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Solar Car 29122012194312 Solar Car
Solar Car 29122012194312 Solar Car
com
ABSTRACT
The project is solar vehicle we are using a solar energy as a source of energy in
our project.
Nowadays, we are experiencing an electricity scarcity we are experiencing a Lead
in shortage too. So the battery manufacturing cost and resulting end user prices are sky
high also a shortage of batteries in the market. We are also experiencing a hike in fuel
prices considerably, is bound to go on as time pass by as soon we will be shortage of fuel
too. There is an emphasis on using fuel appreciably but nobody is taking care of it.
But we are at least taking the consideration of it and with this we are trying to put a novel
concept in the market.
Government is also promoting the use of renewable energy in each of every
operation. The biggest option to replace the conventional theory of fuel operation, can be
replaced by the battery based theory, is environment friendly too.
The only problem associated with the battery based technique is it needs to be
recharged and the charging time is considerable high.
So it can’t replace the fuel completely, if we are thinking of using the battery based
vehicle for conveyance. The other problem associated with the battery vehicle is the
battery weight takes the maximum weight of the total weight of the vehicle.
So it needs to be reduced because it directly affects the performance of the vehicle. As
due to more weight its mileage will be on shorter side due to maximum weight, if we
reduce the weight the mileage will improve many folds easily in one charge.
The fact is the battery charging is done using the electricity so in all sense we are using
electricity. We are eliminating these necessities to some extend, As in our vehicle we are
using the solar energy for operation as we are blessed with at least 300 days a total
sunlight.
And we are using the Capacitor as a source of storage of charge rather than the
battery, this in effect will reduce the dead weight of the vehicle and reduce the weight of
the vehicle considerably and improve the performance but we are not using the battery so
we are using the solar panel to power the motor used in the vehicle and the capacitor bank
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as a source of temporary storage. We will have a system which will continuously scan the
capacitor bank and charging the capacitor bank and the charge is discharged into the
motor directly. As the charge is stored momentarily the wattage requirement reduces
considerably and yielding a better result.
INDEX
Abstract
1. Introduction 01
2. Literature survey 03
2.1. Solar Cars 03
2.2. Photovoltaic Cell 05
3. Theory 08
3.1. Specification of Block Diagram of Solar Vehicle 08
3.1.1. Solar panel 08
1. What Is Solar Panel 08
2. Function of Solar Cells 09
3. Material of Photovoltaic Cell 09
4. Photovoltaic Cell 10
5. Storing Electricity 10
6. How Photovoltaic Cell Works 10
7. Energy Flow of a Solar Car 11
8. Solar Array of a Solar Car 12
9. Cell Type 14
3.1.2. High Frequency Switching Circuit 15
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1. INTRODUCTION
The unique feature of the vehicle is being solar operated system, but it does not
use battery to supply the motor, instead it uses capacitor banks there are four different
capacitor banks used in this system, where there banks are switched one by one using the
high frequency switching through the microcontroller.
Many specifications must to know about solar car from solar array , motor,
capacitor bank and so on each specification has theory and calculation to mate it function
correctly & able to move perfectly. The most important things id\s the capacitor bank
because before this there is no solar car driven by a capacitor bank. This project a lot
depends on capacitor bank because it using influence if the solar car can drive or not.
Using brain storming techniques to generate ideas , several initial design may be
consider a common place to start is with the shape of the car since it will dictate the
design of many other system initial designing concept are also developed for chassis
design mechanical system design electric system design, driving train design& solar array
design that show promise are investigated further so that design can be compare through
trade of studies the concept must be eliminated until a final design can be agreed upon
there are many factors to consider to each design, for example:
Weight
Efficiency
Speed
Basically research about capacitor bank to drive a solar car was a something new.
Success do not depends on question that will answer it later from the research this
research is carried out to get an answer for the question as follows.
a) How to build a solar car with capacitor bank? In this research author will
built a proto type to improve the fact.
b) How a capacitor bank can drive a solar car? Connection between capacitor
bank and motor is important thing.
Knowledge about solar array also important because the array is made up of many
photovoltaic solar cell that convert sun energy into electricity .the cell types & the
dimensions of the array depends on the vehicle size and class.
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More over knowledge about drive train in solar car is very different from that a
conventional car. Throw this project the drive trains consist of electric motor & the means
by which the motor power is transmitted to the vehicle to move.
This project is to design a solar capacitor bank powered vehicle with objective as
follows:
a) To design use photovoltaic source of power.
b) To fabricate & assemble a working proto type model.
This project is more focus on solar capacitor bank powered vehicle. The scope of
this project is as follows:
a) Selection of solar panel.
b) Selection of capacitor bank.
c) Selection of chassis, selection of motor etc.
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2. LITERATURE SURVEY
2.1. Solar Cars
The first solar car invented was a tiny 15-inch vehicle created by William G. Cobb
of General Motors. Called the Sun mobile, Cobb showcased the first solar car at the
Chicago Powerama convention on August 31, 1955. The solar car was made up 12
selenium photovoltaic cells and a small Pooley electric motor turning a pulley which in
turn rotated the rear wheel shaft. The first solar car in history was obviously too small to
drive as shown in fig.2.1.
