68 Antonio 2

Tema 68.
Los medios de comunicación en

lengua inglesa (2):
Radio y televisión. La
publicidad en las culturas
anglófonas: Aspectos
lingüísticos y semiológicos.
Antonio Bodí
68. Los medios de comunicación en lengua inglesa (2): Radio y televisión. La publicidad en las culturas anglófonas:
Aspectos lingüísticos y semiológicos.
I. INTRODUCTION..........................................................
II. COMMUNICATION....................................................
A.The process of public communication
B.The communication revolution
III. ADVERTISING...........................................................
A.Evolution of advertising
B.Advertising campaigns
C.Conclusions
IV. RADIO AND TELEVISION.......................................

A. The “Golden Age” of radio
B. The development and expansion of television
C. The revolution television and radio brought about
D. The importance of the ratings
E. Types of TV broadcasts
V. CONCLUSIONS............................................................
VI. BIBLIOGRAPHY........................................................
Instituto de Ciencias del Hombre XXI 2

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http:l/www.cienciasdelhombre21.com E-Mail: ich-tyd@digitalmk.com
I. INTRODUCTION

Radio and television constitute today the primary means by which information and
entertainment are delivered to the public in virtually every country around the world.
The term broadcasting refers to the airborne transmission of electromagnetic audio
signals (radio) or audio-visual signals (television) which are readily accessible to a
wide population via standard receivers.
Broadcasting is a crucial instrument of modern social and political organisation. At
its peak of influence in the mid-20th century, national leaders often used radio and
television broadcasting to address entire countries. Because of its capacity to reach
large numbers of people, broadcasting has been regulated since it was recognised as a
significant means of communication.
Throughout history, long-distance communication had depended entirely upon
conventional means of transportation. A message could be moved aboard a ship, on
horseback, by pigeon, or in the memory of a human courier, but in all cases it had to
be conveyed as a mass through space like any other material commodity.
The story of radio begins in the development of an earlier medium, the telegraph,
the first instantaneous system of information movement. The first electrical
instruments for telegraphic transmission were invented in the United States 1 by the
American inventor Samuel F. B. Morse in 1837. The usefulness of telegraphy was
such that over the next half century wires were strung across much of the world,
including a transatlantic undersea cable (about 1866) connecting Europe and North
America.
Despite its accomplishments, telegraphic communication was limited. It depended
on the building and maintenance of a complex system of receiving stations wired to
each other along a fixed route. The telephone, patented by American inventor
Alexander Graham Bell in 1876, required an even more complex system. The two
great long-distance communications breakthroughs of the 19th century –the telegraph
and the telephone– were of no use to ships at sea and of little use to communities that
could not support the building of lines.
In 1895 Italian inventor Guglielmo Marconi transmitted a message in Morse code
that was picked up about 3 km away by a receiving device that had no wired
connection to Marconi's transmitting device. Marconi had thus demonstrated that an
electronic signal could be cast broadly through space so that receivers at random
points could capture it. This invention was on the other hand very significant insofar
as it constituted a direct precursor of another major transmitting device: radio.
Thus, within five years a wireless signal had been transmitted across the Atlantic
Ocean from England to Newfoundland, Canada. In fact, the importance and popularity
of Marconi’s invention was such that he was awarded the Nobel Prize for physics in
1909.
Finally, this unit is also to deal with advertising. Advertising is the promotion of
something such as a product, service or even an event through public announcements
in newspapers, on the radio, television or the Internet in order to attract or increase
1"Telegraph."Microsoft® Encarta® Encyclopedia 2001. © 1993-2000 Microsoft

Corporation. All rights reserved.

interest in it. Thus, advertising supplies most of the operating funds of the principal
communications media. That is to say, the radio and television industry depends
decisively on advertising for all its revenue. In the same way, metropolitan
newspapers derive about 70 percent of their income from advertising, and national
magazines, some 60 percent. As a matter of fact, the importance of advertising in
today’s world is such that it has become an integral part of everyone’s life, for we
ourselves are surrounded (even harassed) by “almighty” influential advertisements.
II. COMMUNICATION
A. The process of public communication

