Waste Water Treatment

Introduction:
Wastewater has historically been considered a nuisance to be discarded in the cheapest, least
offensive manner possible. This meant the use of on-site disposal systems such as the pit privy
and direct discharge into our lakes and streams. Over the last century it has been recognized that
this approach produces an undesirable impact on the environment. This led to a variety of
treatment techniques that characterize the municipal treatment systems today that are the focal
point of this chapter. As we look forward, it becomes obvious that in the interest of sustainability
as well as fundamental economic efficiency, we must view the wastewater as a raw material to
be conserved. Clean water is a scarce commodity; it should be treated as such and conserved and
reused. The contents of wastewater are often viewed as pollutants. The abundance of nutrients
such as phosphorus and nitrogen are, in some treatment schemes (as discussed in Section 8-10),
recovered for crop growth. This approach must become more prevalent to achieve a sustainable
future. The organic compounds in wastewater are a source of energy. Currently we utilize the
processes described in Section 8-11 to recover some of this energy. Other efforts that focus on
improving the efficiency of energy utilization in wastewater treatment.

Applications:
This will Provides an overview of the characteristics of wastewater, treatment standards, and
wastewater treatment processes. Treatment standards provide the basic rules for the water quality
to be produced by a treatment system. The characteristics of the wastewater identify the
constituents that must be addressed by the design engineer in selecting appropriate wastewater
treatment processes. This chapter will enable you to make a preliminary selection and
organization of appropriate processes for treatment of a municipal wastewater.

 Estimate the volume of a basin to dampen flow and BOD variations.

 Size sedimentation tanks.
 Estimate the size of biological treatment processes.
 Estimate the size of a blower for aeration of a biological treatment process.
 Estimate the amount of sludge generated in a biological treatment process.
 Select appropriate sludge treatment units to prepare sludge for disposal.
 Select appropriate sludge disposal alternatives.

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Characteristics of Wastewater

Physical Characteristics of Domestic Wastewater:

Fresh, aerobic, domestic wastewater has been said to have the odor of kerosene or freshly turned
earth. Aged, septic sewage is considerably more offensive to the olfactory nerves. The
characteristic rotten-egg odor of hydrogen sulfide and the mercaptans is indicative of septic
sewage. Fresh sewage is typically gray in color. Septic sewage is black.
Wastewater temperatures normally range between 10 and 208C. In general, the temperature of
the wastewater will be higher than that of the water supply. This is because of the addition of
warm water from households and heating within the plumbing system of the structure.
One cubic meter of wastewater weighs approximately 1,000,000 grams. It will contain about 500
grams of solids. One-half of the solids will be dissolved solids such as calcium, sodium, and
soluble organic compounds. The remaining 250 grams will be insoluble. The insoluble fraction
consists of about 125 grams of material that will settle out of the liquid fraction in 30 minutes
under quiescent conditions. The remaining 125 grams will remain in suspension for a very long
time. The result is that wastewater is highly turbid.

Chemical Characteristics of Domestic Wastewater:

Because the number of chemical compounds found in wastewater is almost limitless, we normally
restrict our consideration to a few general classes of compounds. These classes often are better known
by the name of the test used to measure them than by what is included in the class. The biochemical
oxygen demand (BOD5) test, which we discussed in Chapter 7, is a case in point. Another closely related
test is the chemical oxygen demand (COD) test.

The COD test is used to determine the oxygen equivalent of the organic matter that can be oxidized by a
strong chemical oxidizing agent (potassium dichromate) in an acid medium. The COD of a waste, in
general, will be greater than the BOD5 because more compounds can be oxidized chemically than can
be oxidized biologically, and because BOD5 does not equal ultimate BOD.

The COD test can be conducted in about 3 hours. If it can be correlated with BOD5, it can be used to aid
in the operation and control of the wastewater treatment plant (WWTP). Total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN) is
a measure of the total organic and ammonia nitrogen in the wastewater.* TKN gives a measure of the
availability of nitrogen for building cells, as well as the potential nitrogenous oxygen demand that will
have to be satisfied to meet discharge standards that protect receiving bodies of water.

Phosphorus may appear in many forms in wastewater. Among the forms found are the
orthophosphates, polyphosphates, and organic phosphate. For our purpose, we will lump all of these
together under the heading “Total Phosphorus (as P).”

Three typical compositions of untreated domestic wastewater are summarized. The pH for all of
these wastes will be in the range of 6.5 to 8.5, with a majority being slightly on the alkaline side
of 7.0.