Now let's jump to 1962 when the first solar car that a person could drive was
demonstrated to the public. The International Rectifier Company converted a vintage
model 1912 Baker electric car (pictured above) to run on photovoltaic energy in 1958, but
they didn't show it until 4 years later. Around 10,640 individual solar cells were mounted
to the rooftop of the Baker to help propel it.
In 1977, Alabama University professor Ed Passereni built the Bluebird solar car,
which was a prototype full scale vehicle. The Bluebird was supposed to move from power
created by the photovoltaic cells only without the use of a battery. The Bluebird was
exhibited in the Knoxville, TN 1982 World's Fair. [2]
Between 1977 and 1980 (the exact dates are not known for sure), at Tokyo Denki
University, professor Masaharu Fujita first created a solar bicycle, then a 4-wheel solar
car. The car was actually two solar bicycles put together.
In 1979 Englishman Alain Freeman invented a solar car (pictured right). He road
registered the same vehicle in 1980. The Freeman solar car was a 3-wheeler with a solar
panel on the roof.
At the engineering department at Tel Aviv University in Israel, Arye Braunstein
and his colleagues created a solar car in 1980 (pictured below). The solar car had a solar
panel on the hood and on the roof of the Citicar comprised of 432 cells creating 400 watts
of peak power. The solar car used 8 batteries of 6 volts each to store the photovoltaic
energy. [5]
The 1,320 pound solar Citicar is said by the engineering department to have been
able to reach up to 40 mph with a maximum range of 50 miles.
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In 1981 Hans Tholstrup and Larry Perkins built a solar powered racecar. In 1982,
the pair became the first to cross a continent in a solar car, from Perth to Sydney,
Australia. Tholstrup is the creator of the World Solar Challenge in Australia.
In 1984, Greg Johanson and Joel Davidson invented the Sunrunner solar race car.
The Sunrunner set the official Guinness world record in Bellflower, California of 24.7
mph. In the Mojave Desert of California and final top speed of 41 mph was officially
recorded for a "Solely Solar Powered Vehicle" (did not use a battery). The 1986 Guinness
book of world records published the official records.
The GM Sunraycer in 1987 completed a 1,866 mile trip with an average speed of
42 mph. Since this time there have been many solar cars invented at universities for
competitions such as the Shell Eco Marathon. There is also a commercially available
solar car called the Venturi Astrolab. Time will only tell how far the solar car makes it
with today’s & tomorrow’s technology. Solar cars combine technology typically used in
the aerospace, bicycle, alternative energy and automotive industries. The design of a solar
vehicle is severely limited by the amount of energy input into the car. Most solar cars
have been built for the purpose of solar car races. Exceptions include solar-powered cars
and utility vehicles.
Solar cars are often fitted with gauges as seen in conventional cars. In order to
keep the car running smoothly, the driver must keep an eye on these gauges to spot
possible problems. Cars without gauges almost always feature wireless telemetry, which
allows the driver's team to monitor the car's energy consumption, solar energy capture
and other parameters and free the driver to concentrate on driving.Solar cars depend on
PV cells to convert sunlight into electricity. In fact, 51% of sunlight actually enters the
Earth's atmosphere.[3]
Unlike solar thermal energy which converts solar energy to heat for either
household purposes, industrial purposes or to be converted to electricity, PV cells directly
convert sunlight into electricity. When sunlight (photons) strike PV cells, they excite
electrons and allow them to flow, creating an electrical current. PV cells are made of
semiconductor materials such as silicon and alloys of indium, gallium and nitrogen.
Silicon is the most common material used and has an efficiency rate of 15-20%. Of late,
several consulting companies, such as Phoenix Snider Power, have started offering
technical and financial services to institutes and teams developing solar cars worldwide
During the 1990s, regulations requiring an approach to "zero emissions"
from vehicles increased interest in new battery technology. Battery systems that
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offer higher energy density became the subject of joint research by federal and
auto industry scientists. Solar cars were first built by universities and
manufacturers. The sun energy collector areas proved to be too large for consumer
cars, however that is changing. Development continues on solar cell design and car
power supply requirements such as heater or air-conditioning fans.[4]
July 2007 marks the 24th anniversary since Joel Davidson and Greg Johanson set
The First Guinness World Record for a 100% solar powered vehicle (no batteries). In
1986, the vehicle was retired and taken apart, but the solar array is still producing
electricity for an off-grid home.
2.2. History of Photovoltaic Cell
Photovoltaic system converts sun light into electricity. The term "photo" is a
stem from the Greek "photos," which means "light." "Volt" is named for
Alessandro Volta (1745-1827), a pioneer in the study of electricity. "Photo-
voltaic," then, could literally mean "light-electricity." Most commonly known as
"solar cells," PV systems are already an important part of our lives. The simplest
systems power many of the small calculators and wrist watches we use every day.
More complicated systems provide electricity for pumping water, powering
communications equipment, and even lighting our homes and running our
appliances. In a surprising number of cases, PV power is the cheapest form of
electricity performing these tasks.[7]
Photovoltaic cells converts lightr energy into electricity into atomic level.
Although first discovered in 1839, the process of producing electric current in
a solid material with the aid of sunlight wasn't truly understood for more than
a hundred years. Throught the second half of the 20th century, the science has
been refined and the process has been more fully explained. As a result, the cost of
these devices has put them into the mainstream of modern energy producers.
This was caused in part by advances in the technology, where PV conversion
efficiencies have improved considerably'.