The process of public communication (through TV or radio) is much like the process of
everyday oral communication, where the same identical linguistic concepts coincide and
occur:
Channel
Addresser MESSAGE Addressee
Context
Code
-Addresser (also called “encoder” or “issuer”): The participant who addresses a message
to another one (e.g. radio presenter).
-Addressee (also known as “receiver” or “decoder”): The participant who gets the
message. It can be, or not, the one selected by the issuer (e.g. a broad audience of a
radio broadcast).
-Message: The information the addresser wants to transmit (e.g. an update on a recent
terrorist attack).
-Channel: The physical medium used to transmit the message (e.g. radio)
-Code: The group of symbols and usage rules in which the message is expressed. It can
be linguistic (a language) or non-linguistic (especially gestures), but it has to be known
by both the issuer and the receiver; the addresser has to encode the message, the
addressee will decode it (e.g. the English language, most likely at a standard or
academic level).
-Context (or situation): The overall information surrounding the communication process
(e.g. the durable and current climate of insecurity around the word as a result of the 11 th
September attacks). On the other hand, according to Halliday, context has three main
elements: tenor, field and mode (see topic 29).
-Feedback: an immediate (and normally continuous) response or reaction expected from
the addressee and produced by the addresser. It is curious to notice that in the process of
public communication, feedback seems to be a less important element, since it is

frequently totally non-existent, unless there is an on-air addresser-addressee discussion

on TV or on the radio. As contrast, in ordinary conversation, feedback is a key aspect of
communication.
B. The communication revolution

Radio, movies and television had just as much impact, if not more, on modern society
as printing. These media create the sense of experiencing everything at once, even if it
is in no particular order, and disconnected from the sources of the messages. Many
observers agree that communication media and technologies have contributed to a
society that is changing very rapidly. Some key issues have thus arisen in the tide of
this rapid change, such as the coverage of politics in the media or the availability of
information, which are nowadays common to virtually everyone. Let us now see some
direct and visible effects of the mass media upon the human beings:
- Stimulating fashions: advertising or movies can create a strong desire of
getting a “new modern product” among the people (such as a hit song or a cell
phone), or arouse a worldwide interest in something in particular (e.g. the
series “E.R.” aroused an interest in the professions involved in hospitals, that
is, doctors, nurses or surgeons).
- Informing citizens about virtually any socially relevant issue or others: news
bulletins or journals have made this type of information highly accessible to
everyone.
- Popularising terms: not so long ago –say 60 years ago–, very few people in
Spain were familiar with the Spanish terms for words such as homosexual,
Down’s syndrome or leukaemia. Today practically everyone knows these
terms, or at least get a sense or idea of what they mean and imply. That is
because TV and radio have popularised them.
- Broadening people’s “horizons” or making people more sophisticated: as said
already, today’s availability of information have decisively contributed to
making people more aware of what happens around us (even though some
people would say that –in many cases– it has also made us be alienated from
the real world!). This means for instance that people living today in rural areas
cannot possibly be so insulated or unaware of “outside influences”, because
they also receive a lot of information from the mass media, and are
consequently influenced by these, too.
- Contributing to social integration: we all get a great deal of information
through the mass media, which can teach us about the language/-s, morals,
social habits, manners… of a given society, be it implicitly or explicitly.
Notice however that some people would say that it can also cause the contrary
effect: movies are said to be full of violent situations, of unjustified sex scenes,
or vulgar or rude language.
- Contributing to the creation of a “real” public opinion : the mass media has
decisively contributed or consolidated a public opinion, that is, a general
attitude or feeling of the public concerning an issue (theoretically not
manipulated by politicians or the like), especially when this has an effect on
major social problems. This means that the mass media has made us in general
more critical towards everything, for now we do not believe anything without
questioning it.

