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MODULE 08
Aerodynamics
INDEX
Contents
2. AERODYNAMICS....................................................................................... 2-1
2.1 MASS FLOW ............................................................................................. 2-1
2.2 ENERGY .................................................................................................. 2-1
3. AEROFOILS ............................................................................................. 3-1
3.1 AERODYNAMIC FORCES ............................................................................ 3-1
3.2 DEFINITIONS ............................................................................................ 3-2
3.3 AERODYNAMIC RESULTANTS ..................................................................... 3-3
3.4 LIFT & DRAG ............................................................................................ 3-3
3.5 FACTORS AFFECTING FORCES .................................................................. 3-4
3.5.1 Lift & drag coefficient ...................................................................... 3-4
3.5.2 Angle of attack ................................................................................ 3-5
3.6 CENTRE OF PRESSURE ............................................................................. 3-6
3.6.1 Pitching moment coefficient ............................................................ 3-7
3.7 AERODYNAMIC CENTRE ............................................................................ 3-8
3.8 DOWNWASH ............................................................................................ 3-8
4. DRAG ....................................................................................................... 4-1
4.1 DRAG EQUATION ...................................................................................... 4-1
4.2 DRAG COEFFICIENT .................................................................................. 4-1
4.3 DRAG COMPONENTS ................................................................................ 4-1
4.4 FLOW CHARACTERISTICS .......................................................................... 4-1
4.5 FORM DRAG............................................................................................. 4-1
4.6 BOUNDARY LAYERS.................................................................................. 4-2
4.7 SKIN FRICTION ......................................................................................... 4-3
4.7.1 Transition point ............................................................................... 4-3
4.7.2 Reynolds number............................................................................ 4-4
4.7.3 Adverse pressure gradient .............................................................. 4-4
4.8 SEPARATION............................................................................................ 4-4
4.9 INTERFERENCE DRAG............................................................................... 4-5
4.10 INDUCED DRAG .................................................................................... 4-5
4.10.1 Vortex diagram ............................................................................ 4-6
4.11 TOTAL DRAG ........................................................................................ 4-8
4.11.1 Drag polar ................................................................................... 4-8
5. FORCES IN FLIGHT ................................................................................. 5-1
5.1 FOUR FORCES ......................................................................................... 5-1
5.2 STRAIGHT & LEVEL................................................................................... 5-1
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1. ATMOSPHERE
The gaseous envelope surrounding the Earth is called the atmosphere.
There is no defined upper limit to the atmosphere, but much of this study is
limited to the first 60,000 ft where most aviation activity is conducted.
The Tropopause - the upper limit of the troposphere where temperature stops
decreasing with an increase of height. The tropopause is therefore the upper
limit of significant weather, the first point of lowest temperature, and
additionally it is the region for maximum wind strengths.
The height of the tropopause varies with Altitude, season of the year, and
prevailing weather conditions with the result that it is usually higher in low
Altitudes, in summer and in fine weather.
Typical heights for the tropopause are:
1.4 Temperature
(a) Units
The temperature scales most commonly used are Celsius or Centigrade,
Fahrenheit and Kelvin or Absolute.
The first two scales are based on the melting point of ice, being 0°C and 32°F
respectively, and the boiling point of water, being 100°C or 212°F.
Being a form of energy, heat is related to the random movement of
molecules in a substance. If heat is reduced, the molecules become less
active. The minimum temperature to which a substance can be reduced is
approximately -273°C, and this is known as Absolute zero, or 0°K.
Correspondingly, the melting point of ice is equivalent to 273°K and the boiling
point of water to 373°K.
F = y + 32
C =5/9 (F-32)
K = C + 273
(b) Temperature Variation in the Troposphere
At ground level, in general, the temperature increases with decrease of
Altitude.
With increasing altitude, the conductive and convective effects from the earth
are reduced so that temperature will usually decrease with height up to the
tropopause. See Fig. 1-1.
Typical values of temperature found at the tropopause are:
Altitude Temperature
Equator -80°C
45°N/S -56°C
Poles -45°C
L = CL '/2pV2S
1.5 Pressure
(a) Definition
Pressure is the force exerted on a unit area, ie:
(b) Units
The metric units of pressure are dynes per square centimetre, where the
dyne is the force required to accelerate 1 gram by 1 centimetre per second.
