief facies description
and the interpreted depositional environment. Detail descriptions of the individual
facies are given in the following sub-sections.

4.2.1.1 Facies A: Hummocky Cross-stratified Sandstone

Facies A is composed of light gray, fine to very fine grained sandstone with
low-angle undulating cross-stratification in association with parallel stratified
sandstone and bioturbated siltstone (Figure 4.11). The sandstone beds are
amalgamated ranges from 0.5 to 5 centimeters thick, and minimum laterally extent up
to 400 meters. Few centimeters thick of mudstone separating the hummocky cross-
stratified sandstone are common in this facies. Trace fossils include Ophiomorpha
nodosa and Skolithos, but are rare. In general, facies A overlies sandstone and
siltstone beds of facies C or bioturbated sandstone of facies J.

Interpretation:
Hummocky cross-stratified (HCS) structure generally formed by wave-
generated oscillatory flows or combined flows (waves plus current) produce by the
passage of storm in the area between fair-weather wave-base and storm wave-base.
Reineck and Singh (1980) interpreted that HCS are known to occur in the lower part
of the ancient shoreline sequences, especially in the fine sandstone of shoreface.
Reading (1996) reported that HCS may be a characteristic of storm-dominated
shoreface deposit. Mudstone layers commonly represent post-storm and fair-weather
conditions. Facies A is interpreted to be deposited within the lower to middle
shoreface environment.

61
Figure 4.11 – Facies A, showing hummocky cross-stratified sandstone in between
mudstone layers (location 10: Miri Hospital Road 1 outcrop).

4.2.1.2 Facies B: Massive Sandstone

Facies B is composed of whitish yellow, moderately sorted, medium to

coarse-grained sandstone with no internal structure (Figure 4.12). The thickness of
facies B ranges from 20 centimeters to 5 meters thick. This beds laterally extent up to
30 meters. The common associated characteristic feature in this facies is colouration
and staining (Figure 4.13) results from iron in the shales moving in solution during
burial and compaction of the sediments. The joints and bedding planes within the
sandstones provide an easy route for the iron solution to move. This may then be
deposited as brown iron staining (liesegang rings). Facies B is in close association
with facies D and facies I. In some places, sandstone is commonly associated with
facies F.

Interpretation:
Massive bedding is a bed without any apparent internal structure. Although
many sedimentary rocks can appear massive or structureless, closer inspection may
show internal laminations. The lack of sedimentary structure within sediments may be
attributed to several factors: (i) disruption due to biogenic activity, (ii) rapid
deposition, and (iii) homogeneity of grain size and sediment type (Reineck &
Singh., 1980). Due to the absence of biologic activity, the massive structure of facies
62
B could be produced by very rapid sedimentation where the material was dumped
as a homogenous mass. Facies B occurs as single bed within tide-generated facies.
It is suggested that storm could have reworked and transported sand in very
shallow water, creating a density current. Therefore, estuary mouth is the suitable
environment for facies B to be deposited by a homogenous mass flow caused by
storm in tidally influence environment.

Figure 4.12 – Facies B, showing massive sandstones (Location 11: Miri Hospital
Road 2 outcrop).

Figure 4.13 – Facies B, showing thick coarse grain sandstones with Liesegang rings
(Location 11: Miri Hospital Road 2 outcrop).
63
4.2.1.3 Facies C: Swaley Cross-stratified Sandstone

Facies C consisted of light gray, well to moderately sorted, fine to medium-

grained sandstone with no mudstone partings (Figure 4.14). The sandstone body
thickness ranges from 0.5 to 3 meters, has a minimum lateral extent up to 100 meters.
In this facies, sandstone is commonly associated with parallel-stratified siltstone.
Trace fossils include Ophiomorpha nodosa and Skolithos, are very rare but become
very intensive at the base. Facies C is commonly associated with facies A, where
swaley cross-stratification (SCS) is overlied by hummocky cross-stratification within
coarsening upwards sequences.

Interpretation:
Wave and storm may produce some common sedimentary structures in
shoreface and shallow marine settings, such as ripples and dunes, hummocky cross-
stratification and swaley cross-stratification (Reineck & Singh., 1980). Reading
(1996) described SCS as a characteristic of storm-dominated shoreface deposits where
they are amalgamated within thick sandbodies without preservation of fair-weather
deposits and may represent the highest energy deposit among wave ripple cross-
lamination, hummocky and swaley cross-stratification. Tucker (2001) pointed that flat
bedding which is associated with swaley cross-stratification, probably formed in
shallower water than hummocky cross-stratification, perhaps in outer shoreface zone.
Compared to facies A, the facies C is interpreted as having been formed at upper
shoreface environment.

4.2.1.4 Facies D: Rhythmic Parallel Stratified Sandstone and Laminated

Siltstone

Facies D is characterized by alternation between whitish yellow, moderately

sorted, fine-grained sandstone and light brown, parallel laminated siltstone (Figure
4.15). The common sedimentary structures were observed in this facies is faint
parallel lamination. The sandstone and siltstone beds thickness ranges from 0.5 to 1
centimeter, and laterally continuous up to 10 meters. Parallel laminated mudstone

64
commonly found in between sandstone and siltstone. Ophiomorpha burrows (low
bioturbation) locally destroy the sharp boundaries of siltstone beds. Facies D is in
close association with facies A and facies C.

Interpretation:
As the name indicates (rhythmic), this bedding is comprised of all the
bedding types composed of alternating thin layers of somewhat in different
composition, texture and color (Reineck & Singh., 1980). Rhythmic here is between
sandstone and siltstone. The reasons for such rhythmic repetition are regular changes
in the transport or production material. These regular changes can be of short duration
processes, i.e. tidal changes, or can be long-term changes, i.e. seasonal changes
caused by changes in weather conditions. The alternation of parallel-bedded
sandstone in which burrows are rare to absent where parallel-stratified sandstone is
generally indicative of a moderate energy environment and the presence of mudstone
laminae indicate periods of low energy environment. These suggests considerable
variation in sedimentation rates, probably associated with storm or fair-weather
deposition., thus facies D is interpreted as having been formed at upper to middle
shoreface environment.

Figure 4.14 – Facies C, showing swaley cross-stratified sandstone (location 1:

Boulevard 1 outcrop).

65
 200 cm

Figure 4.15 – Facies D, showing interbedded parallel-stratified sandstone and

bioturbated siltstone (location 1: Boulevard 1 outcrop).

4.2.1.5 Facies E: Trough Cross Stratified Sandstone with mud-drapes

Facies E consists of light yellow, fine to medium-grained sandstone with

medium to large-scale trough cross-stratification (Figure 4.16). Other sedimentary
structures that can be observed locally present in the sandstone bodies are tabular
cross bedding and planar cross bedding. The sandstone bed ranges from 0.5 to 2.5
meters thick, with minimum lateral extent up to 10 meters. The sandstone beds is
amalgamation, where the thickness decreases upwards. In some places, trough cross-
beddings are present without any mud drapes. Bioturbation is common, and in places
abundant. The common trace fossil recorded from this facies includes Ophiomorpha.
A specific feature in this facies is characterized by the present of herringbone
structure at the middle and lower part of the facies (Figure 4.17). In between a set of
herringbone structure, usually mud drapes are found. Facies E is commonly
associated with facies F and facies H. Facies E commonly has a sharp contact with the
overlying massive sandstone of facies B.

66
Interpretation:
Reading (1996) pointed that cross-bedded sandstones are the most abundant
facies in fluvial channel sandstones. Trough sets, the most abundant with thickness of
commonly a few ten centimeters, are the product of migrating three-dimensional
dunes. Reineck & Singh (1980) reported that cross-stratification (i) in most cases is a
result of the migration of small ripples and mega ripples, (ii) in other cases, cross-
stratification may be the result of scour and channel-fill features is the result of
deposition on the point bars of small meandering channels or on the inclined surfaces
of beaches and bars, or lee side of sand dunes. The presence of herringbone structure
may determine the depositional environment of this facies. Reineck & Singh (1980)
termed herringbone structure as cross-stratification units with opposite directions of
foreset laminae in adjacent layers. When two opposite –dipping cross-bedded units
are separated by a thin mud layer which occur during slack-water deposition, it is an
indication of a typical of subtidal environment. Abundant trace fossils of
Ophiomorpha indicate a shallow marine environment. Based on this, facies E is
interpreted to be formed at subtidal zones with channels and bars in contact with the
shallow marine environment. Estuary mouth in a tide-dominated estuary would be the
best condition for this depositional condition.

