Jumps, sprints and hurdles

Track-and-field competition includes a number of events of short

duration that rely primarily on the development of power through
anaerobic energy. Some can be traced back to the ancient Olympics,
and the idea of being the ‘swiftest or highest’ has always commanded
great interest. The 100-m sprint is generally considered the blue-ribbon
event of track and field, with all eyes focused on the ‘fastest man on
earth’. Other sprint events at Olympic-level competition are the 200-m
and 400-m, as well as 4 × 100-m and 4 × 400-m relay events. Hurdles
events are contested over 100 m (women), 110 m (men) and 400 m. The
jumps consist of high jump, long jump, triple jump and pole vault.
Some talented athletes compete in more than one event, combining, say,
the 100-m, 200-m and relays on the same program, or entering special
‘combined events’—a two-day program featuring seven track-and-field
events for females (the heptathlon) or 10 for males (the decathlon). These
combined events truly identify the all-round athlete, since competitors
must master a range of often diametrically different athletic skills.
Versatility is the key to success: dominating in a single event can actually
be detrimental to overall performance.
Competition begins with Little Athletics and school athletics, with
careers carrying through club competition to international events. The
International Association of Athletics Federations provides a wide range
of competition opportunities for high-level athletes. In addition to the
Olympic Games and world championships every two years for both
the regular and indoor program, sprinters and jumpers can compete in
the World Athletics Tour, consisting of 25 international meets (Grand
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Prix, Super Grand Prix and Golden League meets) in which athletes
accumulate points to compete in the World Athletics Finals. In addition,
there are a variety of major competitions at continental and regional
level. While a full program of events is included at major competitions
spanning a couple of days, there is a selected program at the specialised
meets on the Athletics Tour. Training
At school and club level, many athletes will not train specifically during
the off-season. Many sprinters and jumpers are involved with other
sports or study, and turn their attention to athletics only a month before
the start of the inter-club season. During the competition season they
may train three or four evenings a week and compete on the weekend.
At the elite level, training is a year-round pursuit of speed, speed
endurance, power, technique, and flexibility. According to the phase of
training and type of event, jumpers and sprinters undertake one or two
workouts a day, including high-intensity intervals on the track, resistance
training, flexibility work, technical drills, and plyometrics. To develop
the ability to generate power relative to body weight, off-season training
usually involves a considerable commitment to weight training, with
about one-third of the total training load being carried in the gym. The
other emphasis in off-season training is on the refinement of technique.
In addition to running sessions on the track, drill sessions are conducted,
for example to improve leg speed or knee lift. As the competitive season
approaches, track work increases to include more intervals and sprints,
although technical work and weight training are still maintained.
Plyometric training, which involves drills of bounding, jumping, and
hopping, is undertaken to develop the elastic properties of the muscle,
increasing explosive power and the stiffness of the muscle, for example
to speed start times and improve the ability to store and reuse the elasticenergy from running
and jumping.
The pre-competition training taper does not need to be as great as
that practised by middle- and long-distance runners, since sprinters are
already training for quality rather than quantity.
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Even though the event itself involves a brief explosion of energy, a
jumping competition may drag out for many hours while all competitors
take their turn. The athlete’s fuel stores are not a limiting factor here.
Muscle adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and creatine-phosphate systems
are the most important energy source for events lasting seconds and are
quickly regenerated between repeated bouts. Anaerobic metabolism of
carbohydrate plays a greater role during events lasting up to a minute,
but muscle glycogen stores should not be a limiting factor in events so
brief.
Physical characteristics
Typically, sprinters carry a large lean body mass, with sufficient
muscularity in both their upper and lower bodies to produce explosive
power over short distances. The weight side of the power-to-weight
ratio is also important, with elite sprinters showing off their leanness
and muscular definition. Low levels of body fat and concern for total
body mass become more important in longer sprints or where the athlete
moves against gravity—for example, in the high jumps, hurdles, and
pole vault.
Height and leg length play a role in sprint performance by influencing
stride length. Hurdlers need to be tall, or at least have relatively long legs,
to clear the hurdles well. Height provides an important advantage in high
jump because it means that the jumper’s centre of gravity, which must
be raised above the bar to successfully complete a jump, is already high.