The System International units of pressure are Newtons per square metre,
where the Newton is the force required to accelerate 1 kilogram by 1 metre per
second. The Newton is therefore, equal to 105 dynes.
Although largely obsolete, the Imperial system of units is still
encountered, and pressure is expressed in pounds per square inch.
In meteorology the unit of pressure is the millibar (mb), which is
equivalent to 1000 dynes per square centimetre.
Before the introduction of the millibar, meteorological pressure was
measured in terms of the length of a column of mercury in a barometer that
the weight of the atmosphere could support.
From the table it should be noted that at about 18,000 ft, the pressure is
half the sea level value.
Also, it should now be apparent that the rate of pressure decrease with
height is not constant. In the first 10,000 ft, the pressure falls at a rate of
approximately 1 mb per 30 ft but between 30,000 ft and 40,000 ft the pressure
decrease is closer to 1 mb per 88 ft.
1.6 Density
(a) Definition
Density is the mass per unit volume of a substance, at a specified temperature
and pressure.
(b) Units
Density is expressed in grams, or kilograms per cubic metre for metric or SI
units, respectively. The Imperial units are pounds per cubic feet. Factors
affecting density when considering a gas are:
Density = Pressure / (Gas constant x Absolute temperature)
For a given temperature, therefore, an increase of pressure increases
density, or, at a given pressure, a decrease in temperature increases
density.
[ft] [kg/cu m]
40,000 0.301
30,000 0.458
20,000 0.653
10,000 0.905
0 1.225
At about 22,000 ft, the density is half the sea level value.
We have already seen that density at sea level tends to be higher at the
Poles than at the Equator. However, at 26,000 ft, the density value is similar
at all Altitudes.
For such aircraft, operating under 26,000 ft, then the improved
atmospheric density found in winter in high Altitudes will give the highest
ceiling.
(b) Charles'Law
The volume of a given mass of gas at constant pressure, increases by 1/273 of
its volume at 0°C for every 1°C rise in temperature:
V x K or V/K = constant
V1 = V2
K1 K2
K1 K2
1.10 Speeds
2. AERODYNAMICS
Aerodynamics is the study of air in motion, which includes changes in the
physical characteristics, such as pressure and density. (Thermodynamics is
similar but is likely to involve significant temperature changes). Because the air
is in motion, changes in velocity and mass flow-rates are also important.
Aerodynamics also involves the study of forces being generated (e.g. the "lift"
force on a wing), and so a brief mention must be made of some basic principles.
2.2 ENERGY
This change in velocity implies a corresponding change in kinetic energy
(KE = ½ mv2). The principle known as Conservation of Energy suggests that
unless extra energy is introduced into a moving airstream (such as fuel) the
overall energy content must remain unchanged from one point to another.
Hence, if KE increases some other energy form decreases.
Bernoulli's equation highlights the relationship between pressure energy and
kinetic energy.
P + ½rv2 = Constant
pressure kinetic total
(static) (dynamic) ("Pitot")
3. AEROFOILS
There are several theories used to describe how a lifting force is generated by
the action of air in motion past an aerofoil. Whatever the theory, the lift force
results from a difference between the pressures acting in the upper and lower
surfaces.
Aerodynamic forces result from the action of these aerodynamic pressures acting
on the areas of the aerofoil surfaces. It is possibly clearer to understand the
effect of these pressures by studying the diagram below. On this, the pressures
have been plotted, using the chord line as a datum. Note that negative (suction)
pressure has been plotted upwards. The difference (or area enclosed) between
the two curves is proportional to the overall lifting - effect of the aerofoil.
3.2 DEFINITIONS
Aerofoil is the term used to describe the characteristic shape of the cross-section
of an aircraft wing, and whose purpose is to generate lift. Discussion of aerofoil
performance is the main purpose of this module, and so some descriptions and
definitions of this shape will be essential. (Note that the aerofoil section is
considered with its plane parallel to the relative airflow).