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 Table-1

Pretreatment of Industrial Wastes:

Industrial wastewaters can pose serious hazards to municipal systems because the collection and
treatment systems have not been designed to carry or treat them. The wastes can damage sewers
and interfere with the operation of treatment plants. They may pass through the wastewater
treatment plant (WWTP) untreated or they may concentrate in the sludge, rendering it a
hazardous waste.
The Clean Water Act gives the EPA the authority to establish and enforce pretreatment standards
for discharge of industrial wastewaters into municipal treatment systems. Specific objectives of
the pretreatment program are:
 To prevent the introduction of pollutants into WWTPs that will interfere with their
operation, including interference with their use or with disposal of municipal sludge.
 To prevent the introduction of pollutants to WWTPs that will pass through the treatment
work or otherwise be incompatible with such works.
 To improve opportunities to recycle and reclaim municipal and industrial wastewaters
and
sludge.

EPA has established “prohibited discharge standards” (40 CFR 403.5) that apply to all
nondomestic discharges to the WWTP and “categorical pretreatment standards” that are
applicable to specific industries (40 CFR 405-471) Congress assigned the primary responsibility
for enforcing these standards to local WWTPs.

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 In the General Pretreatment Regulations, industrial users (IUs) are prohibited from introducing
the following into a WWTP:

1. Pollutants that create a fire or explosion hazard in the municipal WWTP, including, but not
limited to, waste streams with a closed-cup flash point of less than or equal to 608C, using the
test methods specified in 40 CFR 261.21. 2

2. Pollutants that will cause corrosive structural damage to the municipal WWTP (but in no case
discharges with a pH lower than 5.0) unless the WWTP is specifically designed to accommodate
such discharges.
3. Solid or viscous pollutants in amounts that will cause obstruction to the flow in the WWTP
resulting in interference.
4. Any pollutant, including oxygen-demanding pollutants (such as BOD), released in a discharge at
a flow rate and/or concentration that will cause interference with the WWTP.
5. Heat in amounts that will inhibit biological activity in the WWTP and result in interference, but
in no case heat in such quantities that the temperature at the WWTP exceeds 408C unless the
approval authority, on request of the publicly owned treatment works (POTW), approves
alternative temperature limits.
6. Petroleum oil, nonbiodegradable cutting oil, or products of mineral oil origin in amounts that will
cause interference or will pass through.
7. Pollutants that result in the presence of toxic gases, vapors, or fumes within the POTW in a
quantity that may cause acute worker health and safety problems.
8. Any trucked or hauled pollutants, except at discharge points designated by the POTW.
Primary Treatment:
With the screening completed and the grit removed, the wastewater still contains light organic
suspended solids, some of which can be removed from the sewage by gravity in a sedimentation tank.
These tanks can be round or rectangular. The mass of settled solids is called raw sludge. The sludge
is removed from the sedimentation tank by mechanical scrapers and pumps (Figure 8-6). Floating
materials, such as grease and oil, rise to the surface of the sedimentation tank, where they are
collected by a surface skimming system and removed from the tank for further processing.

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 Figure-1
Primary sedimentation basins (primary tanks) are characterized by Type II flocculant settling. The
Stokes equation cannot be used because the flocculating particles are continually changing in size,
shape, and, when water is entrapped in the floc, specific gravity. There is no adequate mathematical
relationship that can be used to describe Type II settling. Laboratory tests with settling columns are
used to develop design data.
Rectangular tanks with common-wall construction are frequently chosen because they are
advantageous for sites with space constraints. Typically, these tanks range from 30 to 100 m in length
and 3 to 24 m in width. Common length-to-width ratios for the design of new facilities range from
3:1 to 5:1. Existing plants have length-to-width ratios ranging from 1.5:1 to 15:1. The width is often
controlled by the availability of sludge collection equipment. Side water depths range from 3 to 5 m.
Typically the depth is about 4 m.
Circular tanks have diameters from 3 to 100 m. Side water depths range from 3 to 5 m. As in water
treatment clarifier design, overflow rate is the controlling parameter for the design of primary settling
tanks. At average flow, overflow rates typically range from 30 to 50 m3 /m2 d (or 30 to 50 m/d).
When waste-activated sludge is returned to the primary tank, a lower range of overflow rates is
chosen (25 to 35 m/d). Under peak flow conditions, overflow rates may be in the range of 60 to 120
m/d.

