EAE3701 B0 LS05-Study Guide (1)

ALTERNATIVE ENERGY-EAE3701
Department of Electrical and Mining Engineering

University of South Africa
Science Campus
Florida
© Unisa
Table of contents
STUDY UNIT 1: Introduction to Alternative Energy .............................................................. 5

1.1 Learning outcomes ....................................................................................................... 5
1.3 Energy, its definition and categories......................................................................... 6
1.3.1 Macroscopic forms of energy.................................................................................. 6
1.3.2 Microscopic forms of energy ................................................................................... 6
1.4 Forms of Energy ............................................................................................................ 7
1.4.1 Kinetic energy .................................................................................................................. 7
1.4.2 Potential energy .............................................................................................................. 8
1.4.3 Chemical energy:........................................................................................................... 9
1.4.4 Mechanical energy: ..................................................................................................... 10
1.4.5 Nuclear energy: ........................................................................................................... 10
1.4.6 Gravitational energy: ................................................................................................... 10
1.4.7 Radiant energy ............................................................................................................ 10
1.4.8 Thermal energy, or heat.............................................................................................. 11
1.4.9 Geothermal energy...................................................................................................... 11
1.4.10 Motion energy ............................................................................................................ 11
1.4.11 Sound ......................................................................................................................... 12
1.4.12 Electrical energy ........................................................................................................ 12
1.5 Sources of Energy ............................................................................................................... 12
Activity 1.1 ................................................................................................................................... 15
1.6 Energy use............................................................................................................................. 15
Activity 1.2 ................................................................................................................................... 17
1.7 Conventional energy and its impact ................................................................................. 18
1.7.1 Conventional energy .................................................................................................... 18
1.7.2 Environmental impacts of fossil fuels .......................................................................... 19
Activity 1.3 ................................................................................................................................... 20
1.8 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................ 20
STUDY UNIT 2: SOLAR POWER SYSTEMS ........................................................................... 21
2.1 Learning outcomes ..................................................................................................... 21
2.2 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 21
2.3 Availability of energy from the Sun and geographic availability ....................... 22
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2.4 Ways of harnessing solar energy ............................................................................ 24
2.4.1 Passive Technique: ..................................................................................................... 24
2.4.2 Active Technique: ........................................................................................................ 24
2.4.2.1 Solar panels .............................................................................................................. 25
2.4.2.2 Solar thermal technology ......................................................................................... 25
2.5 Photovoltaic cells ............................................................................................................. 26
2.5.1 Working principle of solar cell ..................................................................................... 26
2.5.2 Solar Cell Equivalent Circuit and Parameters ..................................................... 26
2.5.3 External cell parameters ............................................................................................. 27
2.6.3 I-V characteristic curve of the PV ............................................................................... 28
2.6.4 Maximum power point tracking (MPPT) .................................................................... 29
Activity 2.1 ................................................................................................................................... 30
2.7 Photovoltaic complete system .......................................................................................... 31
2.7.1 General photovoltaic system ...................................................................................... 31
2.8.2 Types of PV Systems .................................................................................................. 34
Activity 2.2 ................................................................................................................................... 36
2.7 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................ 36
STUDY UNIT 3: WIND ENERGY ........................................................................................................ 38
3.1 Learning outcomes .......................................................................................................... 38
3.2 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 38
3.3 Wind energy conversion .................................................................................................. 39
3.3.1 Power conversion and power coefficient ......................................................................... 40
3.3.2 Total power conversion coefficient and effective power output ...................................... 41
4.4 Wind Regime and Utilisation ................................................................................................. 43
3.4.1 Wind Speed Distribution ................................................................................................. 43
Logarithmic profile ................................................................................................................. 44
3.4.2 Wind Speed Variations ....................................................................................................... 44