· Relative AirFlow (RAF) is the movement of the air relative to the aircraft (or
aerofoil). (In practice, it is the aircraft which moves relative to the air, but in
aerodynamic theory and wind - tunnel experiment, it is the air which is
considered to be in motion).
· Leading Edge is the foremost point on the aerofoil.
· Trailing Edge is the rear-most point on the aerofoil.
· Chord Line is the straight line joining leading and trailing edges.
· Chord Length (C) is the length of the chord line.
· Camber Line is the line drawn through points equidistant from the upper and
lower surfaces. (The camber line is usually a curved line; the greater the
curvature, the greater will be the aerodynamic forces generated).
· Thickness of an aerofoil is the greatest distance between the upper and
lower surfaces. (It is generally between Fehler! and Fehler! way back along
the chord line).
Thickness / chord ratio = thickness ¸ chord, normally expressed as a
percentage.
· Angle of Attack (a) - the angle formed between the chord-line and relative
airflow.
· Span (b) is the distance from tip to tip, measured perpendicular to the chord
line.
· Aspect Ratio (AR) is Span ¸ chord .
If the wing is tapered, i.e. it has a varying chord, then the AR may be
expressed as span2 ¸ wing area .
· Wing Area (S) is the area projected onto a plane perpendicular to the normal
axis.
· Stagnation Point is a point on the surface of the aerofoil where the RAF has
been brought to rest.
This graph clearly indicates that the best (maximum) Lift/Drag ratio generally
occurs at a relatively small angle of attack (typically 3º - 5º). Designers and
operators endeavour to operate any aerofoil at an angle of attack in this range as
much as possible.
Finally, a word is introduced that is of great significance - the Stall.
Looking at the diagrams, there is an angle of attack beyond which CL has
reduced substantially, CD has increased markedly and CL has reduced.
This means that there has been a sudden loss of lift and a rapid increase in drag.
The aerofoil (wing) is said to have stalled, and is a potentially dangerous
scenario if it occurs in flight.
As with CL and CD, it is usual to draw graphs using CM rather than M (see
diagram below).
3.8 DOWNWASH
The flow of air around the aerofoil causes variation in speeds and pressures that
result in the creation of lift. Lift is the resultant force applied to the airframe,
considered perpendicular to the RAF. From Newton’s 3rd Law, there must be an
opposite force applied to the air. This ‘reaction’ causes deflection of the airflow
as it leaves the trailing-edge, termed ‘downwash’. (There may well be an
‘upwash’ effect ahead of the leading-edge).
4. DRAG
Note also the approximate value of the form drag associated with each shape,
assuming the flat plate (disc) as representing 100%.
On the diagram, the length of the arrows indicates the flow velocity at that point.
The (parabolic) pattern is termed the velocity distribution or profile.
The diagram conveys some idea of the layer thickness (it is fairly thin!) The layer
is considered to be the region where the velocity relative to the surface (skin)
varies from zero to 99% of the free-stream.
The adverse pressure gradient (APG) refers to the point in the flow where the
static pressure begins to increase. In nature, fluid flows from high to low
pressure; it does not flow from low to high. So if the static pressure now
increases (due to shape of the body), a pressure gradient now exists to impede
flow. It is not assisting flow - it is an adverse gradient. The student can visualise
that this will occur beyond the point of least pressure, i.e. the point on the body
where thickness is greatest.
4.8 SEPARATION
The overall effect of friction is to reduce the velocity and energy of the air-flow
within the boundary layer. This reduction is further exacerbated by introducing an
APG, as with a curved or cambered body. This effect can be shown at several
successive points within the boundary-layer. As shown on the following diagram,
the boundary-layer is brought to rest and separates, forming a turbulent wake.
Beyond the separation point, flow reversal may occur.
When the boundary layer separates and forms a turbulent wake, much energy
has been lost in creating rotational flow and consequently the static pressure
within this flow is reduced (this will be restated when vortex flow is considered).
This means that there is less static pressure acting on the rear of the body,
compared to the front. In turn, this means that a net (pressure) force acts
rearwards (= drag). Hence, separated, turbulent flow should be avoided /
delayed whenever possible. This is achieved by streamlining and maintaining as
smooth a surface as possible.