French physicist Edmond Becquerel first described the photovoltaic
(PV) effect in 1839, but it remained a curiosity of science for the next three
quarters of a century. At only 19, Becquerel found that certain materials
would produce small amounts of electric current when exposed to light. The
effect was first studied in solids, such as selenium, by Heinrich Hertz in the
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Improvements were slow over the next two decades, and the only widespread use
was in space applications where their power-to-weight ratio was higher than any
competing technology. However, this success was also the reason for slow progress;
space users were willing to pay anything for the best possible cells, there was no reason to
invest in lower-cost solutions if this would reduce efficiency. Instead, the price of cells
was determined largely by the semiconductor industry; their move to integrated circuits in
the 1960s led to the availability of larger boules at lower relative prices. As their price
fell, the price of the resulting cells did as well. However these effects were limited, and
by 1971 cell costs were estimated to be $100 a watt.
PanelSolar
Relay
DriverMotor
MotorGerardDC
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Capacitor
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High Capacitor
Frequency Bank2
Switching
Circuit
Capacitor
Bank3
Capacitor
Bank4
IR
Battery IR
Microcontroller Remote
Low Sensor
Circuit
Indicator
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3. THEORY
3.1. Specification of Block Diagram Of Solar Vehicle
Block diagram of solar vehicle is shown in fig 3.6 & components of the vehicle
are as follows.
1 Solar Panel
2 High Frequency Switching Circuit
3 Capacitor Bank
4 Micro Controller
5 Crystal & Reset Circuit
6 Power Supply
7 Motor Buffer Driver
8 Motor Bridge Driver
9 Battery Low
10 Cell To Module
11 Mains Connections & Stand-Alone Systems
12 Charge Controllers
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Solar cells are often used in locations where there isn't any electricity and where
electricity is needed in small amounts. In such cases, solar cells are usually connected to
batteries, allowing electricity to be stored for use during times when the sun isn't shining.
A single solar cell is able to produce only a small amount of electricity. But solar
cells can be connected together on a multi-cell panel to produce larger amounts of
electricity. As with batteries, the more cells that are connected to one another, the greater
the current of electricity that can be produced. Solar panels (figure 3.1) can produce
enough electricity to power satellites, recreational vehicles, and equipment for other
applications where electricity is used in large amounts.
3. Material of Photovoltaic Cell
Visible light can be directly converted to electricity by a space-age technology
called a photovoltaic cell (figure 3.2), also called a solar cell. Most photovoltaic cells are
made from a crystalline substance called silicon, one of the Earth's most common
materials. Solar cells are typically made by slicing a large crystal of silicon into thin
wafers and putting two separate wafers with different electrical properties together, along
with wires to enable electrons to travel between layers. When sunlight strikes the solar
cell, electrons naturally travel from one layer to the other through the wire because of the
different properties of the two silicon wafers.
A single cell can produce only very tiny amounts of electricity-barely enough to
light up a small light bulb or power a calculator. Nonetheless, single photovoltaic cells are
used in many small electronic appliances such as watches and calculators.
4. Photovoltaic Cell
To capture and convert more energy from the sun, photovoltaic cells (figure 3.3)
are linked to form photovoltaic arrays. An array is simply a large number of single cells
connected by wires. Linked together in an array, solar cells can produce enough
electricity to do some serious work. Many buildings generate most of their electrical
needs from solar photovoltaic arrays.
Photovoltaic arrays (figure 3.3) are becoming a familiar sight along
roadsides, on farms, and in the city, whenever portable electricity is needed. They
are commonly used to provide power for portable construction signs, emergency
telephones, and remote industrial facilities. They are also becoming popular as a
way of supplying electricity for remote power applications such as homes and
cabins that are located away from power lines, for sailboats, recreational vehicles,
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The power produced by the solar may varies depending on the weather, the sun's
position in the sky, and the solar array itself. On a bright, sunny day at noon, a good solar
car solar array will produce well over 1000 watts (1.3 hp) of power. The power from the
may is used either to power the electric motor or stored in the battery pack for later use.In
this model the photovoltaic cells arranged in this manner to deliver 12V dc, where each
cell has voltage of 1.5v each, the parallel connection of the cells is done to meet the
current capacity.
If 12 v then 9 cells are connected in series, here the power requirement is
considered to be a 500mA,then the total power output from the panel will be
12*500mA=6w approx, then the panel to be chosen more than this ratings. So that it can
sufficiently deliver the required output. The panel should be of 9 W powers output
capacity.
Solar cells are almost exclusively based on silicon as the voltage source. Pure
(crystalline) silicon is a semiconductor, a crystal, with a regular structure of atoms which
are joined by chemical links. By applying energy, for example, absorption of light, it is
possible for electrons to be released from their atoms. With silicon, the minimum amount
of energy (force) needed for release equals 1.2eV (approx. 5 X 10-26 kWh).
In as far as it interacts with matter; light consists of a beam of particles (photons) which
matter on a surface. The energy of a single photon depends on the wavelength (i.e. co
lour) of the light: violet photons in shortwave light contain more energy than red photons
in light with a relatively large wavelength. The total power of the radiation is calculated
from the number photons that hit the irradiated surface per unit of time, multiplied by the
energy of individual photons. When light is absorbed, one photon can only transfer its
energy to one electron, irrespective of the amount of energy it contains. The only
condition for this to happen is that the minimum electron release energy is available.