Activity 3.1 ................................................................................................................................... 46
3.5 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 46
STUDY UNIT 4: Biomass Energy.......................................................................................... 47
4.2 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 47
4.3 CLASSIFICATION OF BIOMASS AND CONVERSION OF BIOMASS TO ENERGY
................................................................................................................................................ 48
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4.3.1 Applications of Biomass .............................................................................................. 50
4.3.2 Biomass properties...................................................................................................... 50
4.3.3 Biomass Conversion Technologies............................................................................ 52
Activity 4.1................................................................................................................................ 53
4.6 Biogas Digesters .................................................................................................................. 53
4.6.1 Classification of Biogas Digesters ........................................................................ 53
4.6.2 Digester Sizing ....................................................................................................... 54
4.7 Determination of Biomass Availability and Plant Size .............................................. 55
4.7 Conclusion ....................................................................................................................... 57
STUDY UNIT 5: HYDROELECTRIC .......................................................................................... 58
5.1 Learning outcomes ......................................................................................................... 58
5.2 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 58
5.3 Fundamentals of hydroelectric energy ................................................................... 59
5.4 Hydroelectric energy potential in the world ........................................................... 62
5.5 Types and classification of hydroelectric generation plants ...................................... 63
5.5.1 Types of hydroelectric plant ....................................................................................... 63
5.5.2 Classification of hydropower plant ............................................................................. 64
5.3 Description of construction and layout of hydroelectric plants ........................ 64
5.4 Estimation of electrical power and efficiency of hydroelectric power plant ... 65
Activity 5.1 ................................................................................................................................... 66
5.6 Conclusion ....................................................................................................................... 68
STUDY UNIT 6: GEOTHERMAL ENERGY .............................................................................. 70
6.2 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 70
6.3 Terms, Types and Processes of geothermal energy ................................................. 71
6.3.1 Definition of some Terms used in Geothermal Energy ............................................ 71
6.3.4 Renewability of Geothermal Energy..................................................................... 72
6.3.5 Types of Geothermal Energy Sources ................................................................. 72
6.3.6 Process of Geothermal Energy Extraction and basic Geothermal Energy
Calculations ........................................................................................................................... 72
6.3.7 Application of Geothermal Energy........................................................................ 74
6.4 Basic Design of Geothermal Heat Pumps ................................................................ 75
6.4.1. The efficiency of the Carnot Engine .......................................................................... 76
Activity 6.2 ................................................................................................................................... 77
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6.7 Conclusion......................................................................................................................... 77
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STUDY UNIT 1: Introduction to Alternative Energy
1.1 Learning outcomes
Specific outcome: Identify, explain and evaluate the concept of energy, its forms, sources
and usage and explore the impact of conventional energy.
On completion of this unit, you should be able to:
• Discuss the concept of energy
• Identify and define various forms, sources and classification of energy
• Classify and discuss the impact of conventional energy
1.2 Introduction
Globally, the use of conventional energy sources (such as fossil fuel. i.e., coal, natural gas,
etc.) has continued to generate intense debate due to its contributions to climate change,
which is a threat to society. Fossil fuels produce carbon dioxide and other poisonous gases
that are environmentally unfriendly. Some of these gases contribute to climate change and a
threat to the ecosystems. Besides, these are non-renewable resources whose supply will
ultimately be exhausted. The extensive use of fossil fuels has led to the critical situation of
global warming, significantly affecting our health, environment, and climate. Due to pressure
being applied worldwide and regulations to reduce emissions, more and more people are
looking for alternative energy sources. For instance, Europe has declared that it will be working
towards zero CO2 emission in 2050 – in other words, they will no longer permit the use of coal-
fired power stations by that date. Countries like Germany are working towards having no coal-
fired power stations by 2038. In South Africa, Eskom currently has approximately seven power
stations that will be decommissioned in the next ten years, if they follow their plan. The Eskom
Renewable Business Unit (RBU) has, therefore, been tasked with introducing alternative
energy sources in the form of renewable energy technologies.
South Africa is currently experiencing load shedding that is crippling the economy due to the
problem of energy supply and demand inequality, and is also currently suffering from
increasing petrol prices. These issues have triggered the need to explore alternative energies.
What is currently happening in South Africa as regards alternative sources?
• Installation of small-scale and large-scale photovoltaic (PV) plants is gradually
growing
• Wind and solar thermal electricity generation have by far the most significant long-
term potential and will dominate in the energy mix in the not too distant future
• Solar water heating has been widely installed in both urban and rural areas
• Hydro and landfill gas-based operations are still at a small to medium scale
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This study unit presents the concept of energy, its forms/categories, sources and usage.
Lastly, the impact of conventional energy – and hence the need for alternative energy sources
– is presented.
1.3 Energy, its definition and categories