· Lift (weight)
· Aspect ratio
· Wing planform
· Speed
Obviously the greater the weight, the more lift must be created which is the
result of greater pressure difference. Greater pressure differences create more
downwash / stronger vortices.
A high aspect ratio means that the strength of the spanwise flow component is
reduced. Hence, the vortex strengths are reduced.
The vortices tend to combine towards the wing-tip and so an ideal wing-planform
will create a lift distribution that minimises these vortices. This ideal is the so-
called elliptical distribution or loading, which was attempted on the Spitfire by
using an elliptical wing. In practice, the ideal is impossible to achieve totally.
The factors all influence the equation for induced drag coefficient.
CDI = (k CL ²)/(πAR)
k = a coefficient introduced to take account of the deviation from the ideal
elliptical lift distribution.
It can be deduced that induced drag is directly proportional to weight2, and
inversely proportional to the speed2.
The total drag, is a minimum at the point at which the two curves intersect.
Here, ZLD = ID and this point gives the minimum - drag speed.
The second diagram compares two different aerofoils, curve (a) is a conventional
section, curve (b) is a low-drag section. Note that this aerofoil has a significant
reduction in profile-drag between the CL range of CL1, and CL2. This shape is
commonly termed the drag ‘bucket’ and is a characteristic of an aerofoil designed
to maintain laminar flow. For efficient cruise performance, such a section must
obviously be operated within these parameters.
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5. FORCES IN FLIGHT
The Lift and Drag forces resulting from the passage of air past a body have now
been studied in isolation. It is now appropriate to consider them acting on an
aircraft in flight.
Given that the two couples are most likely unequal, a further moment must be
created to restore equilibrium. This is provided by the tailplane. Because the
distance from the CG is comparatively large, the size (area) of the tailplane can
be small. With a conventional tailplane, it is usual to find that it produces a
downward force.
Again, it is assumed that the forces are in equilibrium. The analysis then begins
by resolving the weight force into two components, perpendicular and parallel
to the flight path. The forces in these directions can now be equated.
L = W cosq
T = W sinq + D
Two interesting and important facts emerge. If the aircraft is climbing, q > O and
cosq < 1
therefore Lift is less than Weight.
Similarly, sinq > O and Thrust is greater than Drag.
We can therefore deduce that aircraft climb because of increased thrust, and not
increased lift. (Theoretically, this makes sense, because the aircraft gains
height and therefore potential energy. The energy input is through the increase
in thrust, itself resulting from the 'burning' or expenditure of fuel (chemical
energy).
distance (difference) between the power available and power required curves.
Study of the diagram shows that this difference is dependent on the aircraft
speed. So to achieve the best rate of climb, a particular speed must be selected,
i.e. the best climb speed.
To the maintenance engineer, Rate of Climb represents a useful measure of
aircraft performance (and therefore of aircraft condition). Reduced thrust or
increased drag will both have the effect of reducing the vertical distance which
represents excess power. If an aircraft on test fails to achieve the scheduled
ROC, then an investigation as to the possible cause should be made. Note the
importance of operating at the best climb speed.
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6.2 LOOPING
Consider an aircraft diving towards the ground. At some point, the pilot wishes to
stop the descent and position the aircraft to climb away from the ground.
Note that if the flight path is as shown, the lift force (and CPF) is considered as
negative and hence the Load Factor is also negative.
Because of the increased stresses, aircraft are designed with 'g' limits. Because
violent manoeuvres could result in over-stressing, aircraft are operated within 'g'
limits, both positive and negative. Combat aircraft are designed to be more
manoeuvrable and therefore have higher 'g' limits than transport aircraft.
Similarly, pilots are provided with 'g' suits to increase their personal 'g' thresholds.
CPF = (wv)/(gr)
So increased weight, high speed and "tight" radius of turn all impose high load
factors on aircraft.
6.5 STALLING
Recalling the graphs showing variation of CL and CD which accompany changes
in a, it was stated that the wing stalled beyond a certain a. This is known as the
stalling angle.