Solar cells do not consist of pure silicon. The basic material is arranged in layers
& purposely polluted (doped) with foreign atoms which have either one electron less(p
doping with boron or aluminum) or one electron more (n-doping with phosphor or
arsenic) than required for taking up into silicon crystal structure.
Inside the barrier layer exits an electrical field which drives free charge carries
caused by irradiation to the electrodes of the solar cell.
Unfortunately, the resulting electrical current is rather small than might be
expected based on the amount of energy that hits the cell surface. The reason is twofold:
firstly only about 50% (max.) of the energy contained in the solar spectrum that reaches
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the earth can be used for photovoltaic conversion. Secondly, the efficiency is limited by
such factors as reflections, recombination & other losses. In practice, the over all
efficiency of a photovoltaic cell will hardly ever exceed 16%. Higher values of up to 40%
are only possible under laboratory conditions.
In general, a distinction is made between three cell types based on silicon:
Monocrystalline cells have the highest efficiency (12-15%). These so-called wafers are
cut from a cylinder-shaped monocrystal & are recognized by their rounded or broken
corners, & their smooth blue-grey surface.
Polycrystalline solar cells are made from silicon cast in blocks. By controlled cooling of
these blocks, relatively large crystallites are created which are at right angles to the cell
surface. When the block is cut into discs, the surface is opalescent. Polycrystalline cells
may be considered as a kind of parallel configuration of monocrystals. Their efficiency is
slightly below that of monocrystalline cells at 10 of 13%.
Amorphous silicon is the basic material used for solar cell type with the widest use. With
these cells, monosilane (SiH4) is grown in very thin layers on a glass surface. The
production process is simple & cost efficient. The silicon layer is totally unstructured, in
other words, no crystal is involved. Consequently, the efficiency is relatively low at only
7% (max.). None the less, amorphous cells are well as tablished in low power
applications (watches, pocket calculators), mainly because of their low price. A special
problem is formed by the long-term stability – in contrast with crystalline cells, the
performance of amorphous cells drops after some time, albeit not as quickly as the types
manufactured a few years ago.
The main shortcoming of solar cells is the fact that the basic material, silicon, has to be of
purity which is almost beyond imagination. This might strike you as odd considering that
the resources for silicon are, in principal, unlimited. Furthermore, the material is non-
toxic, environmentally clean, & easy to process. Returning to the subject of purity, the
‘pollution’ by foreign atoms are may nor exceed 1 ppb (parts per billion). The production
of silicon with this degree of purity is expensive & complex. This is reflected not only by
the cost, but also by small production volumes of crystalline, pure, silicon. A single one-
gig watt solar cell power station, for example, would use up a fourth of the world year
production.
9. Cell Type
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There are many types of photovoltaic cell, with varying efficiencies. Cost
generally increases with efficiency, and cost per watt rises rapidly as efficiency increases.
For applications where there is plenty of space available for cells, efficiency is not
usually a great concern and a large array of low efficiency cells is often the best solution.
But for solar cars (and for satellites) there is a limited area available, and so high
efficiency cells are preferred.
The type of the cell that have been used in the solar cars include:
1. Monocrystalline Silicon
2. Single Junction Gallium Arsenide (Gaas)
3. Multi-Junction Gallium Arsenide
Other types of cells, such as thin-film silicon, polycrystalline silicon and
amorphous silicon, are generally not efficient enough to deliver sufficient power from the
limited space available on the surface of a solar car.
Monocrystalline cells have the highest efficiency (12-15%). Sun Power make cells
with efficiencies greater than 21%. Multi-junction gallium arsenide cells are more
efficient than silicon cells and its efficiencies up to 28%, but also much more expensive.
Higher values of up to 40% are only possible under laboratory conditions.
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The voltage level is maintained at fixed value because of the use of the number of
banks the number can be increased if load is increased. As capacitor will discharge
through the load.
3.1.4. Micro Controller
Micro controller makes the switching of the banks possible, here three output is
taken at the port terminal and these terminals are made high at high frequency that time is
decided using the timer settings internally that means calculating the time delay, and
programmed to sequentially make the pins high in a cyclic manner. Microcontroller
switches the banks for charging purpose as well as for discharging purpose. The
switching of the banks in to the circuit is totally governed.
Microcontroller IC 89C55WD is heart of our project. We select this Microcontroller IC
for our project for following no. of advantages.
1) Internal 1k bytes*14words of electrically erasable programmable read only
memory with internal EPROM.
2) 13 I/O pins with 25mA source capability.
3) Operating voltage of 3.5 to 6V D.C. which is easily available by using voltage
regulator IC.
4) Internal 64 byte RAM to store temporally storage of data.
5) One timer and one watch dog timer.
6) Three interrupt sources are available.
3.1.5. Crystal & Reset Circuit
12MHz quartz ceramic crystal is connected between pin XTAL1, & XTAL2 of
Microcontroller to produce machine cycle for fetch & execution of instruction. And at pin
9RST pin we connect R.C n/w to provide reset pulse when power is turn ON so that
program execution starts from memory location 0000H.
3.1.6. Power Supply
For our all IC we require 5V D.C. supply which can be generated by step down
transformer, full wave bridge rectifier, filter condenser & voltage regulator IC7805.