III. ADVERTISING
A. Evolution of advertising
Advertising is no recent invention. It was possible well in the past. For example, the
British Museum has an Egyptian papyrus of about 1000 BC in which an advertiser
offered a reward to whoever could find one of his escaped slaves. However,
commercial advertising as a massive social phenomenon was not possible until the
advent or development of the mass media.
Thus, right from the beginning (back in the 17 th century), the press or journals
(which would firstly be known as corantos) resorted to some extent to advertising as a
means of supporting itself. Therefore, ever since the beginning of the press,
newspaper editors used the pages of his publication to advertise the books which his
press had published. Therefore, commercial advertising as we understand it today did
not begin until much later.
But already in the early 19th century, some newspaper editor decided to resort to
advertising as a means to compensate for the losses related to the sometimes non-
profitable selling of newspapers. However, notice that at the time the press was still a
means aimed at rather privileged classes.
Nevertheless with the arrival of the so-called penny press in 1833, with the first
edition of the New York Sun (which was a type of inexpensive newspaper aimed at a
mass audience through “straightforward or more comprehensible news”, and not so
much at privileged classes), advertising was really started to be fully exploited. The
more people bought cheap journals of this type, the more people were exposed to
advertising (and consequently the more money advertisers gave to newspapers!). This
could involve that advertising may come to be far more profitable than the mere
selling of newspapers (in fact, today the money made by newspaper advertising is
approximately four times as much as the money made by the mere selling of papers).
As time went by, when this became evident, many newspapers seemed to only care
about selling as many papers as possible, without worrying about the “quality” of the
publication contents. That was the birth of the so-called yellow press: the beginning of a
type of journalism which attracted readership through sensational headlines and stories
with emotional and populist appeal, rather than with serious and credible news.
Finally, when radio and television arrived in our lives, it seemed evident to everyone
that a lot of money could be made out of advertising, so this possibility was soon fully
exploited. Thus, when both radio and television came to reach a truly wide audience,
the money which radio and TV channels could make (out of advertising) could be more
than enough to support their broadcasts.
B. Advertising campaigns
We all know advertising is a collective term for public announcements designed to
promote the sale of specific commodities or services. Today, American advertising
leads the world not only in volume of business but in the complexity of its
organization and of its procedures, even if it is clearly a worldwide phenomenon.
We all know that advertising or advertising campaigns are based on so-called
market research, which is the study of consumers’ likes and preferences, that is, the
gathering and analysis of information about what people want or like. So what type of
information must previously be ascertained by “market researchers” before carrying
out a campaign? This is a just a short list of the main items to be considered:

1) Choosing the channel: Is TV, radio, the press… to be used for the promotion of
a product or service? This question is very important, because if you use one
means you will bear in mind the physical resources which you are to employ. For
example: if a TV advertisement must be made, then you know you should
probably stress and play on the visual elements (even if the auditory ones can also
be important).
2) Choosing the strategies: What kind of strategies are to be used?
a) A rational or informative strategy: if an advertisement has an explicit
message (be it “through words” or not), then it follows a rational or
informative strategy. Most advertisements boast about the supposed
qualities they have, or simply explain the reasons why a product or
service is necessary.
b) A suggestive strategy: a great deal of advertisements try to exploit a sort
of implicit suggestive element, rather than inform. For example, many
alcohol or soft drinks (e.g. Coke, Baileys or beer brands) are focused on
this strategy; thus, advertisers expect customers to simply associate
those drinks with the idea of youth, fun or joy of life in a rather
involuntary way.
3) Choosing the language: this has to do with the linguistic or rhetorical resources
which are to be employed (comparisons, metaphors, hyperboles, rhetorical
questions, puns, alliterations, rhymes…), or with the type of language in terms of
simplicity or complexity. The more appealing the language is, the more you
remember an advertisement. In the same way, the more appropriate a type of text
(for potential addressees), the easier for advertisers to reach potential consumers.
4) Determining the addressee: that is, the potential consumer. This is very
important, because the whole arrangement of an advertisement depends directly on
whether a product is aimed at children, teenagers, adults, old people or people in
general, or their social status or cultural level.
C. Conclusions
Nowadays, advertisements are very present in our lives. In fact, advertisements are
“everywhere”: hoardings, posters on walls, buses or taxis, magazine adverts, TV or
radio commercials, classified advertisements in journals, t-shirts, Internet adverts, etc.
No one denies the importance of advertisement as a means to support our mass
media and to inform a wide-reaching public, but this can be “dangerous”, for we live
in a world where everyone is constantly influenced (even harassed) by
advertisements, given that they have a dramatic effect on the mind of people. That is
why we should all be sensitised about the vulnerability to which we are exposed in the
consumer society we live. That is why we teachers have a very important part to do,
for children are especially vulnerable and exposed to it, and we must get them to think
about the indirect or “harmful effects” of advertising (see LOGSE unit 7 for further
information on transversal or cross-curricular topics, especially about consumers’
education).