Heptathletes and decathletes must achieve a physique that suits a range
of sports with different biomechanical and physiological characteristics.
Common nutritional issues
Low body-fat levels
Although many elite sprinters and jumpers achieve their leanness and
preferred racing weight as a natural consequence of genetics and training,
others undertake deliberate weight-loss programs or at least make this a
focus of their eating plans. Club-level athletes of both sexes who reduce
or cease training over the off-season may need to lose body fat at thebeginning of the next
competition season. Where help is needed in this
regard, read Chapter 3 for sensible and successful methods.
Increasing muscle mass and strength
Off-season may be the time for sprinters and other track athletes to hit
the weights room and increase muscle strength and power. Chapter 3
deals with the questions about protein and energy needs, while Chapter
5 deals with the smart recovery strategies that allow the athlete to gain
the most from these sessions.
Training nutrition
The goals of training nutrition are discussed in Chapters 1 and 2.
Matching carbohydrate intake to the needs of training sessions is still
a priority for sprinters and similar athletes, although understandably,
their carbohydrate requirements do not reach the levels of endurancetype
athletes. In many cases, there is a need to periodise food intake—
over the week to accommodate different types of training sessions, and
over the season to accommodate different emphases on building fitness
and honing physique versus fine-tuning competition performance.
It makes sense to ensure that carbohydrate stores are primed for key
sessions of repeated sprints and speed endurance work. These sessions—
and resistance workouts—should also benefit from well-timed meals
or snacks that can help refuel muscles after the session (carbohydrate)
and supply the building blocks (protein) the body needs for recovery and
adaptation.
If you are unsure whether your eating plans meet your nutritional
goals, a sports dietitian can assess your diet and guide you. Even if you
think you are eating well, you may learn new ways to expand and enjoy
your nutritional horizons—and getting a stamp of approval can be a
great confidence boost, as it is in Michael’s story below.
Preparation for competition
Since single jumps and sprints will not deplete muscle glycogen stores,
there is no need to carbo-load before a competition. The gain in body
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weight arising from additional glycogen and water in the muscle—or
simply from overeating—merely means extra weight to carry. This can
impede performance, especially in jumps and hurdles, where you must lift
yourself off the ground as well as propel yourself forward. Nevertheless,
fuel stores must be primed for a meet, especially in competitions that
involve multiple events or rounds.
The day of competition is best tackled with glycogen stores topped
up to their typical resting levels. You should already be periodising your
diet to fuel up for key training sessions. Competition is another time for
a light but strategic carbohydrate top-up.
Competition-day food and fluid
Although your sport technically lasts only seconds or a minute,
competition can be a variable affair. Competition-day nutrition needs
can range from a pre-event meal before a single effort to a grazing picnic
stretched over a drawn-out day of competition and balanced between
warm-ups, events and warm-downs. Chapter 4.4 outlines the goals of
the pre-event meal—fluid and fuel checks, comfort and confidence
boosts. You will need to choose the foods and drinks that suit the needs
of your events, and a plan that fits the day’s schedule and your personal
preferences. Experiment in training if an important competition is
coming up and you are programmed to compete at an unaccustomed
time of the day.
How should you handle a busy program, consisting of a number of
all-out efforts interspersed with variable amounts of waiting around in
between? What should you eat and drink between events, or during events
that sprawl out over hours? Your nutritional goals are to keep hydrated,
to maintain blood-sugar levels and to feel comfortable—avoiding hunger
but not risking the discomfort of a full stomach. How you will do this
largely depends on the time interval between events or efforts. Fluid
and food intake must be matched with the general considerations for
hydration, gastrointestinal comfort and fuel requirements over the hours
of a competition session as well as the specific needs incurred by warmup,
events, and cool-down activities. See Grace’s account below for ideas
and, like her, be organised to look after your own needs.
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Travelling to competition
Track and field athletes, like other athletes, frequently find their competition
opportunities interstate or overseas. It requires forward thinking to ensure
that competition eating goals can be achieved while away from home—
particularly if you are eating at restaurants or hotels. The challenge is
considerably greater if you are travelling on a Grand Prix circuit and away
from a home base for a long time. It may be appropriate to bring some of
your own supplies, particularly if you know that important foods will be
missing, or that catering arrangements at the competition venue will not
be ideal. The Tennis chapter provides some ideas for frequent travellers.