If an aircraft is flown straight and level and the thrust is reduced, the aircraft will
reduce speed (drag is exceeding thrust). The pilot can maintain lift, by raising the
nose to achieve a higher CL. At some point (speed), however, the aircraft will
reach the stalling angle, the CL reduces and the aircraft stalls, suddenly losing
altitude.
L (=W) = ½rv2S CL
7. STABILITY
In the second diagram, it will not move, it remains in the new position and is
described as having neutral stability.
In the third diagram, it will move further away from the initial position, it has
negative stability, or is unstable.
Note that the above is the initial part of considering stability, the immediate
reaction or tendency to movement following initial displacement is used to
determine the static stability of the system.
The easiest one to consider is displacement (yaw) about the normal axis. The
diagram shows that this will cause an angle of attack to be created between the
fin (vertical stabiliser) and the relative airflow, such that an aerodynamic force /
moment will be created that restores the aircraft towards its original heading /
direction. (As the displacement reduces, the moment reduces and the aircraft will
again 'heads' towards the relative airflow - just like a weathercock heads into
wind).
The fin gives an aircraft directional stability (about the normal axis).
The manner in which the tailplane (horizontal stabiliser) acts is similar in
principle but somewhat more complicated in detail. The diagram below shows
the aircraft displaced in the pitching plane. Now two aerofoils are involved, the
mainplane and tailplane.The mainplane angle of attack increases, and as
drawn, this creates more lift and a forward movement of the centre of pressure.
This creates an upsetting moment tending to destabilise the aircraft. (A tail-
less aircraft is therefore inherently unstable).
The tailplane also generates lift so as to create a restoring moment. For the
aircraft to be statically stable, clearly the restoring moment must be greater than
the upsetting moment. By comparing these moments, it becomes clear how
important the position of the centre of gravity becomes.
As the centre of gravity moves aft, the aircraft becomes less stable, due to the
changing distances and the effect on the moments.
As the centre of gravity moves forward, the aircraft becomes more stable.
The tailplane gives an aircraft longitudinal stability (about the lateral axis).
The most common design feature employed to promote lateral stability is the
introduction of dihedral. The diagram indicates the angle concerned. Dihedral
results in the 'dropped' wing meeting the revised relative airflow (due to side-slip)
at a greater angle of attack than the upper wing.
The net effect is therefore to create a restoring moment which is tending to roll
the aircraft back towards straight and level (at which point the side-slip stops and
the restoring moment becomes zero).
The next diagram shows the effect of the 'keel' area above the centre of gravity.
This will also 'right' the aircraft (similar to a yacht-keel). Note that if the keel-area
is mostly aft of the centre of gravity, then an additional effect is to yaw the aircraft
towards the dropped-wing.
In the second diagram, the aircraft has dropped the left wing and is side-slipping.
Due to the angle of sweep-back, the RAF now meets the leading-edges at
different angles, and now has different components in respect of each wing. It
will be recalled that it is the chordwise (or normal) component that creates lift
and reference to the diagram shows that greater chordwise component occurring
over the dropped-wing will therefore generate more lift, so as to create a rolling
moment that restores the aircraft to (straight) and level flight.
Several design features have been considered which result in lateral stability.
But an aircraft that is very stable will be unresponsive to control movements.
Stability requirements have to complement control requirements. An aircraft
that has excessive stability is as undesirable as one that lacks stability. The right
'balance' between stability and control is often dictated by the intended role of the
aircraft. An aircraft that possessed all the features described would probably be
too stable. So a swept-wing, high-wing aircraft might incorporate anhedral (the
opposite to dihedral) in order to reduce the degree of stability.
The above paragraphs have analysed features which create a moment so as to
restore the aircraft towards its undisturbed or original position. They contribute
static stability. Dynamic stability in the manner in which the aircraft moves or
oscillates towards / about that position. This will depend on the variation of the
forces in respect of displacement / time and is too complex for this module.
7.6 CONTROL
The previous section has considered stability, where design features have been
included in order to maintain or regain a desired flight path.
If the aircraft is to be manoeuvred, (i.e. the flight path is to be changed) it will be
necessary to de-stabilise the aircraft. So it appears that stability and
manoeuvrability are conflicting requirements - increasing one characteristic
decreases the other.