100 cm

Figure 4.16 – Facies E, showing trough cross-stratified sandstones separated by mud

drapes surfaces (location 16: Airport Road 1 outcrop).

67
Figure 4.17 – Facies E, showing herringbone cross-stratification (location 16: Airport
Road 1 outcrop).

4.2.1.6 Facies F: Parallel Stratified Sandstone with mud-laminas

Facies F (Figure 4.18) is composed of light yellow to gray, fine to very fine
grained, and well to moderately sorted sandstone. The sandstones show parallel
stratification to low angle cross-stratification. The bed ranges from 0.25 to 3 meters
thick, with minimum lateral extent up to a hundred meters. This facies is marked by
the presence of numerous mud laminas of 0.5 to 3 cm thickness. Trace fossil is sparse.
The common one is Ophiomorpha species. The thickness of facies F ranges from 20
centimeters to 2 meters thick and laterally extent up to 30 meters. Facies F locally
shows sharp contacts with the underlying facies E. In some places, facies F overlies
mudstone beds of facies I.

Interpretation:
Parallel stratification is also referred to as parallel or planar lamination. It
can be formed through: (i) deposition from suspension; (ii) slow-moving sediment;
and (iii) low density turbidity currents. The present of low angle cross-stratification
indicates channel deposition. Tidal currents are considered the depositional
mechanism of this facies. Parallel-stratified sandstone is generally indicative of a
moderate energy environment and the presence of mudstone laminas indicate periods
of low energy environment. According to Dalrymple (1992), parallel stratifications
may be formed in sandy tidal flat in the headward portions of macrotidal estuaries that
68
most likely record upper plane bed conditions. A number of organic remains and
burrows may be present in estuaries and increasing in the direction of open sea
(Reineck & Singh, 1980). This facies is interpreted as upper flow regime of
sand flat or estuarine channel.

25 cm

Figure 4.18 – Facies F, showing parallel-stratified sandstone with mud drapes

(location 16: Airport Road 1 outcrop).

4.2.1.7 Facies G: Wavy-bedded Sandstone

Facies G comprised of alternation between light yellow, fine to medium-

grained sandstone and gray mudstone (Figure 4.19). The sand layers are about 2 to 10
centimeters thick while the mud layers range from a lamina thick to 2 centimeters.
Wavy bedded sandstones are laterally continuous up to few to ten meters.
Sedimentary structures of asymmetrical to nearly symmetrical ripples were displayed
in this facies. Trace fossils are absent. Facies G gradually overlies facies I (lenticular
bedding), facies M (flaser bedding) and or facies H (rhythmic stratified sandstone and
mudstone).

69
Interpretation:
Reineck & Singh (1980) described wavy bedding as mud and sand layers
alternate that forms continuous layers. The mud layers almost completely fill the
ripple troughs and make a thin cover over the ripple crest. The formation of wavy
bedding requires conditions where the deposition and preservation of both sand and
mud are possible. All these indicate that wavy bedded facies could be formed in
mixed-tidal setting.

4.2.1.8 Facies H: Rhytmic Stratified Sandstone and Mudstones

Facies H is characterized by regular alternation of very fine-to-fine grained,

parallel and undulating, thin sandstone layers with mud layers (Figure 4.20). The
sandstone is commonly in sharp contact with mudstone. The thickness of sands varies
from less than 1 centimeter to 12 centimeters, while the mud layers ranges from less
than 1 centimeter to 2 centimeters. Parallel and ripple cross-laminations are common
in the sand layers. Loading cast (Figure 4.21) and flame structures are very common
at the base of sand beds. The facies thickness ranges between few to hundred
centimeters and laterally extends up to several hundred meters. Lenticular bedding is
locally present in this facies while flaser and wavy-bedding are relatively abundant
within this facies. Trace fossils are rare in this facies.

Interpretation:
Reineck & Singh (1980) proposed that rhythmic sand-mud bedding (or
alternating beds) to include all the bedding types composed of alternating layers of
sand and mud. It includes lenticular and flaser bedding, coarsely interlayer and mud
bedding, and thinly interlayered sand-mud bedding. This term has been used
particularly in describing such bedding in tidal environment. Further, Reineck &
Singh (1980) stated that this type of bedforms are very common in intertidal flat
environments, where the lateral shifting of small tial gullies on the intertidal flats,
particularly in muddy and mixed parts, may produce this type of deposits. Therefore,
facies H is interpreted as having been formed at muddy to mix tidal flat environment.

70
Figure 4.19 – Facies G, showing wavy bedded sandstone gradually changes in
between lenticular and flaser bedding (location 11: Miri Hospital Road 2 outcrop).

Figure 4.20 – Facies H, showing wavy bedded sandstone gradually changes in

between lenticular and flaser bedding (location 11: Miri Hospital Road 2 outcrop).

71
Figure 4.21 – Facies H, showing load cast structures (L) at the base of sandstone bed
(location 11: Miri Hospital Road 2 outcrop).

4.2.1.9 Facies I: Lenticular Bedding

Individual sand lenses, typically with internal (micro) cross lamination

within a mud unit, characterize this facies Figure 4.22). The sand lenses are
commonly in sharp contact with mudstone. The sand lenses are commonly
discontinuous and isolated not only in a vertical but in a horizontal direction, giving
the appearance of sand floating in mud. Facies I thickness ranges from a few
centimeters to 200 centimeters. Trace fossils are rare in this facies.

Interpretation:
Lenticular bedding requires conditions where wave action during deposition
is less typically of low current and slack water of mud deposition. Lenticular bedding
is produced when incomplete sand ripples are formed on sub stratums that are
preserved because of deposition of the next mud layer. Lenticular bedding type is
common in tidal-flat sediments where mud is deposited during slack-water periods
particularly occur in delta front, pro delta and other situations where there are
fluctuations in sediment supply and flow strength. According to Reineck & Singh
(1980), lenticular bedding is produced under conditions more favorable for the
72
deposition and preservation of mud than for sand. Therefore, facies I is interpreted as
having been formed in subtidal or intertidal (muddy flat) zones.

4.2.1.10 Facies J: Interbedded to Bioturbated Sandstone and Siltstone

Facies J is characterized by alternations between light yellow, moderately

sorted, fine grained sandstone and light whitish-yellow medium grained bioturbated
siltstone (Figure 4.23). Parallel laminations of mudstone commonly occur within this
facies. The contact between sandstone and siltstone is commonly destroyed by
organic activity (bioturbation). The thickness of sands varies from 5 centimeters to 30
centimeters while the silt ranges from 5 centimeters to 20 centimeters. Sand beds are
laterally continuous, up to ten meters. Vertical to sub vertical Ophiomorpha burrows
are found scattered throughout this facies. Facies J is commonly associates with
trough cross-stratified sandstone with mud drapes (facies E) and lenticular bedding
facies (facies I).

Interpretation:
The alternation of sandstone beds in which burrows are rare to absent with
densely burrowed zones suggests considerable variation in sedimentation rates,
probably associated with storm or fairweather deposition. Reading (1996) interpreted
that the condition where storm deposit sequence may be disrupted to varying degrees
by bioturbation (gradual changes to bioturbated sandstone and siltstone) is during
post-storm or fair weather zones. Facies J possibly have been formed in shoreface. In
addition, a fair weather condition is indicated by the occurrence of siltstone and
mudstone interbedding, which may record the latest stage of sediments fallout
after storm events. The present of moderately to high bioturbated sandstone and
siltstone indicated deeper part of the shoreface (Reineck &Singh, 1980). Thus, facies
J is interpreted as having been formed in lower shoreface.

73
Figure 4.22 – Facies I, showing lenticular bedding facies (location 11: Miri Hospital
Road 2 outcrop).

Figure 4.23 – Facies J, showing interbedded to bioturbated sandstone and siltstone

(location 13: Hilltop Garden 1 outcrop).