Otherwise, think ahead to arrange appropriate food and be assertive in
restaurants and hotels when ordering meals (see Golf chapter).
Supplements
Track-and-field athletes, particularly sprinters, are an enthusiastic audience
for supplements and sports foods. Sports foods can provide a useful source
of nutrition for special occasions, such as travel and competition—Chapter
6 summarises the types of products that are commonly available and their
valuable uses. However, there is also plenty of interest in the range of
alleged ergogenic supplements that promise to enhance strength, power,
recovery and leanness. Despite the hype and interest, most of these are
unproven. Read Chapter 6 to find the few supplements that have proven
ability to support a strength or interval-based training program. But also
weigh up the various costs of using such supplements.
Profile: Grace
A long day on the track
Despite being the most promising sprinter in the region, at last year’s
interschool athletics carnival, Grace could manage only one bronze
medal. Her program had been busy—heats of the 100 m at 9.45 a.m.,
long jump at 12.30, final of the 100 m at 2.30 p.m. and the 4 × 100-m
relay at 4.15 p.m. The morning of the meet was rushed. The sports
ground of the host school was a long drive away, so she had to set off
early. Grace had forced herself to swallow a mouthful of toast as she
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raced out the door. She consoled herself that she was too nervous to eat
anyway.
By mid-morning, with the 100-m heats out of the way, Grace was
ravenous. She eagerly scoured the sports-ground kiosk for something
light to eat—after all, the long jump was not far off. The offerings
were limited to pies, hot dogs, soft drinks and chocolate bars. She chose
the chocolate, ‘for energy’, and made her way to the jump pit. With so
many competitors, the long jump stretched out for well over an hour
and as she sat out on the oval awaiting her next jump, Grace felt herself
getting hot, thirsty and sunburnt. It was hard to concentrate, and she
jumped badly.
There was barely time to warm up for the 100-m final, let alone get
to the amenities block on the other side of the sports ground to find a tap.
She ran, feeling tired and with a dull headache. She finished the day with
a third place in the relay event—small comfort for the hours of training
she had completed over the past three months.
This year the story was quite different, although her training hadn’t
changed and the meet program was almost the same as the previous
year’s. The difference was a careful plan for competition day, organised
in collaboration with the school’s new athletics coach.
Grace got up earlier than usual to allow herself to have a light but
relaxed breakfast of cereal and fruit juice before leaving for the sports
ground. Not willing to rely on the ground catering, she took along a
picnic basket of provisions for the day—foods she had tested in training
over the previous month. Once the 100-m heats were over, Grace had a
small meal of ham sandwiches and juice, knowing that this would be
comfortably ‘digested’ before the jumps started in two hours’ time. Once
they called for competitors in this event, she set up ‘camp’ on the oval near
the jump pit, bringing with her a drink bottle full of cold sports drink
and a small beach umbrella for shade. Some of the other competitors
laughed at the sight, but they were soon feeling the heat of the midday
sun and saying they wished they had done the same.
With a win and a personal best in the long jump under her belt,
Grace started her warm-up for the 100-m final and followed up soon after
with her second gold medal for the day. With just over an hour before
the relay event, there was little time to eat solid food. Feeling a little
empty, Grace was glad she had a ‘ready-to-go’ liquid meal supplement
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on ice in her picnic basket. Refreshed and revitalised, she prepared for
the last event and helped her team win a silver medal.
While Grace knows that her medals were not just the result of
particular food or drinks, her careful organisation did allow her to do
justice to her talent and training rather than see it wasted by race-day
mistakes. Some of her successful strategies are summarised in Table 12.1.
Profile: Michael
How do you assess dietary practices?
Michael, a 400-m hurdler, was aiming for selection in next year’s
University Games athletics team. He had been interested in sports
nutrition for the past two years, gleaning information from his coach,
from articles in Runner’s World and from the occasional sports-medicine
seminar. He’d tried to incorporate these ideas into his diet, although he
was not always sure which foods were best. Wanting to leave nothing
to chance in his running career, Michael decided to get a professional’s
opinion on his diet. He made an appointment to see the sports dietitian
at the sports medicine clinic near his home, and his first question was:
‘How will you tell if I’m eating well? Will you do a hair analysis or
something?’