12V supply for relay is generated separately using the same procedure as above.
This supply requirement can be fulfilled in our case using the battery back up and
providing recharge facility to it.
3.1.7. Motor Buffer Driver
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This stage provides the needed isolation from the main driver stage as well as
current boost of the microcontroller signal.
As micro controller don’t have the driving capability. It can only drive up to 4mA only.
3.1.8. Motor Bridge Driver
This is the final driver stage it incorporates the H bridge configuration to achieve
the full control over the motor in both direction that is forward and reverse direction.
3.1.9. Battery Low
Comparator circuit will sense that the voltage level of the particular capacitor
bank is below the reference level, if below then it will be indicated to the controlling
circuit to connect to charging, when it reaches the cut off level of charge, it will be sensed
and indicated to control circuit.
Operational amplifier is a special type of amplifier with very high gain. It is used
for various different purposes. An op-amp can also be used to compare two different
voltages
Generally an Op-amp, unit has two input terminals and one output terminal.
Signal at the output terminal depends on the voltage at the input terminal.
One of the input terminals is called non inverting terminal and the other is
inverting terminal.
To use the Op-Amp as comparator, one input terminal is provided a constant
reference voltage and the other input terminal is given a variable voltage from a sensor
circuit.
If the inverting terminal is given constant reference voltage and non inverting
terminal is given dc voltage from the sensor circuit, then the output will depend on
whether the input dc voltage from sensor is equal to reference voltage i.e. there difference
is zero, the voltage at the out put terminal will be zero.
When the input is less than the reference voltage, the out put will negative.
When the input is more than reference voltage, voltage at the out put terminal will be
positive.
When using more than one capacitor banks then the independent comparator
circuit for the particular bank. As integrated comparator IC such as LM324 can be used
this makes circuit simple and compact and easy to make. The details are given below.
3.1.10. Form Cell to Module
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Basically, two types of solar power system may be distinguished: the solar system
with mains coupling, which feeds its output energy into the 240V mains system, & the
stand alone system, which serves to supply energy to loads in locations where no mains
connection is available.
From an economical point of view, mains coupled solar systems do not appear to
make sense at first sight. The cost of one kilowatt-hour (kWh) supplied by such a system
is between about 80p, & that is much higher than electricity generated in the traditional
way, i.e., by burning fuels such as coal or gas. Mains coupled solar systems are only
viable with heavy government funding & then only after an extended write-off period.
Photovoltaic energy supply is, however, not developed beyond its early stages.
Prices of solar modules & ancillaries like mains couples are dropping while the efficiency
is constantly improved. In the short term, there will be no need to these developments,
because new technologies (for instance, chlorophyll & CIS cells) & mass production give
hope of inexpensive & efficient solar cells. There are no (longer) doubts as regards the
environment advantages of solar energy. The claims that solar cells use up more energy in
their production than they can ever return during their lifetime have turned out just as
wrong as the stories about highly toxic waste materials being left out there during the
production & scrapping of solar cells. The facts are that solar energy does not use
valuable resources, does not pollute the environment, & does not contribute to the
greenhouse effect. Moreover, it promotes decentralized energy supply.
Solar power systems which feed energy into the mains grid are few & far
between. For some time to come, the normal application of solar cells will be in the stand-
alone system. These systems are usually marked by one or several actual loads- a bulb in
the garden shade, a refrigerator in the caravan, an emergency radio in a remote location
such as a mountaineering cabin, or a transponder on board a satellite. Obviously, it is
important for the components in these systems to be designed for a specific supply current
& a typical supply voltage, while special provisions should be available to ensure
continuity of the supply & stability of the supply voltage. All of the planning & design of
such a stand-alone system is user-oriented, which means that it is accurately tailored to
supplying current to users with on connection to the mains grid. Environmental
considerations are then secondary.
3.1.12. Energy Storage Device
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Unfortunately, the sun may not shine just when you need electrical energy. The
reverse is also true: energy may not always be required when the sun supplies plenty of it!
In addition to the solar cell array, a stand-alone system requires another important
component: an electrical energy storage device.
The first device that comes to mind for this function is the battery, which is
available in many different shapes & structures. Apart from special battery types,
including chloride-zinc, iron-sulphide, lithium, nickel-iron, silver-zinc & sodium-sulphur,
a number of which are still under development, familiar types such as the lead gel) acid,
NiCd & NiMH batteries are widely used for this purpose. These batteries feature a high
& fairly constant capacity, nearly loss-free current acceptance & delivery, & extended
durability despite many charging/discharging cycles. Lastly they are almost maintenance
free. The lead plates of special batteries for solar systems have selenium or calcium
doping instead of antimony as used in car batteries. These special batteries are marked by
high cycle repeatability, excellent charge efficiency, low self-discharging, high immunity
against deep discharging & overcharging, & unfortunately, a high price! Just as with solar
cells & modules, batteries may be connected in parallel or in series. When doing so, it is
essential to use batteries of the same type, with the same capacity, nominal voltage &
charge condition.
3.1.13. Charge Controllers
The third elementary component in a solar power system is a control circuit which
ensures a reliable & battery tailored transfer of the energy supplied by the solar cells to
the energy storage device.
The simplest solar systems have no control circuit at all. Instead, a reverse current
protection diode is connected between the module & the battery, the diode prevents the
battery from discharging itself through the module when the module receives no light.