IV. RADIO AND TELEVISION IN ENGLISH-SPEAKING COUNTRIES:
First of all, notice that we are to focus on the development of radio and television in
Great Britain and especially the United States of America, not only because they
constitute the most prominent and representative English-speaking countries, but also
because much of the history of radio and television took place in these countries.
Thus, these countries were pioneers in the development and use of radio and
television in the world.
A. The “Golden Age” of radio

Back in the 1920’s in America, a “wonderful new machine” known as radiotelegraph
(which would soon be shortened to radio) was an “immensely” ingenious device which
only a small minority of people could afford. Thus, according to estimates in the USA,
in 1922 there were only 60,000 households with radios in America. In spite of this, it
was considered that the relatively limited sale of radios more than justified the expense
to manufacturers of operating broadcasting services. At any rate, by 1929 the number
had reached 10 million radios.
However, increases in sales of radio receivers could not continue forever.
Broadcasters needed a new incentive to produce and transmit programmes once the
home radio market became saturated. The sale of advertising time loomed as a
promising growth area for American broadcasting.
In Britain and in the many countries that followed its lead, broadcasting was
developing in a different manner. Users paid yearly licence fees, collected by the
government, which were turned over directly to an independent state enterprise, the
British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC). Therefore, whereas the United States
developed a broadcast network financed from advertising revenue, Britain favoured a
“public service,” financed mainly from a license fee (paid by users themselves!). This
method is still in use in Great Britain by the BBC, as well as other countries following
suit (although other British national channels are financed from advertising revenue,
and are therefore totally free).
At any rate, at that time the radio had clearly emerged as a familiar household item,
usually built into a substantial piece of wooden furniture placed in the family living-
room. It became the primary source for news and entertainment for much of the
American nation. Thus, for example, despite the Great Depression which affected the
economy of the United States during the 1930’s, American commercial radio
broadcasting had grown to a $100 million industry by the middle of that decade.
B. The development and expansion of television

The Introduction of radio and its success as a mass phenomenon spurred technology
companies to make huge investments in the research and development of a new form of
broadcasting called television, or TV. It was obvious to commercial broadcasters that
enormous profits were to be made from such an invention.
Thus, in America, in the first half of the 20th century, two private companies, NBC
(National Broadcasting Company) and CBS (Columbia Broadcasting System), had
come to make vast fortunes from radio broadcasting and dominated the television
industry. Over time, by the mid-1950s, these two companies (plus ABC or American
Broadcasting Company –also a private company) came to develop the offer of US
television, becoming the undisputed three leading broadcasting TV channels in

America with 90 % of the viewership for about 30 years. All three would collectively
become known as the Big Three, and successfully secured the American terrestrial
television network as their exclusive domain. On the other hand, public television was
not as important in America as private television was, even if in 1969 a national
interconnection service among public-television stations in the United States known as
PBS was created. The Public Broadcasting Service emphasised children's, cultural, and
educational programming, as well as programs on nature, news, public affairs, science
and vocational activities, but –as said already– it could not possibly reach the ratings of
the Big Three.
However, in the mid-1980’s the rapid expansion of cable television (as against
traditional terrestrial television) changed TV landscape in America (television signals
being transmitted by cable to paying subscribers only). In this way, the birth of a fourth
major company, owned by Australian-born executive Rupert Murdoch, broke this
monopoly with the establishment of the Fox Television Network. As if that were not
enough, in the 1990’s, two other communications giants, Paramount Pictures (through
its United-Paramount Network [UPN]) and Warner Bros. (through its WB Television
Network) established additional networks of cable television in the United States.
What about the United Kingdom? The classification of British (nationwide)

channels include: on the one hand, BBC 1 and BBC 2 (the two “public channels”); and
on the other, Channel 4, ITV (Which stands for Independent Television) and [from
1997] Channel 5, which are all private channels. Still, this does not mean that these are
the only channels available, for today there are more and more people who prefer
picking up or subscribing to other TV networks (cable and satellite channels). For
instance: Sky's eight satellite TV channels (BSkyB, also known as British Sky
Broadcasting) is Europe's number 2 pay television company.
In short, before cable television decisively ended channel scarcity in the 1980’s,
viewing choices had been limited in both the United States and the United Kingdom to
the programming that the networks of these two countries had developed until then. For
example, due to lack of competition, during the first 30 years of American television,
the Big Three's collective share of viewership during the prime time hours could
typically be 95 percent or more. However, nowadays, more than 60% of Americans are
subscribed to cable television.
Key 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1996 1997
% of Total Households
TV households 10 87 96 98 98 98 98
% of TV Households
Cable – – 7 20 56 65 66
VCR – – – – 66 81 82
Remote control – – – – 77 94 93
2
2 Source: Nielsen Media Research, 1997.