The inset-hinge moves the hinge rearwards, thus moving closer to the Centre of
Pressure of the control. Again, the hinge-moment reduces.
The sealed-hinge maintains a pressure difference between the upper and lower
surfaces. This results in a net pressure force acting forward of the hinge,
creating a moment assisting deflection.
Several types of tab exist, their operation is the same in terms of the
aerodynamic principle.
Examples include:
Fixed tabs,
Trim tabs,
Balance tabs e.g. geared, servo and spring tabs.
If the tab is operated directly by the pilot, the tab is termed a servo tab. A servo
tab is considered to lack effectiveness at low speeds. The main control surface is
not connected to the control system, it "floats". If a large deflection is required,
the servo tab must be able to generate a sufficient moment to cause this. At low
speed this is difficult.
At low speeds, no assistance is needed and the pilot moves the control surface
without tab deflection. If the speed rises, the increasing air resistance requires
the pilot to apply an increasing hinge moment via the control system. At some
stage, the forces in the control system overcome the spring forces, which allows
the link to pivot and create a movement of the tab. The greater the force, the
more the link and tab will move, the greater will be the assistance to the pilot.
Effect on:-
Flap Setting Lift Coefficient Drag Coefficient Lift / drag
Up (cruise) - - Maximum
Intermediate (t/o) Large Increase Small Increase Decrease
(e.g. 10 and 22)
Full (landing) Small Increase Large Increase Large Decrease
(e.g. 27 and 30)
Angle
Increase
of basic
of
High-Lift Devices aerofoil Remarks
maximum
at
lift
max. lift
Increase camber.
Much drag when fully
50% 12°
lowered. Nose-down
Plain or Camber Flap pitching moment.
Increase camber.
Even more drag than
60% 14°
plain flap. Nose-down
Split Flap pitching moment.
Control of boundary
layer. Increase
65% 16° camber. Stalling
delayed. Not so much
Slotted Flap drag.
Same as single-slotted
flap only more so.
70% 18
Treble slots sometimes
Double-slotted Flap used.
table continue….
table continued….
Angle
Increase
of basic
of
aerofoil Remarks
maximum
at
lift
High-Lift Devices max. lift
Nose-flap hinging about
leading edge. Reduces
50% 20° lift at small deflections.
Nose-up pitching
Krueger Flap moment.
Controls boundary
40% 20° layer. Slight extra drag
at high speeds.
Slotted Wing
Controls boundary
layer. Increases
50% 20° camber and area.
Nose-up pitching
Fixed Slat moment.
Controls boundary
layer. Increases
60% 22° camber and area.
Greater angles of
attack. Nose-up
Movable Slat
pitching moment.
More control of
boundary layer.
75% 25° Increased camber and
area. Pitching moment
Slat and Slotted Flap can be neutralised.
Complicated
mechanisms. The best
120% 28° combination for lift;
treble slots may be
Slat and Double-Slotted used. Pitching moment
Fowler Flap can be neutralised.
The effect of the irregularity can only be felt within the 3-D Mach
cone which has a surface made up of Mach lines.
The mach cone could be considered as being made up of a series of mach lines
and so the included angle of a mach cone will be 2a.
The Mach Angle only holds true for a weak shock wave at some distance from
the point (or aircraft) where is may be referred to as a Mach Wave, see diagram
below. Nearer the aircraft, where the shock wave is stronger, the shock wave
progressively becomes a 'normal' shock wave, i.e. at 90º to the airflow.
In practice a fully formed, strong shockwave travels slightly faster than the speed
of sound and so will be in front of the mach cone.
The bow shock wave becomes progressively weaker further out from the
Aircraft eventually becoming a very weak 'Mach Wave'.
(Note that the actual flight speed is the True Airspeed (TAS) which is Indicated
Airspeed (IAS) corrected for density at altitude.)