Unfortunately, the voltage drop introduced by the diode causes considerable losses. This
can be kept to a minimum, however, by using a Schottky diode with a low forward
voltage drop of 3.0 to 0.4V (at higher currents, up to 0.7V).
A much better solution is a dedicated reverse current protection for solar systems
such as the “Battery Regulator for Solar Power System’. This circuit is based on a power
transistor which enables voltage losses smaller than 100mV to be achieved.
Basically, real control systems come in three variants: type with series regulation, with
parallel regulation, & MPP controls.
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A good charger in a solar power system should also feature a deep discharging
protection which interrupts the current flow when the loads have discharged the battery
down to its discharging minimum of about 11V. The main component in such protection
circuits is generally a switching transistor or a relay.
3.1.14. An Alternative The Cis Cell
A further development alternative to the silicon photovoltaic cell is based on
copper-indium-selenium or copper-indium-sulphide (CIS) technology. The development
of these cells has reached the stage where Siemens are actually in the course of preparing
for volume production. It should be noted, through, that CIS cells are not environmentally
innocent –Selenium derivates are toxic, while indium is toxic, rare and expensive.
3.1.15. DC motor
A DC motor is an electric motor that runs on direct current (DC) electricity. An
electric motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. Most electric motors
operate through interacting magnetic fields and current-carrying conductors to generate
force, although electrostatic motors use electrostatic forces.[7]
A DC motor is designed to run on DC electric power. Two examples of pure DC
designs are Michael Faraday's homopolar motor (which is uncommon), and the ball
bearing motor, which is (so far) a novelty. By far the most common DC motor types are
the brushed and brushless types, which use internal and external commutation
respectively to periodically reverse the current in the rotor windings.
1. Permanent-Magnet Motors
A permanent-magnet motor does not have a field winding on the stator frame,
instead relying on permanent magnets to provide the magnetic field against which the
rotor field interacts to produce torque. Compensating windings in series with the armature
may be used on large motors to improve commuation under load. Because this field is
fixed, it cannot be adjusted for speed control. Permanent-magnet motors are convenient in
miniature motors to eliminate the power consumption of the field winding. Most larger
DC motors are of the "dynamo" type, which requires current to flow in field windings to
provide the stator magnetic field.
To minimize overall weight and size, miniature permanent-magnet motors may
use high energy magnets made with neodymium or other strategic elements. With the
higher flux density provided, electric machines with high energy permanent magnets are
at least competitive with all optimally designed singly-fed synchronous and induction
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momentarily while crossing the gaps. Furthermore, the inductance of the rotor coils
causes the voltage across each to rise when its circuit is opened, increasing the sparking
of the brushes. This sparking limits the maximum speed of the machine, as too-rapid
sparking will overheat, erode, or even melt the commutator. The current density per unit
area of the brushes, in combination with their resistivity, limits the output of the motor.
The making and breaking of electric contact also causes electrical noise, and the sparks
additionally cause RFI. Brushes eventually wear out and require replacement, and the
commutator itself is subject to wear and maintenance (on larger motors) or replacement
(on small motors). The commutator assembly on a large motor is a costly element,
requiring precision assembly of many parts. On small motors, the commutator is usually
permanently integrated into the rotor, so replacing it usually requires replacing the whole
rotor.
Large brushes are desired for a larger brush contact area to maximize motor
output, but small brushes are desired for low mass to maximize the speed at which the
motor can run without the brushes excessively bouncing and sparking (comparable to the
problem of "valve float" in internal combustion engines). (Small brushes are also
desirable for lower cost.) Stiffer brush springs can also be used to make brushes of a
given mass work at a higher speed, but at the cost of greater friction losses (lower
efficiency) and accelerated brush and commutator wear. Therefore, DC motor brush
design entails a trade-off between output power, speed, and efficiency/wear.
The geared instrument DC motor is ideally suited to a wide range of applications
requiring a combination of low speed operation and compact unit size. The integral iron
core dc motor provides smooth operation and a bi-directional variable speed capability
while the gearhead utilises a multi-stage metal spur gear train and a diecast metal housing
rated for a working torque up to 1.0Nm. The unit, which is suitable for mounting in any
attitude, provides reliable operation over a wide ambient temperature range and is
equipped with a rear shaft extension to which a speed or position sensor may be attached
The 1308 unit offers a range of gear ratio options for operating speeds from 5-100 rpm
and is ideally suited to applications where a combination of high torque, compact size and
economic unit price are important design criteria.
60RPM 12V DC geared motors for robotics applications. Very easy to use and available
in standard size. Nut and threads on shaft to easily connect and internal threaded shaft for
easily connecting it to wheel. NR-DC-ECO is high quality low cost DC geared motor. It
contains Brass gears and steel pinions to ensure longer life and better wear and tear
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properties. The gears are fixed on hardened steel spindles polished to a mirror finish.
These spindles rotate between bronze plates which ensures silent running. The output
shaft rotates in a sintered bushing. The whole assembly is covered with a plastic ring. All
the bearings are permanently lubricated and therefore require no maintenance. The motor
is screwed to the gear box from inside.fig.3.6.shows the dc geared motor.