Hydraulic detention time in the sedimentation basin ranges from 1.5 to 2.5 hours under average flow
conditions. A 2.0-hour detention time is typical. The Great Lakes–Upper Mississippi River Board of
State Sanitary Engineers (GLUMRB) recommends that weir loading (hydraulic flow over the effluent
weir) rates not exceed 250 m3 /d of flow per m of weir length (m3 /d m) for plants with average flows
less than 0.04 m3 /s. For larger flows, the recommended rate is 375 m 3 /d m (GLUMRB, 2004). If the
side water depths exceed 3.5 m, the weir loading rates have little effect on performance.

Two different approaches have been used to place the weirs. Some designers believe in the “long”
approach and place the weirs to cover 33 to 50 percent of the length of the tank. Those of the “short
school” (for example, see Metcalf & Eddy, Inc., 2003) assume the weir length is less important and

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place it across the width of the end of the tank as shown in Figure-1. The spacing may vary from 2.5
to 6 m between weirs.

As mentioned previously, approximately 50 to 60 percent of the raw sewage suspended solids and as
much as 30 to 35 percent of the raw sewage BOD5 may be removed in the primary tank.

UNIT PROCESSES OF SECONDARY TREATMENT:

Overview
The major purpose of secondary treatment is to remove the soluble BOD that escapes primary
treatment and to provide further removal of suspended solids. The basic ingredients needed for
conventional aerobic secondary biologic treatment are the availability of many microorganisms, good
contact between these organisms and the organic material, the availability of oxygen, and the
maintenance of other favorable environmental conditions (for example, favorable temperature and
sufficient time for the organisms to work). A variety of approaches have been used in the past to meet
these basic needs. The most common approaches are (1) activated sludge, (2) trickling filters, and (3)
oxidation ponds (or lagoons). A process that does not fit precisely into either the trickling filter or the
activated sludge category but does employ principles common to both is the rotating biological
contactor (RBC). Because the secondary treatment processes are fundamentally microbiological, we
begin this discussion with an introduction to wastewater microbiology.

Wastewater Microbiology
Role of Microorganisms. The stabilization of organic matter is accomplished biologically using a
variety of microorganisms. The microorganisms convert the colloidal and dissolved carbonaceous
organic matter into various gases and into protoplasm. Because protoplasm has a specific gravity
slightly greater than that of water, it can be removed from the treated liquid by gravity settling. It is
important to note that unless the protoplasm produced from the organic matter is removed from the
solution, complete treatment will not be accomplished because the protoplasm, which itself is
organic, will be measured as BOD in the effluent. If the protoplasm is not removed, the only
treatment that will be achieved is that associated with the bacterial conversion of a portion of the
organic matter originally present to various gaseous end products (Metcalf & Eddy, Inc., 1979.)

Classification of Microorganisms by Kingdoms. Microorganisms are organized into five broad

groups based on their structural and functional differences. The groups are called kingdoms. The five
kingdoms are animals, plants, protista, fungi, and bacteria. Representative examples and
characteristics of differentiation are shown in Figure-2.

Classification by Energy and Carbon Source. The relationship between the source of carbon and
the source of energy for the microorganism is important. Carbon is the basic building block for cell

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synthesis. A source of energy must be obtained from outside the cell to enable synthesis to proceed.
Our goal in wastewater treatment is to convert both the carbon and the energy in the wastewater into
the cells of microorganisms, which we can remove from the water by settling. Therefore, we wish to
encourage the growth of organisms that use organic material for both their carbon and energy source.
If the microorganism uses organic material as a supply of carbon, it is called heterotrophic.
Autotrophs require only CO2 to supply their carbon needs. Organisms that rely only on the sun for
energy are called phototrophs. Chemotrophs extract energy from organic or inorganic
oxidation/reduction reactions. Organotrophs use organic materials, while lithotrophs oxidize
inorganic compounds (Bailey and Ollis, 1977).

Classification by their Relationship to Oxygen. Bacteria also are classified by their ability or
inability to utilize oxygen as a terminal electron acceptor* in oxidation/ reduction reactions. Obligate
aerobes are microorganisms that must have oxygen as the terminal electron acceptor. When
wastewater contains oxygen and can support obligate aerobes, it is called aerobic.
Obligate anaerobes are microorganisms that cannot survive in the presence of oxygen. They cannot
use oxygen as a terminal electron acceptor. Wastewater that is devoid of oxygen is called anaerobic.
Facultative anaerobes can use oxygen as the terminal electron acceptor and, under certain conditions,
they can also grow in the absence of oxygen.
Under anoxic conditions, a group of facultative anaerobes called denitrifiers utilizes nitrites (NO 2)
and nitrates (NO3) as the terminal electron acceptor. Nitrate nitrogen is converted to nitrogen gas in
the absence of oxygen. This process is called anoxic denitrification