74
4.2.1.11 Facies K: Bioturbated Sandstone

Facies K is composed of gray, massive and moderately to highly

bioturbated sandstone (Figure 4.24). Trace fossils, which includes Ophiomorpha and
Chondrites, are abundant in this facies. The thickness of this facies varies from few
centimeters to 75 centimeters. Parallel lamination structure is commonly found
within the sandstone bodies. Facies K commonly associates with wavy bedded
sandstone (facies G), lenticular bedding facies (facies I) and flaser bedding (facies M).

Interpretation:
Bioturbation refers to the irregular disruption of sediment by plants and
animals, rather than organized and recognizable burrows or other traces (Stow, 2005).
Facies K reflects moderate energy environment. The presence of alternating laminas
of mud and sand indicate periods of low and high-energy deposition, probably
associated with storm or fair-weather deposition. Futhermore, Reineck & Singh, 1980
interpreted the presence of moderately to high bioturbated sandstone and siltstone
indicated deeper part of the shoreface. Thus, facies K is interpreted as having been
formed in lower shoreface environment.

Figure 4.24 – Facies K, showing moderately bioturbated sandstone (location 10: Miri
Hospital Road 1 outcrop).
75
4.2.1.12 Facies L: Mudstone Interbedding with Parallel to Hummocky Cross-
stratified Sandstone

Facies L is composed of mudstone interbedding with light gray medium to

thick sandstone beds (Figure 4.25). The sandstone is fine to very fine grained and
moderately sorted. The sedimentary structures that can be observed within the
mudstone include parallel lamination and hummocky cross-stratification structures in
the thick sandstone beds. In contrast to facies A, the sand layers are thicker in this
facies ranges from 10 centimeters to 50 centimeters thick. Mudstone beds which
separating the hummocky cross-stratified sandstone thickness ranges from 15
centimeters to 70 centimeters thick. The sandstone beds are laterally extensive up to
hundred meters, possibly with sheet like geometry, but display variation in thickness
with sharp lower contacts. Trace fossil includes Ophiomorpha and Skolithos are
locally preserved at the base of the sandstone beds. The thickness of facies L ranges
from 1 meter up to 5 meters.

Interpretation:
Facies L reflects a fair-weather condition, which is indicated by the
occurrence of sandstone and mudstone interbedding. The occurrence of hummocky
cross-stratification indicates a storm origin of the sandstone beds. Reineck & Singh
(1980) indicated that such a character could be produced in environment where mud
deposition is going on and being interrupted by occasional heavy storm, depositing
sand layers. Therefore, facies L is interpreted as having been deposited in offshore
transitional environment.

4.2.1.13 Facies M: Flaser Bedded Sandstone

Facies M is characterized by wavy or lenticular silt or fine sand with thin

wavy to wispy partings of mud (Figure 4.26). The preserved mudstone is commonly
discontinuous. The sand layers are about 2 to 10 centimeters thick, while the mud
layers range from a lamina thick to 1 centimeter. Flaser bedded sandstones are
laterally continuous up to few to ten meters. Sedimentary structures of asymmetrical

76
to nearly symmetrical ripples are displayed in this facies. Trace fossils are absent. The
flaser bedded sandstone passes gradually into wavy bedded (facies G) and lenticular-
bedded facies (facies I). This facies may reach thickness of up to 50 centimeters.

Interpretation:
Reineck & Singh (1980) described flaser bedding (facies M) as mud and
sand layers alternate that forms continuous layers. The formation of faser bedding is
produced in environments in which condition for deposition of sand are relatively
more favorable than fro the mud. Dalrymple (1992) indicated that the deposits of
flaser bedding could be formed in mixed-tidal setting. Therefore facies M was
interpreted form at tidal flat environment.

Figure 4.25 – Facies L, showing mudstone interbedding with parallel to hummocky

cross-stratified sandstone (location 10: Miri Hospital Road 1 outcrop).

77
Figure 4.26 – Facies M, showing flaser bedded sandstone facies (location 11: Miri
Hospital Road 2 outcrop).

4.2.1.14 Facies N: Bioturbated Siltstone

This facies have similar characteristic to facies K. Facies N is composed of

dark gray, massive, moderately bioturbated siltstone (Figure 4.27). Ophiomorpha is
the most common trace fossils found in this facies. The facies thickness varies from 10
centimeters to 5 meters. The position of facies K commonly overlies the facies G,
facies I and facies M or gradually changes to facies K (bioturbated sandstone).

Interpretation:
Facies N reflects moderate energy environment. Bioturbation is commonly
part of shoreface environment, but compared to the facies association with wavy
bedded sandstone (facies G), lenticular bedding facies (facies I) and flaser bedding
(facies M), it is much more as indication of tidal environment. Reineck & Singh
(1980) stated that most parts of the tidal flat surface sediments are highly bioturbated
by benthonic organisms. Bioturbation in mud flats is generally strongest, weaker in
mixed flats, and weakest in sand flats. Therefore, it is indicated that facies N could be
formed in tidal flat, specifically in sand to mixed-flat setting.

78
Figure 4.27 – Facies N, showing bioturbated siltstone facies (location 11: Miri
Hospital Road 2 outcrop).

4.2.2 Facies Association

Several different facies are commonly grouped together in distinct unit in

order to define the characteristic of a particular depositional setting and/ or mode of
formation. This is known as facies association (Stow, 2005). Facies association is the
essential building blocks of facies analysis and facies model. Two facies associations
of the Miri Formation in the Miri Field have been identified, these are tide-dominated
estuary and wave-and-storm dominated facies associations. Descriptions and
interpretation of the facies associations are briefly explained below.

4.2.2.1 Tide-dominated Estuary Facies Association (Facies Association-1)

Facies association 1 is interpreted to comprise tidal deposit caused by the

presence of tidal imprints within this facies group, such as tidal cross-bedding with
mud laminas, bidirectional (herringbone) cross-bedding, rhythmic stratification
between sandstone and shale or mudstone, flaser, wavy and lenticular bedding.
In general, facies association 1 ranges from 25 centimeters up to 3.5 meters. It
shows repeated fining upwards or progradation succession, which are clearly
preserved in Miri Hospital Road 2 outcrop (Figure 4.28) and Airport Road 1 outcrop
(Figure 4.29).
79
 The overall distribution and context of facies association-1 imply deposition
seaward to the coastal plain. The ideal complete single fining upwards succession of
tide-dominated estuary facies association is shown in Figure 4.30. This model was
used to identify the tide-dominated estuary facies association.

Figure 4.28 – Repeated fining upwards cycles tide-dominated estuary facies

association from location 11, Miri Hospital Road 2 outcrop. FA-1 (Facies
Association-1) represents tide-dominated estuary facies association

Figure 4.29 – Repeated fining upwards cycles tide-dominated estuary facies

association from location 16, Airport Road 1 outcrop. FA-1 (Facies Association-1)
represents tide-dominated estuary facies association
80
Figure 4.30 – An ideal model for complete fining upwards succession of tide-
dominated estuarine sedimentation (Tan et al., 1999 modified from Dalrymple et al.,
1992).

In Miri outcrops, a complete tide-dominated estuary facies association

commonly started with multiple stacking of trough cross-stratified sandstone (facies
E) or parallel stratified sandstone with mud laminas (facies F). These facies
commonly formed near the head of estuarine channel or upper flow regime sand flat
(subtidal). Gradual change upwards to flaser bedded sandstone (facies M) or wavy
bedded sandstone (facies G) indicates that the depositional environment was tidal flat
(intertidal) with shallowing upwards process because of relative sea level drop.
Further, fining upwards continued by the deposition of rhythmic stratification (facies
H) or mud deposits with relatively little sand (facies I). Dalrymple (1992) described
the fining upward of tidal facies succession as a progradational tidal depositional
system from subtidal to intertidal and tidal flat zone.