Specifications
60RPM 12V DC motors with Gearbox
3000RPM base motor
6mm shaft diameter with internal hole
125gm weight
Same size motor available in various rpm
2kgcm torque
No-load current = 60 mA(Max), Load current = 300 mA(Max)
4. DESIGN
4.1. Points to Consider When Designing a Solar Vehicle
The car should he designed in order to maximize the area exposed to sun
light in order to achieve maximum power.
The car shape should he so-called an aerodynamic shape in order to achieve
minimum wind resistance, or the so-called drag force.
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The car should be as light as possible, because the power expected from the
solar cells is not that much. In addition, most of this power will be utilized to
overcome friction and drag.
4.2. Wheel & Chassis
To develop a four wheel based driving vehicle in miniature size it is a critical
designing to that so we have first decided the outer dimensions by assuming. After that
we decided the wheel diameter by searching in market which is easily available wheel
with gear attachment .then we fined the wheel which is made up of PVC material with
centre whole for mechanical coupling. After deciding wheel we have to give a griping
material at outer surface of wheel for better grip on surface while moving on any kind of
surface then we put on a rubber ring on the outer surface by simply pasting. As the wheel
are ready for use the next requirement is the base on which the complete vehicle is been
enclosed that main & basic thing is the chassis.
The chassis (fig.4.1,fig.4.2) is the most important part because of that any vehicle
can be designed. So for the chassis we have limitation on selecting the material of chassis.
The weight of the chassis should have to be lowest as possible with high strength, high
rigidity, low cost, easy to fabricate. Easily available etc. by considering all facts
aluminum is the best metal for this solar vehicle. Then by selecting metal for chassis the
all type of aluminum type available are taken in consideration after all designing
parameter important an aluminum angle is selected.
The aluminum angle is like as two strips which are bonded at 90’ to each other
that called as angle. Then the chassis designing is developed which is uses two vertically
taken angle whose length is 16’’ long which are kept away from each by a horizontal
aluminum angle, whose length is 11’’.this horizontal & vertical angle are connected to
each other with the help of nut & bolts. The nut & bolt is attached after drilling on
marked point, the drilled point is connected by tightening the nut & bolt with the help of
spanner. The nut & bolt are 1/18 mild steel made used. This structure forms a rigid and
solid chassis which is able to give all mechanical support to other accessories, also in very
less weight itself. Now this cassis consist two vertical and two horizontal aluminum angle
strips. As this main mechanical part is finalized.
The next stage is confirming the distance between two wheels as according to
vehicle length. The length is good as 20’’ by this length decided to a 13” is distance
between two wheels. The wheel is equipped by the gears measuring the gear teeth’s for
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motor driving purpose. Then for connecting the wheels to chassis by center whole without
disturbing the revolution and movement there for a metal shaft is developed. This metal
shaft is made up of iron the machining is done by the lathe machine. This machine is
reduces the unrequited metal from shaft which is rotating in circular motion prissily
Without disturbing the centre point of the shaft. This shaped rod are cut in to a
specified length by cutting machine .the front wheel shaft are not connected to each other
to rotate simultaneously. But the back wheel are connected to shaft and locked to the shaft
of both side. this locked shaft of the both sides are connected to each other with the help
of connecting coupling which is also fabricated on the lathe machine. This mechanical
coupling is very important to drive the vehicle in straight line while moving. this back
wheel are the effort wheels of vehicle so it is very important to apply a exact and same
effort simultaneously to move vehicle in front straight direction this both side shaft
locking is very important this locking should not have a error in it. Then the low power,
lowest weight DC motor is selected. The DC motor are not able to drive directly this big
& heavy load, the effort of the motor is not sufficient to drive this vehicle there for it is
required to increase the effort & driving power by using the gear system then this motor is
attached to the miniature gear assembly then this motor is called as a DC geared moter the
toque of this motor is very high as compared to other dc motor. So this configuration is
used in this vehicle which offers high power in low input. There for to couple this driving
motor to the shaft of wheel a mechanical coupling is required this is done by using the
effort gear coupling at the motor shaft. This gear is made up of iron & numbers of teeth
are less than the number of teeth on wheel. This difference in the number of teeth is
maintained to adjust the torque and speed ratio with out loading the motor. then this
motor is mounted on the chassis by using the aluminum metal holding clamp, this clamp
is attached by using the nut & bolts.
To reduce the weight an aluminum L section of 25x25mm thickness is 2mm used.
Bearing case- this bearing case is formed in the mild steel fitted with 5/32 screw.
Solar unit platform-
This is an essential part in which the size should be big as we can achive in range.
This size is decided by the solar panel we have used the dimension of panel is 16 x10
inches.
So the platform at top is in size accordingly.
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=29.43N
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=7.35N
= 7.35×.075/2
=0.28Nm
Power = 2×3.147×N×T/60
= 1.76W
=60×.28/60
=0.28
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=12×.717
Power output of motor =8.6 watts.
Power = 2π×N×T
60
8.6 =2 π×60×T
60
T = 1.37 N-m
T = 1370 N-mm
T = π × fs ×d3
16
1370 = π × 45 (assuming fs=45 N/mm2 for M.S)
16
d =5.37 mm
Thus for safe design take d =6 mm.
Hence, the diameter of wheel shaft =6mm.
4.6. Bearing
The four bearing are used of internal diameter of 6mm. OD is 20mm
Shaft – a plain M.S. rod of 6mm in N/8 m.s.material is used to connect the both side
wheels through the bearing at both sides.