The speed of sound is adjusted according to the ‘local’ (actual) air temperature.
i. An area forward of the shock wave (inside the dotted lines) is now
supersonic, caused by the increase of airspeed over the cambered
surface.
ii. Aft of the shockwave the air is,
Subsonic
Higher in density (compressed
Higher in pressure
Higher in temperature
· Supersonic - The diagram (d) below shows the position with the free-
stream airflow supersonic in which:
This drag reduces from its peak as speed further increase, but never returns to
it's subsonic levels.
The two components of shock-induced drag are:
· Wave Drag - The changes in speed, pressure, density and temperature of
the airflow which happen in the shockwave require energy. This dissipation of
energy is observed as an increase in drag.
· Boundary Layer Drag (Viscous Drag) - This is always present at any
speed of flight, but as shock-induced separation occurs, the much larger
turbulent wake produces a correspondingly high drag.
8.8.1 BUFFET
This is caused by the turbulent wake striking the airframe (fuselage, wings
tailplane etc) with considerable force causing a high amplitude 'vibration' which
physically shakes the whole aircraft.
However, once the shockwaves form, this situation will change. As we saw
earlier as the air passes through the shockwave it is slowed down. More
important when we are considering lift is the effect on pressure and density.
These both rise.
The pressure over the top surface reduces rapidly up to the shockwave where
pressure and density instantly rise. This may contribute to shock stall. The
pressure then continues to rise toward the trailing edge. This has the effect of
moving the centre of pressure forward producing a nose up pitching moment on
the aircraft. This effect is only apparent in the transonic range. As the
shockwave moves to the trailing edge the centre of pressure returns to
approximately its original position. This effect may be cancelled or reversed by
similar effects on the lower surface.
As shock induced separation occurs the shock wave may also rapidly oscillate
back and fore over the wing. This causes a rapid up and down movement of the
nose accentuating buffet.
The movement of the centre of pressure associated with shock-wave
development results in trim changes throughout the transonic speed-range.
This requires an automatic response or correction input to the pitch control
system, which is termed Mach Trim.
This is possible because when the air separates it rolls up into conical vortices
over the wing, see diagram below. As these vortices are rotating at high speed,
the pressure within them is low and therefore lift is produced.
Whilst Concorde is designed to fly with separated flow at all speeds, other aircraft
such as the F16 are designed to fly with attached flow at low angles of attack and
separated flow at high angles of attack.
8.14 INSTABILITY
Another disadvantage is the common-tendency to demonstrate a degree of
dynamic instability, particularly with respect to lateral and directional stability.
There instabilities are often ‘coupled’ and produce a phenomenon called ‘Dutch
Roll’. This is overcome by sensing the resultant motion and then generating an
automatic response or correction to the rudder. Such a system is commonly
found on swept-wing aircraft and is termed ‘yaw damping’.
This had the effect, with a given free-stream airflow of lowering the 'local' high
airflow speeds at the leading edge and reducing the adverse pressure gradient
over the rear of the aerofoil. This gives a pressure distribution with a more even
spread of pressure known as a roof top distribution with a shock-free
recompression at increased free-stream airflows.
The other diagrams show the typical change in appearance when area-rule is
applied to an aircraft, and also the additional aerodynamic benefits resulting from
extending or ‘stretching’ the upper deck on a Boeing 747.
The velocity vector V1, can be divided into two. A vector normal (at 90º) to the
shockwave Vn and one Tangential (parallel) to the wave Vt. The wave only has
an effect on the normal vector, reducing it.
Therefore Vt behind the wave is unchanged but Vn2 is shortened (speed
component reduced). So V2 must be inclined outward in relation to V1.
Being a flat plate, it has sharp leading edge which encourages the bow
shockwave to attach itself readily.
A feature of many designs of supersonic aerofoil is a razor sharp leading edge
which is employed for that purpose.
This shape also produces pressure differences and lift by shockwaves and
expansion waves and as it is a symmetrical shape it must also have a small
angle of attack to do this.
The diagram below shows a bi-convex aerofoil with its shockwave and mach
lines causing an extended area of expansion over the complete upper and lower
surfaces.
This bi-convex aerofoil acts in a similar way to the double wedge. The airflow
under the aerofoil first encounters a shockwave which raises its density and
pressure. These steadily reduce to original values as the airflow passes through
a 'field' of expansion waves.