4.2.2.2 Wave-and-Storm Dominated Facies Association (Facies Association-2)

Facies association-2 is interpreted to comprise storm or fair-weather deposit

constitute the most seaward components of the shoreline system. Swaley and
hummocky cross-stratified sandstone in facies association-2 record deposition by
storm processes above storm-wave base. The presence of mudstone and siltstone in
81
between sandstone beds in facies association-2 record deposition from suspension
below fair-weather-wave base. Tide-generated structures are absent in this facies
association. In general, the composite thickness of facies association 2 ranges
from 8 meters of up to 15 meters. It shows repeated coarsening upwards
exhibiting a transition from sands in the lower shoreface, to alternating sands and mud
below fair-weather wave base, to muddy facies below storm wave base. Repeated
cycles of this facies association are clearly preserved in Miri Hospital Road 1 outcrop
(Figure 4.31), Boulevard 1 outcrop (Figure 4.32) and Hilltop Garden outcrop.

In detail, a complete wave-and-storm dominated facies association is

commonly characterized by interbedded between bioturbated sandstone and siltstone
(facies J), and mudstone interbedding with parallel to hummocky cross-stratified
sandstone (facies L). These facies suggests an environment below or just above the
fair-weather wave base and above storm-wave base or offshore transitional. Another
characterization of this facies association is presented by high bioturbated sandstone
(facies K), hummocky cross-stratified sandstone (facies A), swaley cross-stratified
sandstone (facies C) and rhythmic parallel stratified sandstone and siltstone (facies D).
These facies suggests an environment between upper to middle shoreface. All the
evidences indicate that the depositional processes in this environment characterized
by an increase in sand beds thicknesses but tend to decrease landwards in mud
preservation. Reineck & Singh (1980) proposed that toward the deeper part of the
shoreface, cross bedding is very rare. Here laminated sand is more dominant. At the
same time, the degree of bioturbation also increases. Normally, sand is mainly
deposited in the upper shoreface and the foreshore. During heavy storms, a lot of sand
is eroded on the foreshore and upper soreface and is taken into suspension by
turbulent water. The suspended sand is brought to the lower shoreface and deposited
as evenly laminated sand.

Figure 4.33 shows the shoreline profile with its characteristic, processes,
morphology and facies. The offshore transition extends from mean storm wave base
to mean fair weather wave base and therefore characterized by alternations of high
and low energy conditions. During fair weather, fine grained sediments settle from
suspension and the bottom of sediments are bioturbated. During storms, the bottom is

82
affected by oscillatory and shoaling waves, supplemented by storm-generated currents
(Walker, 1984). The nearshore zone extends from mean storm wave base to fair
weather wave base. It comprises a shoreface, below mean low water level and a
foreshore between mean low water and mean high water level (Reading, 1996).

Figure 4.31 – Repeated cycle of wave-and-storm dominated facies association from

location 10, Miri Hospital Road 1 outcrop. FA-2 (Facies Association-2) represents
wave-and-storm dominated facies association.

Figure 4.32 – Repeated cycle of wave-and-storm dominated facies association from

location 1, Boulevard 1 outcrop. FA-2 (Facies Association-2) represents wave-and-
storm dominated facies association

83
Figure 4.33. – Offshore profile locating foreshore, shoreface and offshore, as well as
fair-weather wave base and ichnofacies occurrences (Walker, 1984).

4.2.3 Facies Model

Walker (1984) defined the facies model as the summary of a specific

sedimentary environment which geologists commonly try to identify of the different
environment in ancient rocks and also define the range of processes that can operate
within these environments (Walker, 1984). The facies model presented in this thesis
was established as a summary of the Miri depositional environments based on the
facies associations: tide dominated estuary and wave-and-storm dominated shelves of
shallow marine.

The estuarine model by Dalrymple (1992) as shown in Figure 4.34 was used to
develop the facies model in the Miri Formation. Estuaries was defined by Reineck &
Singh (1980) as a funnel shaped opening of a river in the sea which is characterized
by tidal movement and a highly differentiated development of water stratifications
and mixing between river and sea waters.

84
Figure 4.34 – Distribution in a tide-dominated estuary of (a) energy types, (b)
morphological components and (c) sedimentary facies (Dalrymple et al., 1992)

Tide-dominated estuary model of the Miri Formation includes: (i) estuary

mouth or tidal channel and sand bars (facies E); (ii) estuary channel or upper flow
regime of sand flat (facies F); (iii) mixed-tidal flat (facies G and facies M); and (iv)
mud-tidal flat (facies H and facies I). This type of sequence is commonly located in a
river tract and can be regarded as transitional between fluvial and estuarine
environments (van Beek and Koaster in Reineck and Singh, 1980). This sequence can
be divided into three unit: (i) the upper unit, characterized by flaser, wavy, lenticular
bedding and small scale trough cross-bedding; (ii) the middle unit, characterized by
alternating layers of cross bedding with bimodal palaeocurrent direction, indicating
the influence of tidal currents; and (iii) the lower unit, made up of large-scale trough
cross bedding where an individual sets can be up to 1 meter thick.

85
 In additional, the presence of facies E indicates an environment near the
estuary mouth. Thinly interlayered sand or mud bedding characterizes the top
sequence of estuary mouth. The mud layers are rarely more than 2 centimeters thick.
The sand shows either current ripple bedding or evenly laminated sand. These
bedding structures is showing alternating sand or mud layering in different dimension
related to the tidal phases of alternating current and slack water activity. In general,
Miri estuarine is considered as a representation of low intensity estuarine environment
covered until near the estuary mouth (Figure 4.35).

Wave-and-storm dominated facies association is an indication of a shallow

marine system. It contains a variety of a depositional setting from foreshore and
shoreface through offshore zones. The Miri Formation shallow marine system ranges
from shoreface to offshore transitional (Figure 4.36). Shoreface is characterized by
day-to-day sand transport above fair-weather wave base (Reineck & Singh, 1980).
The depth of fair-weather wave base varies, but normally lies in the 5 to 15 meters
range (Walker, 1984). Shoreface setting can be divided into lower, middle and upper
part. The offshore transition zone ranges from mean storm-wave base to mean fair-
weather wave base and therefore characterized by alternations of high and low energy
conditions.

The storm-and-wave dominated model of the Miri Formation includes: (i)

lower to middle shoreface (facies A and D); (ii) upper shoreface (facies C); (iii) lower
shoreface (facies J); and (iv) offshore transitional (facies L and facies K). In general,
the depositional processes in shoreface is mostly controlled by waves, and commonly
decreased by the increasing of the water depth. Upper shoreface (0 to 2 meters water
depth) indicates high wave energy and low organism activity, reflected by the
deposition of facies C. Lower wave energy but higher organism activity, reflects by
the deposition of facies A and D in the middle to lower shoreface (below water depth
of 2 meters). Lower shoreface (facies J) reflects low wave energy and high organism
activity. The lower shoreface and offshore zones are not affected by waves thus fine-
grained sediment is deposited from suspension with possibility be reworked. The
deposition of facies L and facies K in the offshore transitional reflects an alternation
periods of fair-weather and storm activities.

86
87
Figure 4.35 – Facies model of tide-dominated estuary system of the Miri Formation

87
88
Figure 4.36 – Facies model of wave-and-storm dominated system of the Miri Formation

88
4.3 Structural Characteristics and its Framework

Eighteen outcrops that were chosen for structural studies are in mesostructures
scale, which may represent the structural style of the Miri Formation. Structural
characteristics of the area that were developed by using stereographic projection on
the structural elements which are present within the outcrops shows that Canada Hill
was recognized as a highly faulted anticline, trending relatively in NE-SW direction
which due to the later tectonic processes, this anticline block thus deform into
asymmetric. Based on these structural characteristics, a summary of the structural
framework between the local and regional structure on Miri were presented at the last
part of this sub-chapter.

4.3.1 Measured Structural Data

During the fieldwork, the number of measurements collected for bedding, joint,
fault and fold orientation in one location varies from about 15 to 30 measurements,
except for some outcrops which are relatively small in geometry having uniform
structural pattern. Table 4.1, 4.2, 4.3 and 4.4 each shows the measured bedding, joint,
normal and reverse or thrust fault plane data preserved from the outcrops. Specifically
for fault analysis purposes, the data were clustered due to location and type of the
faults.

Table 4.1 – Strike and dip orientation of the sedimentary beds.