The dietitian explained that hair analysis, along with practices such
as live-cell microscopy and iridology (eye examination), fall into the
category of alternative therapies and are not regarded by scientists as
valid ways to assess nutritional status.
A dietitian’s major assessment tools are information about physique
(see Chapter 3), lifestyle, exercise patterns, and a careful assessment of
dietary intake. Medical examinations may be needed, including signs
and symptoms of various nutritional conditions. Sometimes the dietitian
will also have biochemical tests done to establish whether a nutritional
deficiency exists.
Since biochemical tests are expensive and occasionally a nuisance
they are best undertaken only when the other information points to a
possible problem. For example, it is not necessary for athletes to have
hundreds of tests to see which vitamins or minerals they might be
lacking. However, if signs of a particular deficiency are apparent, and
the athlete’s usual eating patterns suggest he is falling short of estimated
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requirements for this nutrient, it is useful to do the appropriate blood
tests to confirm this.
Michael’s nutritional assessment began with a discussion about his
sporting commitment—his goals, training and immediate competition
plans. The dietitian then asked about his interest in nutrition and any
special dietary principles he was already following. Did he live at home
with his family, in an institution, alone, or in a shared house? Who did
the shopping and cooking? What else did he have to fit into his day apart
from training—university, full-time or part-time work?
The discussion turned to weight and body fat, and Michael said
his weight never varied by more than one or two kilograms during the
season. He showed the dietitian the results of a recent body-fat check by
an exercise physiologist accredited in skinfold measurement procedures.
Michael’s score for the sum of seven skinfold sites was 32 mm, which
made him very lean.
Next, the dietitian asked Michael to recount a typical day’s eating. She
led him through the day, noting his activities—particularly training—
and eating habits. This gentle but thorough interrogation yielded a
detailed account of the types, timing and quantities of foods and drinks
Michael consumed, noting how they were cooked or prepared and why
they were chosen. Special attention was focused on his intake before,
during and after workouts. Weekends were described separately, with
attention to any changes to his weekday pattern. The dietitian also asked
about eating out, take-aways, and other variations in Michael’s routines,
such as differences between summer and winter eating. Competition
nutrition was then explored, looking at dietary preparation, pre-race
meals and tactics for race-day food and fluids.
‘What can you learn from this?’ Michael asked. The dietitian explained
that, providing Michael had described his usual eating patterns accurately,
this profile could provide a good general assessment of his success in
meeting his nutritional needs. It not only covered what he consumed and
when in relation to workouts, it also helped to explain some of the reasons
why he chose particular food. This was important to know, especially when
improvements were advised. For example, if availability or cost stood in
the way of a better food choice, that would call for different tactics than if
lack of nutrition knowledge was the only problem.
To complete the picture, Michael was invited to keep a food diary.
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The dietitian explained that this was like having a video made of his
running technique. Recording his food intake over a period of time would
allow Michael to compare actual intake with what he thought he was
eating, and also with what he should be eating for optimal performance.
The diary would also help him track the timing of nutrition in relation
to training and racing. A computerised dietary analysis could also be
undertaken, estimating daily intake of kilojoules and nutrients based on
Michael’s diary records.
To make the most of the exercise, Michael was shown exactly how to
keep a good food record. He needed to make sure that he kept it for long
enough to reflect his usual eating patterns, and to accurately describe
the type and amount of food and drink he consumed. He was happy to
use paper and pen for the diary, though the dietitian told him that new
techniques were being developed making use of mobile phones, digital
photos and the Internet. Michael carefully kept a diary for seven days,
which covered a full week of training and an inter-club meet.
The dietitian then studied Michael’s diary, assessing the information
quantitatively and qualitatively. She entered his food and fluid intakes
into a computerised dietary analysis program to estimate Michael’s
daily tally of energy and nutrients and how this varied according to his
training program. The results are presented in Table 12.2, along with
typical meal plans from Michael’s diary.
To evaluate Michael’s diet, the dietitian worked through a checklist
of goals for training and competition nutrition:
• Suitability of weight and body-fat levels: Michael’s daily
kilojoule intake is appropriate, maintaining his body fat at a
low level to suit his sport.
• Nutrition knowledge and practical skills: Michael is
motivated and is generally good at the time management and
skills needed for planning, shopping and cooking good meals.