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 Figure-2

Classification by their Preferred Temperature Regime. Each species of bacteria reproduces best
within a limited range of temperatures. Four temperature ranges are used to classify bacteria. Those
that grow best at temperatures below 208C are called psychrophiles. Mesophiles grow best at
temperatures between 25 and 408C. Between 45 and 608C, the thermophiles grow best. Above 608C,
stenothermophiles grow best. The growth range of facultative thermophiles extends from the
thermophilic range into the mesophilic range. These ranges are qualitative and somewhat subjective.
You will note the gaps between 20 and 258C and between 40 and 458C. Don’t make the mistake of
saying that an organism that grows well at 20.58C is a mesophile. The rules just aren’t that hard and
fast. Bacteria will grow over a range of temperatures and will survive at a very large range of
temperatures. For example, Escherichia coli, classified as mesophiles, will grow at temperatures
between 20 and 508C and will reproduce, albeit very slowly, at temperatures down to 08C. If frozen
rapidly, they and many other microorganisms can be stored for years with no significant death rate.

Bacteria. The highest population of microorganisms in a wastewater treatment plant will belong to
the bacteria. They are single-celled organisms which use soluble BOD as food. Conditions in the
treatment plant are adjusted so that chemoheterotrophs predominate. No particular species is selected
as “the best.”

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Fungi. Fungi are multicellular, nonphotosynthetic, heterotrophic organisms. Fungi are obligate
aerobes that reproduce by a variety of methods including fission, budding, and spore formation. Their
cells require only half as much nitrogen as bacteria so that in a nitrogen-deficient wastewater, they
predominate over the bacteria (McKinney, 1962).

Algae. This group of microorganisms are photoautotrophs and may be either unicellular or
multicellular. Because of the chlorophyll contained in most species, they produce oxygen through
photosynthesis. In the presence of sunlight, the photosynthetic production of oxygen is greater than
the amount used in respiration. At night they use up oxygen in respiration. If the daylight hours
exceed the night hours by a reasonable amount, there is a net production of oxygen.

Protozoa. Protozoa are single-celled organisms that can reproduce by binary fission (dividing in
two). Most are aerobic chemoheterotrophs, and they often consume bacteria. They are desirable in
wastewater effluents because they act as polishers in consuming the bacteria.

Rotifers and Crustaceans. Both rotifers and crustaceans are animals—aerobic, multicellular
chemoheterotrophs. The rotifer derives its name from the apparent rotating motion of two sets of cilia
on its head. The cilia provide mobility and a mechanism for catching food. Rotifers consume bacteria
and small particles of organic matter. Crustaceans, a group that includes shrimp, lobsters, and
barnacles, are characterized by their shell structure. They are a source of food for fish and are not
found in wastewater treatment systems to any extent except in underloaded lagoons. Their presence is
indicative of a high level of dissolved oxygen and a very low level of organic matter.

Bacterial Biochemistry. The general term that describes all of the chemical activities performed by a
cell is metabolism. This in turn is divided into two parts: catabolism and anabolism. Catabolism
includes all the biochemical processes by which a substrate is degraded to end products with the
release of energy. In wastewater treatment, the substrate is oxidized. The oxidation process releases
energy that is transferred to an energy carrier, which stores it for future use by the bacterium (Figure
8-8). Some chemical compounds released by catabolism are used by the bacterial cell for its life
functions. Anabolism includes all the biochemical processes by which the bacterium synthesizes new
chemical compounds needed by the cells to live and reproduce. The synthesis process is driven by the
energy that was stored in the energy carrier.

Decomposition of Waste. The type of electron acceptor available for catabolism determines the type
of decomposition (that is, aerobic, anoxic, or anaerobic) used by a mixed culture of microorganisms.
Each type of decomposition has peculiar characteristics that affect its use in waste treatment.