No Location (outcrop) Bedding Orientation (strike/ dip)

222 / 8 o NW 320o/ 3 o NE
o
318o/ 8 o NE
215 o/ 12o NW 305o/ 5 o NE 323o/ 9 o NE
1 Boulevard 1 231 o/ 10o NW 351o/ 7 o NE 347o/ 3 o NE
345 o/ 4 o NE 032 o/ 2 o SE 349o/ 3 o NE
329 o/ 2 o NE 021 o/ 3 o SE 297o/ 4 o NE
o o
006 / 2 SE
2 Boulevard 2 239 o/ 26o NW 252o/ 17 o NW 225o/ 24 o NW
3 Padang Kerbau 1 215 o/ 15o NW 223o/ 17 o NW 131o / 23o SW
4 Padang Kerbau 2 240 o/ 15o NW 231o/ 14 o NW
5 Padang Kerbau 3 270 o/ 10o NW 280 o/ 9 o NE

89
 6 Canada Hill western flank 1 200 o/ 16o NW 211o/ 12 o NW
No Location (outcrop) Bedding Orientation (strike/ dip)
7 Canada Hill western flank 2 200 o/ 16o NW 190o/ 14 o NW
8 Canada Hill top 210o/ 2o NW 265o/ 7o NW
088o/ 4o SE 090o/ 4o SE 078o/ 7o SE
9 Hillstone Utama
061o/ 10o SE
027 o/ 61o SE 191o/ 23 o NW 027 o/ 58o SE
039 o/ 70o SE 188o/ 35 o NW 028 o/ 61o SE
120o/ 11 o SW 021 o/ 72o SE 216o/ 4o NW
10 Hospital Road 1 203o/ 6o NW 030 o/ 67o SE 153o/ 13 o SW
152o/ 19 o SW 031 o/ 10o SE 198o/ 31 o NW
148o/ 20 o SW 193o/ 10 o NW 186o/ 4o NW
124o/ 2o SW 186o/ 8o NW
039o/ 71 o SE 029o/ 84o SE 033o/ 75o SE
11 Hospital Road 2 030o/ 60 o SE 033o/ 68o SE 040o/ 51o SE
036o/ 82 o SE 040o/ 74o SE 037o/ 54o SE
12 Hospital Road 3 222 o/ 16o NW 228o/ 10 o NW
13 Hilltop Garden 1 120o/ 2o SW 123o/ 4o SW 152o/ 4o SW
14 Hilltop Garden 2 150o/ 17 o SW 152o/ 19 o SW
251o/ 4o NW 180o/ 40o W 180o/ 22o W
145o/ 7o SW 170o/ 28 o SW 156o/ 28 o SW
15 Miri By-pass Road
166o/ 24 o SW 194o/ 34 o NW 224o/ 14 o NW
243 o/ 2 o NW 146o/ 15 o SW 256o/ 5o NW
198 o/ 9 o NW 063o/ 14o SE 181o/ 12 o NW
16 Airport Road 1 227 o/ 12o NW 232o/ 9o NW 165o/ 8o SW
093o/ 5o SW 055o/ 15o SE 047o/ 10o SE
048o/ 16 o SE 202o/ 17 o NW 051o/ 15o SE
17 Airport Road 2
040o/ 9o SE 260o/ 5o NW 044o/ 18o SE
18 Tanjong Lobang 248 o/ 27o NW 204o/ 17 o NW 214o/ 23 o NW

Table 4.2 – Strike and dip orientation of the joint planes

No Location (outcrop) Joint Orientation (strike/ dip)

1 Hillstone Utama 237 o/ 89o NW 146o/ 88 o SW
2 Hospital Road 1 272o/ 81 o NE 304o/ 74o NE 302o/ 71o NE
150o/ 68 o SW 260o/ 73 o NW 143o/ 53 o SW
235 o/ 76o NW 142o/ 63 o SW 234o/ 86 o NW
150o/ 67 o SW 235o/ 85 o NW 154o/ 57 o SW
3 Hilltop Garden 1 190 o/ 70o NW 268o/ 71 o NW 104o/ 77 o SW
232 o/ 80o NW 100o/ 78 o SW 220o/ 80 o NW
187 o/ 81o NW 107o/ 75 o SW 238o/ 65 o NW
147o/ 62 o SW 230o/ 66 o NW
4 Airport Road 1 287o/ 88 o NE 311o/ 80o NE 283o/ 69o NE
051 o/ 78o SE 112o/ 85 o SW 231o/ 60 o NW
5 Airport Road 2 125o/ 87 o SW 120o/ 89 o SW 240o/ 45 o NW
127o/ 80 o SW 225o/ 52 o NW 108o/ 87 o SW
90
 056 o/ 67o SE 050 o/ 77o SE 121o/ 80 o SW
Table 4.3 – Strike and dip orientation of the normal fault planes

No Location (outcrop) Normal Fault Orientation (strike/ dip)

280o/ 75 o NE 257 o/ 45o NW 063o/ 88 o SE
231 o/ 65o NW 233 o/ 61o NW 250 o/ 47o NW
1 Boulevard 1
232 o/ 59o NW 042 o/ 64o SE 252 o/ 52o NW
061o/ 82 o SE 243 o/ 44o NW 215 o/ 23o NW
2 Padang Kerbau 1 233 o/ 63o NW 339o/ 25 o NE 243 o/ 63o NW
318o/ 72 o NE 249o/ 81 o SE 205 o/ 52o NW
3 Hospital Road 1
150o/ 77 o SE 232 o/ 54o NW 049o/ 66 o SE
4 Hilltop Garden 1 030o/ 68 o SE 042o/ 64 o SE
343o/ 52 o NE 025o/ 61 o SE 287o/ 39 o NE
352o/ 58 o NE 030o/ 68 o SE 284o/ 41 o NE
5 Miri By-pass Road 345o/ 51 o NE 030o/ 87 o SE 287o/ 76 o NE
288o/ 40 o NE 029o/ 65 o SE 042o/ 64 o SE
010o/ 68 o SE
225 o/ 68o NW 070o/ 66 o SE 054o/ 64 o SE
6 Airport Road 1 226 o/ 62o NW 223 o/ 50o NW 070o/ 87 o SE
046o/ 60 o SE 049o/ 74 o SE

Table 4.4 – Strike and dip orientation of the reverse or thrust fault planes

Reverse or Thrust Fault Orientation

No Location (outcrop)
(strike/ dip)
240 o/ 50o NW 232 o/ 55o NW 250 o/ 40o NW
1 Hospital Road 1
227 o/ 55o NW
008o/ 34 o SE 010o/ 38 o SE 338o/ 37 o NE
2 Hospital Road 2 130 o/ 5 o SW 333o/ 35 o NE 329o/ 38 o NE
o o o o
323 / 33 NE 330 / 38 NE 332o/ 52 o NE

91
4.3.2 Structural Characteristics of Northern Miri

Results of the plots of strike and dip direction of bedding planes in the
northern part of the Miri Formation are shown in Figure 4.37 and 4.38.

Figure 4.37 – Poles of bedding planes for the northern part of the Miri Formation on
a (Schmidt net) stereogram.

92
Figure 4.38 – Density of poles to bedding planes for the northern part of the Miri
Formation suggesting the presence of fold. Components such as limbs, interlimb
angle, fold axis and axial plane were indicated in this map.

There are two distinct clusters of bedding orientation as indicated by two

concentrations of poles (as shown in Figure 4.37 and 4.38). The two general trends of
the bedding are one with striking NE – SW (223o) with moderately dipping around
22o towards northwest; the other orientation is striking N-S with gently dipping
around 2 o towards east. The field observation of the bed shows all the beds are in
normal up-right position. It is obvious that these two major bedding orientations
represent two limbs of an asymmetrical fold plunging gently of around 10 o towards
NE at 41o. At this plunge angle, the fold can be considered as non-plunging fold
according to Leyshon and Lisle (1996). A spread of bedding orientation from gently
dipping toward NW to E however is a clear indication of a broad anticline. This
analysis corresponds with the calculation on the interlimb angle which is calculated to
be 156 o, and the fold is therefore classified as gentle fold. The dip of axial surface of
around 77 o indicates that the fold is steeply inclined to southeast.