C. The revolution Television and radio brought about

Broadcasting dramatically changed life wherever it was introduced. Radio (and later
television) brought news and information from around the world into homes. Besides,
the networks brought the performances of talented artists to large numbers of people
who were otherwise isolated from expensive places such as the concert hall and the
theatre. Therefore, the growth of the network of radio and television created an
unprecedented mass culture for people of a wide range of social classes and educational
backgrounds.
On the other hand, television in the United States (like in many other countries), has
traditionally had a noticeable effect on electoral politics and public opinion. For
example, in 1960 presidential candidates Richard M. Nixon and John F. Kennedy
agreed to a series of debates, which were broadcast simultaneously on television and
radio (whose broadcast is believed to have had a decisive effect upon the American’s
vote). In the same way, television coverage of the Vietnam War (1959-1975) helped to
change the rules of American politics. For many viewers, the horrors they saw on
television were more significant than the optimistic reports of impending victory issued
by government officials to radio and print. Therefore, considering the power of images,
and considering that today seven out of ten Americans are believed to receive most of
the information they get through television (the average American spends over seven
hours a day watching his TV set!), it is easy to understand why television has become
so popular and important.
Finally, from the 1980’s new technologies (such as VCR’s, satellite television or
cable television), or from the 1990’s (DVD players or even the Internet) have brought
about a gradual process of dividing broadcasting's audience into a collection of
segregated groups, for it is putting an end to the total hegemony of “traditional
television”. In other words, assembling so large an audience for any single event is now
becoming more and more difficult, as the number of listening and viewing alternatives
available to society is greater and greater. This means for instance that nowadays many
people really have the opportunity of choosing what they want to see: e.g. a sports
channel or a documentary channel (through thematic channels), or this film or the other
(by means of a DVD player or VCR).
D. The importance of the ratings

The ratings system now used in broadcasting arose from sponsors' desire to know how
many people they were reaching with their advertising. The resulting projections, or
ratings, are not only decisive for ascertaining the impact of each broadcast upon the
population, but also for determining the corresponding price of advertisements during
the show and, ultimately, whether the show will stay on the air or be cancelled.
E. Types of TV Broadcasts
You could classify TV broadcasts into three basic types of programmes. As a matter of
fact, this classification could apply to any country, not only the USA or the UK:
1) Informative: news bulletins or weather forecasts.
2) Didactic: especially documentaries of all kinds, but also some educative and
entertaining children’s programmes (e.g. USA “Sesame Street” or British
“Teletubbies”).
3) Entertaining: quiz programmes or quiz shows/ game shows (“Who wants to be a
millionaire?”, “The Wheel of Fortune” [both American]), TV serials/series, soap
operas, chat/talk shows (“The Oprah Winfrey Show”, “The Jay Leno Show” [both
American, too]), interview programmes, sports programmes (e.g. a basketball or

baseball game), vaudeville shows, reality shows (“Big Brother”, “Survivor”), music
programmes, movies, cartoons…
As you can clearly deduce from this classification, it is precisely the group of
entertaining programmes that has most diversified in order to satisfy the apparently
“numerous entertaining needs” of the audience. Thus, even if informative programmes
are extremely important and popular among spectators, television seems to be used as
an eminently entertaining means.
Note that an extraordinary number of American broadcasts (not to mention
“American television patterns”) found their way into European TV. This seems to
confirm the widespread belief of America having a dramatic cultural influence all
over Europe and elsewhere.
Thus, in the area of comedy, many famous “situation comedies” or “sitcoms”
(which have proved to be the most durable and popular of broadcasting genres in
America) have become international popular broadcasts, such as “Friends”,
“Bewitched”, “M*A*S*H”, “The Cosby Show”, “Cheers”, “The Golden Girls”, “The
Wonder Years” or “Ally McBeal”.
In the area of science fiction, broadcasts such as “Star Trek” (and its extremely
long subsequent saga) or “X-Files”. I
n the field of dramatic productions, broadcasts tend to follow the exploits of
lawyers (“Perry Mason” or “L.A. Law”), doctors (E.R.), families (“Little House on
the Prairie”), or can be series of action (“The Fugitive”, “Mission: Impossible”) or
police series (“Hill Street Blues”, “Gagney and Lacey”).
In the same way, many American Soap operas (which explore romance, friendship,
and familial relations in slow-moving), although now a bit outdated, have also reached
a broad European audience: “Dallas”, “Dynasty or “Santa Barbara”.
Finally, Walt Disney productions have become an international leading name in
family entertainment, not to mention other numerous USA series cartoons (“The
Simpsons” or “Futurama”).