Aerobic Decomposition. From our discussion of bacterial metabolism you will recall that molecular
oxygen (O2) must be present as the terminal electron acceptor for decomposition to proceed by
aerobic oxidation. As in natural water bodies, the oxygen is measured as DO. When oxygen is
present, it is the only terminal electron acceptor used. Hence, the chemical end products of
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decomposition are primarily carbon dioxide, water, and new cell material (Table 8-8). Odiferous
gaseous end products are kept to a minimum. In healthy natural water systems, aerobic
decomposition is the principal means of self-purification.
A wider spectrum of organic material can be oxidized aerobically than by any other type of
decomposition. This fact, coupled with the fact that the final end products are oxidized to a very low
energy level, results in a more stable end product (that is, one that can be disposed of without damage
to the environment and without creating a nuisance condition) than can be achieved by the other
oxidation systems.
Because of the large amount of energy released in aerobic oxidation, most aerobic organisms are
capable of high growth rates. Consequently, there is a relatively large production of new cells in
comparison with the other oxidation systems. This means that more biological sludge is generated in
aerobic oxidation than in the other oxidation systems.
Aerobic decomposition is the method of choice for large quantities of dilute wastewater (BOD5 less
than 500 mg/L) because decomposition is rapid, efficient, and has a low odor potential. For high-
strength wastewater (BOD5 is greater than 1,000 mg/L), aerobic decomposition is not suitable
because of the difficulty in supplying enough oxygen and because of the large amount of biological
sludge produced. In small communities and in special industrial applications where aerated lagoons
(see “Oxidation Ponds,” below) are used, wastewaters with BOD5 up to 3,000 mg/L may be treated
satisfactorily by aerobic decomposition.

Anoxic Decomposition. Some microorganisms can use nitrate (NO3) as the terminal electron
acceptor in the absence of molecular oxygen. Oxidation by this route is called denitrification.

The end products from denitrification are nitrogen gas, carbon dioxide, water, and new cell material.
The amount of energy made available to the cell during denitrification is about the same as that made
available during aerobic decomposition. As a consequence, the rate of production of new cells,
although not as high as in aerobic decomposition, is relatively high.

Denitrification is of importance in wastewater treatment where nitrogen must be removed to protect

the receiving body. In this case, a special treatment step is added to the conventional process for
removal of carbonaceous material. Denitrification will be discussed in detail later.

One other important aspect of denitrification is in relation to final clarification of the treated
wastewater. If the environment of the final clarifier becomes anoxic, the formation of nitrogen gas
will cause large globs of sludge to float to the surface and escape from the treatment plant into the
receiving water. Thus, it is necessary to ensure that anoxic conditions do not develop in the final
clarifier.

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Anaerobic Decomposition. In order to achieve anaerobic decomposition, molecular oxygen and
nitrate must not be present as terminal electron acceptors. Sulfate (SO4), carbon dioxide, and organic
compounds that can be reduced serve as terminal electron acceptors. The reduction of sulfate results
in the production of hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and a group of equally odiferous organic sulfur
compounds called mercaptans.

The anaerobic decomposition (fermentation) of organic matter generally is considered to be a three-

step process. In the first step, waste components are hydrolysed. In the second step, complex organic
compounds are fermented to low-molecular-weight fatty acids (volatile acids). In the third step, the
organic acids are converted to methane. Carbon dioxide serves as the electron acceptor.

Anaerobic decomposition yields carbon dioxide, methane, and water as the major end products.
Additional end products include ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, and mercaptans. As a consequence of
these last three compounds, anaerobic decomposition is characterized by an unbelievably horrid
stench!

Because only small amounts of energy are released during anaerobic oxidation, the amount of cell
production is low. Thus, sludge production is low. We make use of this fact in wastewater treatment
by using anaerobic decomposition to stabilize sludges produced during aerobic and anoxic
decomposition.

Direct anaerobic decomposition of wastewater generally is not feasible for dilute waste. The optimum
growth temperature for the anaerobic bacteria is at the upper end of the mesophilic range. Thus, to
get reasonable biodegradation, we must elevate the temperature of the culture. For dilute wastewater,
this is not practical. For concentrated wastes (BOD5 greater than 1,000 mg/L), anaerobic digestion is
quite appropriate.

Tertiary Wastewater Treatment:

The need for treatment of wastewater beyond that which can normally be accomplished in secondary
treatment is based on the recognition of one or more of the following:

1. Increasing population pressures result in increasing loads of organic matter and suspended solids
to
rivers, streams, and lakes.
2. The need to increase the removal of suspended solids to provide more efficient disinfection.
3. The need to remove nutrients to limit eutrophication of sensitive water bodies.
4. The need to remove constituents that preclude or inhibit water reclamation.