A result of the plots of the fault planes in the northern Miri is presented in
Figure 4.39. The density contouring of the poles is shown in Figure 4.40.

93
Figure 4.39 – Poles of normal fault planes for the northern part of the Miri
Formation on a (Schmidt net) stereogram.

Figure 4.40 – Density of poles to fault planes for the northern part of the Miri
Formation suggesting the presence of conjugate pair of normal fault. Stress
components of 1, 2, and 3 were indicated in this map.

Figure 4.39 and 4.40 shows the well-defined bimodal pattern of preferred
orientation of fault planes. The two general trends of the faults are one with striking
NE – SW (237 o) with moderately dipping around 61 o towards northwest; the other
orientation is striking NE-SW (056 o) with steeply dipping around 70o towards
southeast, thus it represent a conjugate pair of normal faults in this area. It was clearly
observed in the field, particularly from Boulevard 1 outcrop at location one (Figure
4.41) that several meso-scale normal faults are common in this area, indicated by
displacement of marker bed ranging from several meter to few centimeters. Figure
4.42 is an example of photographs showing the mesostructures of normal faults.

Conjugate faults are broadly contemporaneous faults that formed under similar
stress condition. The three directions of maximum, intermediate and least
compression are designated 1, 2 and 3 respectively. The orientations: 1 plunge 82o,
azimuth 16o; 2 plunge 5 o, azimuth 240 o; 3 plunge 29o, azimuth 147 o. Assuming the

94
original direction of 1 for normal faults as vertical, the plots indicate the effect of
tilting in the NNE direction.

Figure 4.41 – Photograph shows an overview of the structural at the Boulevard 1

outcrop exposes series of normal faults. (A) Zoom for the south view of the outcrop.
(B) Complete overview of the outcrop (picture taken from the west).

95
Figure 4.42 – Photograph of mesostructures from Boulevard 1 outcrop (location 1)
showing normal faults style with displacement around few centimeters.

4.3.3 Structural Characteristics of Middle Miri

Results of the plots of strike and dip direction of bedding planes in the middle
part of the Miri Formation are shown in Figure 4.43 and 4.44.

Figure 4.43 – Poles of bedding planes for the middle part of the Miri Formation on a
(Schmidt net) stereogram.

96
Figure 4.44 – Density of poles to bedding planes for the middle part of the Miri
Formation suggesting the presence of fold. Components such as limbs, interlimb
angle, fold axis and axial plane were indicated in this map.

There are two distinct clustures of bedding orientations as indicated by two

concentrations of poles. The two general trends of the bedding are one with striking
N-S (179o) with gentle dipping around 4o towards west. The other orientation is
striking NNE (030o) with steep dipping around 70o towards southeast. The field
observation of the bed shows all the beds are in normal up-right position. It is obvious
that these two major bedding orientations represent two limbs of an asymmetrical fold
plunging gently of around 3o towards SSW at 209o. At this plunge angle, the fold can
be considered as non-plunging fold according to Leyshon and Lisle (1996). A spread
of bedding orientation from gently dipping toward NW to E however is a clear
indication of a broad anticline. The calculation on the interlimb angle that is to be
108o therefore classified the fold as open fold. The dip of axial surface of around 58o
indicates that the fold is moderately inclined to northwest. This analysis corresponds
with the photograph of the fold nose (Figure 4.45).

97
Figure 4.45 – Photograph shows an evidence of anticline indicated by a fold nose at
location 10, Hospital Road 1 outcrop.

The middle part of Miri Formation is also faulted and jointed. The plot of the
joint planes on an equal area stereogram is shown in Figure 4.46. The concentration of
the poles at the outside portions of the stereogram reflects the steep dipping of the
joint planes.

Figure 4.46 – Poles of joint planes for the middle part of the Miri Formation on a
(Schmidt net) stereogram.

98
Figure 4.47 – Density of poles to joint planes for the middle part of the Miri
Formation indicates sets of joint orientation.
Four sets of joints orientation were recognized, labeled J1 to J4 on Figure 4.47,
with strike in directions of 014o, 060o, 097o and 144 o respectively. Sets J2 and J4 can
be seen to be more dominant. The orientations of J2 that strikes at 060o is
approximately normal to the fold axis in this area while J4 that strikes at 144o which
traverse the J2, may be formed during brittle condition at the late stage or after folding.

Since there were two types of faults (normal and reverse or thrust fault)
clustered in the middle Miri Formation, the fault analyses thus also divided into these
two types. A result of the plots of the normal fault planes in the middle Miri is
presented in Figure 4.48. The density contouring of the poles is shown in Figure 4.49.

99
Figure 4.48 – Poles of normal fault planes for the middle part of the Miri Formation
on a (Schmidt net) stereogram.

Figure 4.49 – Density of poles to normal fault planes for the middle part of the Miri
Formation suggesting the presence of two conjugates pair of normal fault. Stress
components of 1, 1’, 2, 2’, 3 and 3’ were indicated in this map.

100
 Figure 4.48 and 4.49 shows that in the middle Miri Formation exhibit two
preferred orientations (trend) of normal faults. These orientations are a pair of faults
dipping NW and SE (which dominantly shows in Miri Hospital Road 1 outcrop) and a
pair of faults dipping NE and SE (which dominantly shows in Miri By-pass Road
outcrop).

In detail, description of the first conjugate pair of faults (between normal fault
trend 1 and 2 in Figure 4.49) are one with striking NE – SW (225 o) with moderately
dipping around 52 o towards northwest; the other orientation is striking NE-SW (033o)
with steeply dipping around 67o towards southeast. While description of the second
conjugate pair of faults (between normal fault trend 3 and 2 in Figure 4.49) are one
with striking relatively E – W (284o) with steeply dipping around 422o towards
northeast; and the other orientation is striking NE-SW (033 o) with steeply dipping
around 67o towards southeast. Figure 4.50 is a photograph showing the
mesostructures of normal faults that were indicated by displacement of marker bed
ranging from meters to few centimeters.

Figure 4.50 – Photograph shows an overview of the structural at location 15, Miri By-
pass Road outcrop exposes bedding rotation indicates the normal faulting style.

The three directions of maximum, intermediate and least compression are

designated by 1, 2 and 3 respectively. The orientations: 1 plunge 89o, azimuth
252o; 2 plunge 10o, azimuth 37 o; 3 plunge 4 o, azimuth 139o. Assuming the original
direction of 1 for normal faults as vertical, the plots indicate the effect of tilting in the
SW direction. Another stresses responsible in this area are designated by 1’, 2’ and
3’ respectively. The orientations: 1’ plunge 55 o, azimuth 232o; 2’ plunge 2o, azimuth
51o; 3’ plunge 34o, azimuth 320o.
101
 For the reverse fault of middle Miri, results of the plots are presented in Figure
4.51 and 4.52.

Figure 4.51 – Poles of reverse fault planes for the middle part of the Miri Formation
on a (Schmidt net) stereogram

Figure 4.52 – Density of poles to reverse fault planes for the middle part of the Miri
Formation suggesting the presence of conjugate pair of reverse fault. Stress
components of 1, 2, and 3 were indicated in this map.

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Figure 4.53 – Photograph shows a mesostructure at location 10, Miri Hospital Road 1
outcrop indicates the reverse faulting style.

Figure 4.51 and 4.52 shows the well-defined bimodal pattern of preferred
orientation of fault planes. The two general trends of the faults are one with striking
NE – SW (236 o) with moderately dipping around 52 o towards northwest; the other
orientation is striking NW-SE (333 o) with moderately dipping around 39 o towards
northeast, thus it represent a conjugate pair of reverse faults in this area. Figure 4.53 is
a photographs showing the mesostructures of reverse faults.

The three directions of maximum, intermediate and least compression are

designated by 1, 2 and 3 respectively. The orientations: 1 plunge 7o, azimuth 292 o;
2 plunge 32o, azimuth 25o; 3 plunge 58o, azimuth 192o. Assuming the original
direction of 1 for reverse faults as horizontal, the plots indicate the effect of tilting in
the NW direction.