He and his housemates might benefit from some cooking
classes to widen his recipe range; learning to cook fish would
be especially useful. A house roster will ensure that chores are
all done and that Michael can contribute to the cooking on
lighter training days and come home to a hot meal after his
heavy workouts.
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• Training support: Michael’s estimated average daily
carbohydrate and protein intakes look appropriate. However,
they are not necessarily well spread over the day or week to
give maximum support to his training. Michael could benefit
from adjusting his carbohydrate intake from day to day to
more closely track his fuel needs. A pre-planned weekly menu
would schedule carbohydrate-rich dinners on the night before
speed endurance sessions and other key workouts and focus
on fuel intake at breakfast and lunch before these sessions. In
longer sessions, he might benefit from some sports drink. He
doesn’t yet know how to monitor his hydration status from day
to day or over long sessions. It would be valuable to monitor
his morning urine output and fluid balance, particularly in
summer.
• Recovery: Michael is doing a good job of scheduling a wellchosen
breakfast after his morning workout to help with
refuelling and repair/adaptation. However, his evening
session is not as well supported. Even though Michael takes a
snack to the session to eat on the way home, his choices have
been carbohydrate-centred rather than carbohydrate–protein
combinations. So although his average protein intake for a
day is well above suggested requirements for an athlete, it
is not necessarily targeting his real needs. Including protein
in recovery snacks after key workouts and weights sessions
would help a great deal by promoting adaptation and
recovery, especially if the snack is eaten immediately after the
session. The dietitian provided suggestions of other items to
add to his post-session menu such as a liquid meal supplement
(PowerBar Proteinplus or Sustagen Sport) or fruit-flavoured
yoghurt.
• Adequacy of vitamin and mineral intake: Michael’s intake
of key nutrients is well in excess of the recommended
daily allowances and provides a generous margin for when
requirements are increased by heavy exercise. High nutrient
intake is partly a result of Michael’s generous energy intake,
but also comes from his careful choice of a wide variety of
nutritious foods. Although we don’t have quantitative
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information for all micronutrients and important food
chemicals, if Michael is meeting his needs for key nutrients
from a variety of foods, then he is probably getting a plentiful
supply of other nutrients as well.
• Long-term nutritional issues: Michael’s diet meets the
guidelines for good health, with moderate fat and salt levels,
and a variety of wholesome foods. As well as supporting his
immediate athletic goals, this diet should lessen his risk of
nutrition-related diseases in later life. He has no known family
history of cardiovascular or lifestyle diseases that might require
a special diet.
• Competition nutrition: Michael uses inter-club meets to practise
the eating tactics he will use in more important competitions.
He has fine-tuned his preparation and pre-race meal and takes
his own food when he travels to an interstate meet. He has kept
good records of all his competition outings over the past two
years and has adjusted his nutrition on the day of an event to
bring out the best in his performance.
• Social and enjoyment eating: Although Michael chooses
wholesome foods and meals most of the time, he enjoys eating
out with friends and occasionally scans the dessert menu for
his all-time favourite—sticky date pudding with ice-cream.
Careful but not fanatical, he feels happy with his menu.
The dietitian congratulated Michael, assuring him that his current
diet met many of his nutritional goals as a hurdler, and that a little
tinkering would further improve the interaction between his eating and
training. All that remained to make his diet ideal was the confidence that
he was eating well. Such a diet not only met his physiological needs—
knowing that it did so would give him a psychological edge, a major
advantage in top-level competition.
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Table 12.1
Successful strategies for organising a competition-day nutrition plan for
a track and field athlete
Strategy Comments
Obtain the competition timetable
and plan ahead
• Pencil in a likely schedule of
activities for warm-ups, events
and cool-downs.
• Work around this timetable to
plan some times for eating and
drinking
• Be aware of the potential for
the timetable to change
• Be aware of gut concerns—
whether you are likely to be
uncomfortable during exercise
or get hungry with your plan
Investigate food supplies and
food storage opportunities at
competition venue
• Be prepared to take your own
supplies and be self-sufficient
if you can’t rely on the
competition venue
— Portable and relatively nonperishable
choices include
sports foods—bars, sports
drinks, gels and liquid
meals
— With your own Esky or
access to a fridge you may
be able to add a range
of everyday foods to the
menu—sandwiches, milk
drinks, yoghurt, etc.