Over the top surface, the airflow first passes through a 'field' of expansion waves
which gradually reduces its pressure and density to a minimum. These are
returned to their original values as they encounter the trailing-edge shockwave
which re-compresses the air.
Unfortunately a sharp leading edge will cause boundary layer separation and stall
at relatively small angles of attack. This means an aircraft with straight
supersonic wings has a high landing speed which is dictated by the small angle
of attack that can be tolerated.
The mach cone generated by any point on a wing is governed by the mach
number of the airstream. The higher the airspeed the smaller the mach angle. If
the whole leading edge can be placed in this mach cone then low speed handling
advantages can be gained.
The diagram below shows a wing with a degree of sweep greater than the mach
cone. In this configuration any airflow entering the mach cone produced by point
B will be influenced by pressure waves emanating from point B. This has the
effect of 'warning' the air that an obstacle is in its path and the air will then act
sub-sonically and floe smoothly over the wing, even though it may still be
travelling supersonically.
In this configuration the wing is said to have a subsonic leading edge. This
means a rounded leading edge may be employed, which will enhance the wings
low speed characteristics delaying boundary layer separation at high angles of
attack, allowing a slower landing speed and better low speed performance.
As the whole of the wing is within the mach cone it will act sub-sonically. i.e. the
air will flow over it without generating leading edge shockwaves. Unfortunately
as the wing is 'subsonic' it will allow spanwise flow and therefore wingtip vortices
(and drag) will be produced.
If the leading edge were forward of the mach cone it would act as a supersonic
edge with all the associated shockwaves and their effects.
If the trailing edge is supersonic, see diagram below, a trailing edge shockwave
will form.
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9. HELICOPTER AERODYNAMICS
The Aerodynamics Module has so far considered heavier - than - air vehicles that
are able to fly by depending on fixed wings (relative to the fuselage), moving
relative to the surrounding air. The lift force is proportional to this movement
(speed) and to the angle of attack.
The same principle applies equally to the helicopter. It is often described as a
rotary wing aircraft, because the wings or blades rotate relative to the fuselage
and to the air. This of course gives the helicopter its main feature - the fuselage
does not need to move relative to the air so it can ascend vertically or hover. (It
is useful to differentiate between the helicopter and autogyro. The autogyro has
rotary wings (blades) but as these are not powered, the ability to climb vertically
or hover is absent).
Helicopters may have more than one rotor, each rotor may have 2 or more
blades. Like a fixed-wing aircraft, the larger the helicopter, the greater the power
required and the greater the number of blades. Many helicopters have a tail-
rotor, this is simply to overcome the torque-reaction of the main-rotor, but also
provides yaw control. They must also have some form of device to allow the
rotor to rotate, following the possible failure of the engine.
When considering aerofoil performance, a critical parameter is the angle of
attack, the angle between chord line relative airflow. A helicopter blade can
move in a somewhat complicated manner for reasons which will become clear,
but it requires the introduction of several terms or definitions at this stage.
Definitions - refer to diagrams.
· Tip path plane - the path of the rotor tips, parallel to the plane of rotation.
· Blade pitch - similar to the angle of incidence in fixed-wing terminology, it is
the angle between the chord-line and the plane of rotation.
· Rotor thrust and drag - equivalent to Lift and Drag and expressed relative
to the plane of rotation.
· Coning angle - rise of blade due to thrust, thus the blade forms an angle
with the plane of rotation.
Horizontal movement is achieved by 'tilting' the rotor disc in the direction of the
required movement. This tilting of the disc provides a horizontal component in
addition to the vertical force. Tilting is achieved by increasing the blade pitch on
one side whilst decreasing the pitch on the opposite side. This requires each
blade to alternately increase then decrease its pitch during 360º of disc rotation.
This represents a cyclical change in pitch and therefore leads to the term cyclic
pitch being applied to the lever which corresponds to the control column found on
fixed wing aircraft.
As a result of these changes, the blades will also tend to rise or fall (remember
the tip path is not the same as the plane of rotation, but creates a coning angle).
To reduce bending stresses, blades are often allowed to 'flap' upwards or
downwards by a flapping-hinge.