4.3.4 Structural Characteristics of Southern Miri

Results of the plots of strike and dip direction of bedding planes in the
southern part of the Miri Formation are shown in Figure 4.54 and 4.55.

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Figure 4.54 – Poles of bedding planes for the southern part of the Miri Formation on
a (Schmidt net) stereogram.

Figure 4.55 – Density of poles to bedding planes for the southern part of the Miri
Formation suggesting the presence of fold. Components such as limbs, interlimb
angle, fold axis and axial plane were indicated in this map.

There are two distinct clusters of bedding orientation as indicated by two

concentrations of poles (as shown in Figure 4.54 and 4.55). The two general trends of

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the bedding are one with striking NE – SW (211o) with gently dipping around 14o
towards northwest; the other orientation is striking NE-SW (049 o) with gently dipping
around 12 o towards southeast. The field observation of the bed shows all the beds are
in normal up-right position. It is obvious that these two major bedding orientations
represent two limbs of a symmetrical fold plunging gently of around 4 o towards SW at
223o. At this plunge angle, the fold can be considered as non-plunging fold according
to Leyshon and Lisle (1996). The swing in the bedding orientation suggests that the
outcrops are mainly located near a gentle fold axis with interlimb angle around 153 o.
Based on the calculation on the interlimb angle, the fold is therefore classified as
gentle fold with up-right axial surface. This analysis corresponds with the photograph
of the fold nose (Figure 4.56).

Figure 4.56 – Photograph shows an evidence of anticline indicated by a fold nose at

location 17, Airport Road 2 outcrop.

The southern part of Miri Formation is also faulted and jointed. The plot of the
joint planes on an equal area stereogram is shown in Figure 4.57. The concentration of
the poles at the outside portions of the stereogram reflects the steep dipping of the
joint planes.

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Figure 4.57 – Poles of joint planes for the southern part of the Miri Formation on a
(Schmidt net) stereogram.

Figure 4.58 – Density of poles to joint planes for the southern part of the Miri
Formation indicates sets of joint orientation.

Two sets of joints orientation were recognized, labeled J1 and J2 on Figure

4.58, with strike directions of 018 o and 127o respectively. Sets J1 can be seen to be
more dominant. The orientation is relatively normal to the fold axis in this area while
J2 which traverse the J1 may be formed under brittle condition at the late stage or
after folding.

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 Result of the plots of the fault planes of southern part is presented in Figure
4.59.

Figure 4.59 – Poles of normal fault planes for the southern part of the Miri
Formation on a (Schmidt net) stereogram.

Figure 4.60 – Density of poles to normal fault planes for the southern part of the
Miri Formation suggesting the presence of conjugate pair of normal fault. Stress
components of 1, 2, and 3 were indicated in this map.

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Figure 4.61 – Photograph shows an overview of the faults at the Airport Road 1
outcrop.

The density of contours of the poles is shown in Figure 4.60. The plot shows
two major clusters, one striking NE – SW (225 o) with moderately dipping around 31o
towards northwest; the other orientation is striking NE-SW (056o) with steeply
dipping around 68 o towards southeast. The field observation of the fault indicates
clearly a normal faulting system (Figure 4.61). Conjugate faults are broadly
contemporaneous faults that formed under similar stress condition. The three
directions of maximum, intermediate and least compression are designated by 1, 2
and 3 respectively. The orientations: 1 plunge 71 o, azimuth 334o; 2 plunge 5o,
azimuth 233 o; 3 plunge 22 o, azimuth 142 o. Assuming the original direction of 1 for
normal faults as vertical, the plots indicate the effect of tilting in the NW direction.
4.3.5 Structural Framework

Summary of the stereonet analysis of the Miri Formation as discussed in the

previous sub-chapters are shown in table 4.5 and 4.6

Table 4.5 – Summary of the bedding and fold trend orientation analysis of the Miri
Formation.

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Table 4.6 – Summary of the fault trend and stresses orientation analysis of the Miri
Formation.

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Based on these two tables, detail explanation of the local Miri structural style and its
relationship with the regional tectonic deformation of Sarawak were explained in the
following part of this sub-chapter.
In general, Canada Hill can be interpreted as an non plunging-anticline block
trending approximately in NE-SW orientation with a combination of symmetric

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anticline at the southwest part with gentle flanks and change as an asymmetric
anticline at the middle part with a gentle northwest flank and a steep southeast flank.
Thus the axial plane at the middle part is moderately inclined to northwest. At the
northeast part of the Canada Hill, the axial plane of the anticline drastically changes to
steeply inclined to southeast. Analogue for this analysis is illustrated in Figure 4.62.

Figure 4.62 – Illustration of the anticline orientation where the axis at the middle part
changes in direction towards NNE – SSW.

Miri anticline which is trending in NE–SW orientation indicates a regional

compression from NW–SE direction. However the change in axis orientation at the
middle part of the formation suggests later compression approximately in N-S
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direction also worked in this area. Plots of strikes and dips of bedding and fault planes
in 1/ 14,000 topographic map of Miri is shown in Figure 4.63. Cross sections through
the Miri Field as shown in Figure 4.64 may illustrate the lateral variations of
structural elements in the Miri Formation.

Figure 4.63 – Bedding and fault orientation of the Miri Formation (for detail see:
APPENDIX C)
nstructed based on field

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 112

The cross sections through the Miri Field as shown in Figure 4.64 illustrate the
following elements:
(1) a set of steep normal faults dipping to the northwest
(2) a set of steep normal faults dipping to the southeast

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 (3) a reverse fault, dipping to the northwest
(4) a gentle to open asymmetric anticlinal fold.

The structural features of the Miri Formation in the Miri Field of the study
area are comparable to structural image from seismic data of the offshore Miri (Figure
4.65). Part of offshore Miri was grouped as Baram Delta province is having similar
structural style with the onshore Miri (Miri Field). Information from seismic data of
the offshore Miri as shown in Figure 4.65 shows the presence of reverse and normal
faulting up to 900-2000 meters depth (area in the red square). The seismic
interpretation of this particular area is in agreement with the structural analysis of the
Miri Formation derived from field data.

Figure 4.65 – Interpreted seismic profile through offshore Miri. Analogue for the Miri
Formation structural pattern is indicated by area in the red square (source: Maarten
Wiemer, Sarawak Shell Bhd.).

The development of the Miri structure is interpreted into two separate periods
of deformation:
(1) an early period of compression, indicated by the asymmetric anticline
and the reverse fault.
(2) a later period of extension, indicated by a set of normal faults.

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 The early period of compression related to a NW / SE compressive stress field
gave rise to anticlinal feature trending in NE-SW direction. The change in orientation
of anticline from symmetrical-upright to asymmetrical with axial plane dipping to
NW and then to SE direction was probably resulted by regional strike-slip faults that
are active as major crustal faults namely the West Baram Line to the west and the
Jerudong-Morris Fault to the east of the Baram Delta. Warping and uplifting of the
Miri anticline accompanied the period of compression caused brittle deformation and
rupture manifested by the reverse fault.

Most of normal faults in Miri Formation have NE-SW strike orientation or

parallel to the anticline axis of the Canada Hill. This pattern probably originated late
in the evolution of the area and may have resulted from local to regional outer-arc
extension. A set of normal faults that head in the opposite direction to each other may
have formed as the reaction to the space created during deformation. Rotational
movements on the competent sediment of the Miri Formation also happen due to the
local space created during the extension periods. Mesostructures of the Miri By-pass
Road outcrop can be explain by this rotational movement, thus it is possible to explain
the existence of a very big contrast of thick sequence of vertically dipping section
with a sub-horizontal or gently dipping sequence situated side-by-side at the Miri
Hospital Road 1 outcrop. The effect of thrusting followed by the rotational movement
of the sediments is the reason for the drastic change of the sequence within a very
short contact zone without any significant brecciation.

The tectonic system of the Miri Formation was probably the result of
compressional phase occurred during the early Late Miocene while the deposition of
deltaic sediment of the Miri Formation started since the Middle Miocene times. The
later stage of deformation was dominated by extensional phase and probably
happened shortly before the depositional loading of the West Baram Delta ends,
during Late Miocene to Pliocene times. This resulted in the developments of normal
faults and the associated growth fault. As shown by the seismic section offshore, there
is a possible re-activation of faults of the Miri Formation.