V. CONCLUSIONS
Today it is obvious that radio, television and advertising are very present in the lives
of people, not only in English-speaking countries, but virtually around the globe. That
is why many people believe radio and television have had as much impact on modern
society as printing, that is, they have totally revolutionised our lives.
Of course, it is important for teachers or scholars of English to have a knowledge
about the importance and repercussions of the mass media and advertising (as well as
the current landscape) in the English-speaking societies (namely, American,
British…), but one should not forget that in turn it is important that teachers develop
some knowledge on this matter in their students, for this can also be part of the socio-
cultural competence, which they are expected to reach.
On the other hand, it is especially important that teachers should provide students
with texts from the English-speaking mass media (newspaper articles, radio
extracts…) in order to initiate them (or encourage them) to work with English texts of
this nature. But at the same time, this is a way for teachers to help them in general
terms to be faced with their own society, which is also dominated by the mass media.
Finally, teachers should not neglect one particularly important point related to so-
called transversal or cross-curricular topics. Consumers’ education is a subject which
should be aroused in class in order to make students think about the dangers of our
own “consumer society”, in particular of advertising.
V. BIBLIOGRAPHY
- Barnouw, Erik. Tube of Plenty: The Evolution of American Television. Rev. ed.
Oxford University Press, 1982, 1990 (History of radio and television broadcasting).
- Fox, Stephen. The Mirror Makers: A History of 20th Century American Advertising.
Morrow, 1984. Reprint, University of Illinois Press, 1997.
- Golding, P.: The Mass Media, 1974.
- Jankowski, Gene F., and David C. Fuchs. Television Today and Tomorrow: It Won't
Be What You Think. Oxford University Press, 1995  vision of the future of
television, centrist networks, public television, and speciality channels.
- Microsoft® Encarta® Encyclopedia 2001. © 1993-2000 Microsoft Corporation. All
rights reserved.
- Wakin, Edward. How TV Changed America's Mind. Lothrop, Lee & Shepard, 1996.
- Winship, Michael. Television. Random House, 1987, 1988.  History of an
extraordinary revolution, with interviews and photographs.


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Tema 68.

Los medios de comunicación en

IV. RADIO AND TELEVISION.......................................

Instituto de Ciencias del Hombre XXI 2

1"Telegraph."Microsoft® Encarta® Encyclopedia 2001. © 1993-2000 Microsoft

Instituto de Ciencias del Hombre XXI 3

A. The process of public communication

Addresser MESSAGE Addressee

Instituto de Ciencias del Hombre XXI 4

frequently totally non-existent, unless there is an on-air addresser-addressee discussion

B. The communication revolution

Instituto de Ciencias del Hombre XXI 5

Instituto de Ciencias del Hombre XXI 6

Instituto de Ciencias del Hombre XXI 7

IV. RADIO AND TELEVISION IN ENGLISH-SPEAKING COUNTRIES:

A. The “Golden Age” of radio

B. The development and expansion of television

Instituto de Ciencias del Hombre XXI 8

What about the United Kingdom? The classification of British (nationwide)

Key 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1996 1997

2 Source: Nielsen Media Research, 1997.

Instituto de Ciencias del Hombre XXI 9

C. The revolution Television and radio brought about

D. The importance of the ratings

Instituto de Ciencias del Hombre XXI 10

Instituto de Ciencias del Hombre XXI 11

Instituto de Ciencias del Hombre XXI 12

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