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Initially, in the 1970s, these processes were called “advanced wastewater treatment” because they
employed techniques that were more advanced than secondary treatment methods. In the last three
decades many of these technologies have either been directly incorporated into the secondary
processes, for example nutrient removal, or they are so inherent in meeting stringent discharge
standards that they have become conventional. These processes include chemical precipitation,
granular filtration, membrane filtration, and carbon adsorption. As conventional processes, they are
better termed tertiary treatment processes rather than an advanced treatment process. In current
practice, the employment of air stripping, ion exchange, NF or RO treatment, and other similar
processes to meet water quality requirements is correctly termed advanced wastewater treatment.
Advanced wastewater treatment technologies are, fundamentally, those employed to treat water for
reuse.
This discussion focuses on the following tertiary treatment processes: granular filtration, membrane
filtration, carbon adsorption, chemical phosphorus removal, biological phosphorus removal, and
nitrogen control.
In addition to solving difficult pollution problems, these processes improve the effluent quality to the
point that it is adequate for many reuse purposes, and may convert what was originally a wastewater
into a valuable sustainable resource too good to throw away.

Filtration
Secondary treatment processes, such as the activated-sludge process, are highly efficient for removal
of biodegradable colloidal and soluble organics. However, the typical effluent contains a much higher
BOD5 than one would expect from theory. The typical BOD is approximately 20 to 50 mg/L. This is
principally because the secondary clarifiers are not perfectly efficient at settling out the
microorganisms from the biological treatment processes. These organisms contribute both to the
suspended solids and to the BOD5 because the process of biological decay of dead cells exerts an
oxygen demand.

Granular Filtration
By using a filtration process similar to that used in water treatment plants, it is possible to remove the
residual suspended solids, including the unsettled microorganisms. Removing the microorganisms
also reduces the residual BOD5. Conventional sand filters identical to those used in water treatment
can be used, but they often clog quickly, thus requiring frequent backwashing. To lengthen filter runs
and reduce backwashing, it is desirable to have the larger filter grain sizes at the top of the filter. This
arrangement allows some of the larger particles of biological floc to be trapped at the surface without
plugging the filter. Multimedia filters accomplish this by using low-density coal for the large grain
sizes, medium-density sand for intermediate sizes, and high-density garnet for the smallest size filter
grains. Thus, during backwashing, the greater density offsets the smaller diameter so that the coal
remains on top, the sand remains in the middle, and the garnet remains on the bottom.

Typically, plain filtration can reduce activated sludge effluent suspended solids from 25 to 10 mg/L.
Plain filtration is not as effective on trickling filter effluents because trickling filter effluents contain
more dispersed growth. However, the use of coagulation and sedimentation followed by filtration can
yield suspended solids concentrations that are virtually zero. Typically, filtration can achieve 80
percent suspended solids reduction for activated sludge effluent and 70 percent reduction for trickling
filter effluent.

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Membrane Filtration
The alternative membrane processes have been discussed in Chapter 6. Of the five processes, the one
most commonly used in tertiary treatment is microfiltration (MF). It is used as a replacement for
granular filtration. MF processes have achieved BOD removals of 75–90 percent and total suspended
solids removals of 95–98 percent. Performance is highly site-specific. Membrane fouling is of
particular concern and on-site pilot testing is highly recommended (Metcalf & Eddy, 2003).

Carbon Adsorption:
Even after secondary treatment, coagulation, sedimentation, and filtration, soluble organic materials
that are resistant to biological breakdown will persist in the effluent. The persistent materials are
often referred to as refractory organics. Refractory organics can be detected in the effluent as soluble
COD. Secondary effluent COD values are often 30 to 60 mg/L.

The most practical available method for removing refractory organics is by adsorbing them on
activated carbon (U.S. EPA, 1979a). Adsorption is the accumulation of materials at an interface. The
interface, in the case of wastewater and activated carbon, is the liquid/solid boundary layer. Organic
materials accumulate at the interfaces because of physical binding of the molecules to the solid
surface. Carbon is activated by heating in the absence of oxygen. The activation process results in the
formation of many pores within each carbon particle. Since adsorption is a surface phenomenon, the
greater the surface area of the carbon, the greater its capacity to hold organic material. The vast areas
of the walls within these pores account for most of the total surface area of the carbon, which makes
it so effective in removing organics.

After the adsorption capacity of the carbon has been exhausted, it can be restored by heating it in a
furnace at a temperature sufficiently high to drive off the adsorbed organics. Keeping oxygen at very
low levels in the furnace prevents carbon from burning. The organic matter is passed through an
afterburner to prevent air pollution. In small plants where the cost of an on-site regeneration furnace
cannot be justified, the spent carbon is shipped to a central regeneration facility for processing.

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