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 CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

1.7 Conclusions

Based on lithology, sedimentary structures, bedding geometry and traces fossil,

the sediments of the Miri Formation were grouped into fourteen lithofacies. These
facies are: (i) facies A – hummocky cross-stratified sandstone; (ii) facies B – massive
sandstone; (iii) facies C – swaley cross-stratified sandstone; (iv) facies D - rhythmic
parallel stratified sandstone and laminated siltstone. (v) facies E – trough cross-
stratified sandstone with mud drapes; (vi) facies F – parallel stratified sandstone with
mud-laminas; (vii) facies G - wavy bedded sandstone; (viii) facies H – rhythmic
stratified sandstone and mudstone; (ix) facies I – lenticular bedding facies; (x) facies J
– interbedded to bioturbated sandstone and siltstone; (xi) facies K – bioturbated
sandstone; (xii) facies L - mudstone interbedding with parallel to hummocky cross-
stratified sandstone; (xiii) facies M – flaser bedded sandstone; and (xiv) facies N -
bioturbated siltstone.

Two facies associations of the Miri Formation in the Miri Field have been
identified which represent the major paleoenvironment of the investigated Miri
Formation. These are: (i) tide-dominated estuary and (ii) wave-and-storm dominated
facies association.

In general, tide-dominated estuary facies association ranges from 25

centimeters up to 3.5 meters. It shows repeated fining upwards or progradation
succession. In Miri outcrops, a complete tide-dominated estuary facies association
commonly started with multiple stacking of trough cross-stratified sandstone (facies
E) or parallel stratified sandstone with mud laminas (facies F). These facies
commonly formed near the head of estuarine channel or upper flow regime sand flat
(subtidal). Gradual change upwards to flaser bedded sandstone (facies M) or wavy
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bedded sandstone (facies G) indicates that the depositional environment was tidal flat
(intertidal) with shallowing upwards process due to relative sea level drop. Further,
fining upwards continued by the deposition of rhythmic stratification (facies H) or
mud deposits with relatively little sand (facies I).

The composite thickness of wave-and-storm dominated facies association

ranges from 8 meters of up to 15 meters. It is interpreted to comprise storm or
fair-weather deposit constitute the most seaward components of the shoreline system,
shows repeated coarsening upwards exhibiting a transition from sands in the lower
shoreface to alternating sands and mud below fair-weather wave base to muddy facies
below storm wave base. Swaley and hummocky cross-stratified sandstone in this
facies association record deposition by storm processes above storm-wave base. The
presence of mudstone and siltstone in between sandstone beds in this facies
association record deposition from suspension below fair-weather-wave base. Tide-
generated structures are absent in this facies association. In Miri outcrops, a complete
wave-and-storm dominated facies association is commonly characterized by
interbedded between bioturbated sandstone and siltstone (facies J), and mudstone
interbedding with parallel to hummocky cross-stratified sandstone (facies L). These
facies suggests an environment below or just above the fair-weather wave base and
above storm-wave base or offshore transitional. Another characterization of this facies
association is presented by high bioturbated sandstone (facies K), hummocky cross-
stratified sandstone (facies A), swaley cross-stratified sandstone (facies C) and
rhythmic parallel stratified sandstone and siltstone (facies D). These facies suggests
an environment between upper to middle shoreface.

Based on the facies associations, facies model was then established to

summarize the Miri depositional environments are as follows: Tide-dominated estuary
model of the Miri Formation includes: (i) estuary mouth or tidal channel and sand
bars (facies E); (ii) estuary channel or upper flow regime of sand flat (facies F);
(iii) mixed-tidal flat (facies G and facies M); and (iv) mud-tidal flat (facies H and
facies I). Thinly interlayered sand or mud bedding characterizes the top sequence of
estuary mouth. The mud layers are rarely more than 2 centimeters thick. The sand
shows either current ripple bedding or evenly laminated sand. These bedding

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structures is showing alternating sand or mud layering in different dimension related
to the tidal phases of alternating current and slack water activity. The storm-and-wave
dominated model of the Miri Formation includes: (i) lower to middle shoreface (facies
A and D); (ii) upper shoreface (facies C); (iii) lower shoreface (facies J); and (iv)
offshore transitional (facies L and facies K). In general, the depositional processes in
shoreface is mostly controlled by waves, and commonly decreased by the increasing
of the water depth. Upper shoreface (0 to 2 meters water depth) indicates high wave
energy and low organism activity, reflected by the deposition of facies C. Lower wave
energy but higher organism activity, reflects by the deposition of facies A and D in
the middle to lower shoreface (below water depth of 2 meters). Lower shoreface
(facies J) reflects low wave energy and high organism activity. The lower shoreface
and offshore zones are not affected by waves thus fine-grained sediment is deposited
from suspension with possibility be reworked. The deposition of facies L and facies K
in the offshore transitional reflects an alternation periods of fair-weather and storm
activities.

Results for the structural geology studies on all the outcrops which include
strike, dip and dip direction measurement of the rock planar surfaces (i.e. fault, joint,
fold axis, fold limbs and sedimentary bed) that was then analyzed by using
stereographic projection indicate that the Canada Hill can be interpreted as an non
plunging-anticline block trending approximately in NE-SW orientation with a
combination of symmetric anticline at the southwest part with gentle flanks and
change as an asymmetric anticline at the middle part with a gentle northwest flank and
a steep southeast flank. Thus the axial plane at the middle part is moderately inclined
to northwest. At the northeast part of the Canada Hill, the axial plane of the anticline
drastically changes to steeply inclined to southeast. Further, three elements of faults
were recognized within the area. These are: (i) a set of steep normal faults dipping to
the northwest; (ii) a set of steep normal faults dipping to the southeast; and (iii) a
reverse fault dipping to the northwest.

The development of the Miri structure thus is interpreted into two separate
periods of deformation: (i) an early period of compression, indicated by the
asymmetric anticline and the reverse fault; and (ii) a later period of extension,

119
indicated by a set of normal faults. The early period of compression related to a NW /
SE compressive stress field gave rise to anticlinal feature trending in NE-SW
direction. The change in orientation of anticline from symmetrical-upright to
asymmetrical with axial plane dipping to NW and then to SE direction was probably
resulted by regional strike-slip faults that are active as major crustal faults namely the
West Baram Line to the west and the Jerudong-Morris Fault to the east of the Baram
Delta. Warping and uplifting of the Miri anticline accompanied the period of
compression caused brittle deformation and rupture manifested by the reverse fault.

Most of normal faults in Miri Formation have NE-SW strike orientation or

parallel to the anticline axis of the Canada Hill. This pattern probably originated late
in the evolution of the area and may have resulted from local to regional outer-arc
extension. A set of normal faults that head in the opposite direction to each other may
have formed as the reaction to the space created during deformation. Rotational
movements on the competent sediment of the Miri Formation also happen due to the
local space created during the extension periods. Mesostructures of the Miri By-pass
Road outcrop can be explain by this rotational movement, thus it is possible to explain
the existence of a very big contrast of thick sequence of vertically dipping section
with a sub-horizontal or gently dipping sequence situated side-by-side at the Miri
Hospital Road 1 outcrop. The effect of thrusting followed by the rotational movement
of the sediments is the reason for the drastic change of the sequence within a very
short contact zone without any significant brecciation.

The tectonic system of the Miri Formation was probably the result of
compressional phase occurred during the early Late Miocene while the deposition of
deltaic sediment of the Miri Formation started since the Middle Miocene times. The
later stage of deformation was dominated by extensional phase and probably
happened shortly before the depositional loading of the West Baram Delta ends,
during Late Miocene to Pliocene times. This resulted in the developments of normal
faults and the associated growth fault.

5.2 Recommendation for Further Study

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 For further understanding and evaluation, another study especially on
structural geology by compiling all fields, well and seismic data of the surrounding
area should be carried out. Biostratigraphic reviews specifically by using nannofossil
studies particularly would be very useful to assure the stratigraphic correlation of the
formation especially for the correlation between Miri Hospital Road 1 and Hospital
Road 2 outcrops.

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