Use training sessions to gauge
real fuel and fluid needs for your
sport and event challenges
• Monitor body mass changes
and fluid intakes over a
session to see what your
typical sweat losses are, and
how well you usually replace
these (see Figure 2.3)
• Think through the real fuel
demands of your event and
preparation/cool-down
• Be aware that it can be easy
to overhydrate, as well as
underhydrate—both can be
unnecessary and undesirable.
A moderate–large fluid deficit
may reduce your concentration
and performance. However,
gaining weight because of
overhydration can detract from
performance and excessive
fluid intake may also cause gut
discomfort.
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Strategy Comments
activities. Monitor ‘energy
levels’ over periods of training
or low-level competitions
Use training sessions or lowerlevel
competitions to practise and
fine-tune your plans
• You may not be able to
replicate competition nerves,
but most other aspects of
competition day may be able
to be practised
Monitor and debrief after every
competition so that you learn
what really works for you and
how to achieve it
• Note your performance
• Where applicable monitor
hydration status and energy
levels over the day
• Rate gastrointestinal comfort
• Note the logistical challenges
in carrying out your plan
• Record your competition plan
for each occasion
• Debrief as soon as you can
after the competition to note
what you actually did, and
how well it worked. Memories
aren’t always a reliable source
of information, so make your
notes while it is fresh in your
mind
• Sometimes you won’t see
patterns until you have a
series of debriefs to look at
objectively
Table 12.2
An analysis of a typical day’s eating for Michael
Typical food patterns from dietary history
Early morning training
before university classes
Water
Breakfast: eaten at
home within 20–30 min
of training
Wholegrain or light ‘muesli flake’ cereal—
large bowl (100–150 g) + low-fat milk +
sliced or canned fruit
2 slices of wholemeal toast + scrape
margarine + jam
Glass fruit juice and extra water
2–3 times a week: fruit added to cereal
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During morning Water, particularly if warm day
Lunch: at university on
weekdays. Home or
competing at meets at
weekends
Summer—2 wholemeal rolls with scrape
of marg OR mayonnaise, lean protein
filling (chicken, salmon, egg or roast beef )
and salad
Winter—Thick vegetable soup + 2 rounds
toasted sandwiches (fillings: baked beans,
ham/cheese/tomato or ‘leftovers’)
Scone or muffin, unbuttered
Flavoured milk
Piece of fruit
Gym training or second
track workout after
classes
Water or tries to have sports drink for
quality session
On way home from
training
Banana or plain bagel. Occasionally
PowerBar
Dinner: home, later in
evening when ready to
cook
Shares cooking with
2 housemates—
occasionally comes
home too tired to cook
on heavy training day
Large serve (250–350 g) of lean meat or
chicken. Likes fish but no one knows how
to cook it
Large serve of potatoes; rice/pasta: 1–2
times per week (2–3 cups)
3–4 other vegetables or salad
All cooking is low-fat and dressings involve
monounsaturated fats
Juice
Before bed—dessert or
snack
Fruit or fruit salad with low-fat yoghurt or
ice-cream
1–2 times a week, pudding or cooked
dessert
If no dessert: bowl of cereal and yoghurt
Weekends Eats out one night a week—likes Thai and
Mexican foods
Alcohol—rarely
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Average nutrient analysis from 7-day food diary
Nutrient Intake/d Target Nutrient Intake Target
Energy 15.15 MJ
(3606 Cal)
Vit A/
Betacarotene
2675 μg 750 μg
Carbohydrate 525 g
(6.7 g/kg,
58% of
energy
5–8 g/kg B1 thiamin 3.5 mg 1.2 mg
Protein 165 g
(2.1 g/kg
= 18% of
energy)
1.2–
1.5 g/kg
B2
riboflavin
4.3 mg 1.3 mg
Fat 94 g (24%
of energy)
B3 niacin 69 mg 16 mg
Alcohol Nil Folate
Iron 33 mg 8–17 mg Vitamin C 525 mg 45 mg
Calcium 1120 mg 1000 mg
Zinc 23 mg 14 mg
*Targets include RDIs and general guidelines for athletes; see Chapter 2