Design of Bearing
Nomenclature
Fr=Radial load(N)
n= speed of rotation(rpm)
t= Time
Therefore
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P =Fr
=mg
= 2.5×9.81
= 24.53N
The relationship between life in million revolution & life in working hour is given by ,
L10 = (60×n×L10h)/10^6
Assume n = 60rpm,
L10h = 10000mr
= (60×60×10000)/10^6
= 36million rev.
=2.5×9.81(36) ^ (1/3)
=81N
From the designing data book, the bearing is available for the shaft diameter of 6mm is
689Z.
=12.71 (pass)
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1. Measure the area of your solar panels if you do not already know it.
2. Use a solar meter to measure the maximum solar radiation for the exact
location of your solar panels in kilowatts per meter squared. Essentially, this
measures how much power the sun is bringing to your location--i.e., the
maximum power your solar panels could theoretically provide.
3. Use the volt and amp meter to measure the volts and amps produced by your
solar panels. Multiply volts and amps to calculate the power produced by your
solar panels (P = V x A) in kilowatts. Divide the power by the area of your
solar panels in meters squared.
4. Divide the power output of the solar panel (kW/m^2) by the solar input
measured by the solar meter (kW/m^2). Multiply this number by 100 to get a
percent efficiency. Do not be discouraged if it is low--most solar panels
achieve no more than a maximum of 20 percent efficiency.
4.9. Calculation of Efficiency of Solar Panel
1. Area of solar panel =14×13 inch
= 14×13×2.54×2.54
= 1137.5cm2
= 0.11375m2
2. In India on a bright sunny day in the early afternoon the solar isolation will be
roughly around 1000 W / m 2.
3. Power(p) output of solar panel=voltage(v) ×current(I)
= 17.48×0.727
= 12.71 w
Divide the power by the area of your solar panels =111.72w/m2
4. Efficiency of solar panel= power output of solar panel / radiation enegy incident
on the solar panel
= 111.72/1000
= 11.17%
So efficiency of solar panels 11.17%
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In this type of battery state indicator is accomplish by using Op-Amp. The Op-
Amp used as a comparator as shown in figure on reference voltage of %V is applied to
non inverting terminal through resistor dividing biasing as the resistance used are of value
33k.So the voltage at the point A will be calculated by
The voltage at the point A will be 2.5V as calculated; the battery voltage signal is applied
at the inverting terminal through an resistance of value 12k.
V=12, R=12k
v/i= 12/12k=0.0001 A
Current will flow through 12k resistance this is appeared at inverting terminal, As
this voltage is above the reference voltage then the output of the op amp is below 5.1 V,
the diode will not conduct the LED is off. Zener diode is connected in series in output
circuit because we show the characteristics of the zener. It has a constant voltage at a
specified voltage and works as a regulator as used parallel voltage regulator, where as
when it connected in series the zener will conduct only when the input voltage exceeds
the defined value(5.1V) voltage only. So when the battery voltage comes down below a
certain point the voltage at input inverting terminals drops. When this voltage is below of
reference voltage the output of comparator Op-Amp is high. As it reaches to 5.1 V then
the zener diode is get conducts and due to condition of zener diode the battery low
indicator led glows. This lead state signal is given to microcontroller giving signal to
shunt down the operation. As the reason the battery voltage below operation voltage
reached, which low voltage cause improper working.
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7) Diode 1n4007 4
8) solar Panel 12-20v 1
9) Ic 7805 1
10) Capacitor 1000m/25v 1
11) capacitor 100m/16v 1
12) Connecting wires
13) IR Sensor 3 terminal 1
14) IR LED 2
15) Ic3 CD4017 1
16) Transistor BC548 2
17) IC socket 16pin 1
18) Diode 1n4007 2
19) Resistor 1k,1/4w 1
20) Relay 12v 1
5.2. Disadvantage
1) As it is solar powered so it is a necessity that presence of sun light is required.
2) Although solar energy is an unlimited resource, it is not always available when it’s
needed the sun must be shining.
5.3. Application
1) This concept can be utilized to build a single sitter four wheel vehicles in practice.
2) It can be extended to more commercial form of four wheeler vehicle.
3) In industry where small vehicles are used to perform light weight conveys work
from one place to other place.
4) It can be used places where, fuel based vehicles are banned due to production of
pollution and noise.
6. CONCLUSION
The vehicle use solar energy as source of power to drive the moter, and the moter
power is transmitted to the wheels and the vehicle to move. But it does not use battery as
a storage device to supply the motor, instead of battery it uses capacitor banks to store the
charge.So there is no need of charging the battery. No need of battery so less weight as
one battery weighs 50 to 70 kgs equivalent to one person’s weight.
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7. FUTURE SCOPE
In solar vehicle project, the main component is capacitor bank and as we know it
needs to be charged periodically it is done using the solar panel but the problem is when
the sun will disappear no charging will take place and vehicle will get stopped on the
spot, but it can be overcome by using the latest technology.
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REFERENCES
[1] M.A.Green, S.R.wenham, M.E.Watt,”Applied photovoltaics” p.n.-151
[2] Japan’s Kyocera corp ,”Rising solar cars” ,p.n.-29.
[3] P.Basu, H.saha “Science abstracts “p.n.123.
[4] Klutz press,” Solar car book” Aug-2001, p.n.-151
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