Energy is defined simply as the ability to do work; it is a scalar quantity that cannot be observed
directly, but that can be recorded and evaluated by indirect measurements. Energy manifests
itself in many forms, which are either internal or transient. Energy can be converted from one
form to another.
In the thermodynamic analysis, the forms of energy can be classified into two groups:
macroscopic and microscopic.
1.3.1 Macroscopic forms of energy

Macroscopic forms of energy are those that an overall system possesses with respect to a
frame of reference, for example, kinetic and potential energies. The macroscopic energy of a
rising object changes with velocity and elevation (see Figure 1.1). This form of energy is
related to motion and the influence of external effects such as gravity, magnetism, electricity,
and surface tension.
• Potential energy: energy

possessed by a body by
virtue of its position
relative to others
• Kinetic energy: energy

due to motion
Energy in – Potential Energy – Kinetic Energy out
Figure 1.1 Demonstration of macroscopic energy
1.3.2 Microscopic forms of energy

Microscopic forms of energy are those related to the molecular structure of a system and the
degree of molecular activity and are independent of outside frames of reference. The sum of
all the microscopic forms of energy of a system is that system’s internal energy, usually
denoted by U. Internal energy can take many forms, including mechanical, chemical, electrical,
magnetic, surface, and thermal. Here is an example.
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• A spring that is
compressed (see
Figure 1.2) has higher
internal energy
(mechanical energy)
than a spring that is not
compressed because
the compressed spring
can do work on changing
(expanding) to the
uncompressed state. Figure 1.2 Compressed springs
Watch the following videos to understand more about internal energy:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UTj9YEvOt2U
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aDXQBE4r65Y
1.4 Forms of Energy

Now, let’s identify various forms of energy as well as transformations of energy from one form
to another.
1.4.1 Kinetic energy: The

energy that a system possesses as a
result of its motion relative to some
frame of reference is called kinetic
energy. Kinetic energy refers to the
energy of the system because of its
“overall” movement, either
translational or rotational. “Overall” is
used here to specify the kinetic
energy of the entire system, not the
kinetic energy of the molecules in the
system.
Figure 1.3 A Newton’s Cradle with kinetic energy
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1.4.2 Potential energy: Energy
that an object possesses when it is at
a height. The energy that is stored in
a system has a well-known name,
introduced by Rankine (see Crosbie
1998). It is called “potential energy”
because it has the potential to be
used by conversion into kinetic
energy or other forms (e.g., heat, Figure 1.4 A man on top of mountain
electricity) of energy.
There are several kinds of potential

energies, namely:
Play the following video on demonstrations of

• Gravitational
gravitational potential:
potential energy
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=62LKnm1PmIc
• Elastic energy produced by

elastic forces
Figure 1.5 Catapult – possesses elastic energy
• Magnetic energy produced

by magnetic forces
Figure 1.6 Magnetic – with magnetic energy
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• Electrostatic energy Play video the following video which looks at the
produced by Coulomb concept of Coulomb forces:
forces.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=elJUghWSVh4
• Chemical potential energy Play video the following video for information on the
produced by Coulomb forces concept of chemical potential energy:
while chemical reactions
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=enUBooHI5uY
occur.
• Nuclear energy, which is Play video the following video for information on the
caused by various nuclear concept of nuclear energy:
forces (weak, strong).
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rcOFV4y5z8c
• Thermal potential energy, The following video considers thermal potential

which is a consequence of energy:
kinetic energy of molecules
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BSWl_Zj-CZs
and the potential energy due
to their relative position.
1.4.3 Chemical energy: Energy

stored in the bonds of atoms and
molecules. Examples of stored
chemical energy are: batteries,
biomass, petroleum, natural gas, and
coal. Chemical energy is converted
to thermal energy when people burn
wood in a fireplace or burn gasoline
in a car engine.
Figure 1.7 Examples of chemical energy
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1.4.4 Mechanical energy: Energy
stored in objects by tension.
Examples of stored mechanical
energy are: compressed springs and
stretched rubber bands (see
Figure 1.8). Figure 1.8 Stretched rubber bands
1.4.5 Nuclear energy: Energy

stored in the nucleus of an atom (see
Figure 1.9) – the energy that holds
the nucleus together. Large amounts
of energy can be released when the
nuclei are combined or split apart.
Figure 1.9 Nucleus of an atom

1.4.6 Gravitational energy: Energy
due to an object's height. The higher
and heavier the object, the more
gravitational energy is stored.
Hydropower is an example of
gravitational energy, where gravity
forces water down through a
Figure 1.10 Waterfall – hydropower
hydroelectric turbine to produce
electricity
1.4.7 Radiant energy: is

electromagnetic energy that travels
in transverse waves. Radiant energy
includes visible light, x-rays, gamma
rays, and radio waves. Light is one
type of radiant energy. Sunshine is
radiant energy which provides the
fuel and warmth that make life on
Figure 1.11 Radiant energy
earth possible.
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1.4.8 Thermal energy, or heat, is
the vibration and movement of the
atoms and molecules within
substances. As an object is heated
up, its atoms and molecules move
and collide faster.
Figure 1.12 Heat from open-flame fire
1.4.9 Geothermal energy is the

thermal energy in the earth.
Figure 1.13 Geothermal energy power plant
1.4.10 Motion energy is energy

stored in the movement of objects.
The faster they move, the more
energy is stored. It takes energy to
get an object moving, and energy is
released when an object slows down.
Wind is an example of motion
energy. A dramatic example of
motion is a car crash (Figure 1.14)
when the car comes to a complete Figure 1.14 Dramatic Car crash – too much energy
stop and releases all its motion
energy at once in an uncontrolled
instant.
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1.4.11 Sound is the movement of
energy through substances in
longitudinal
(compression/rarefaction) waves.
Sound is produced when a force
causes an object or substance to
vibrate (Figure 1.15). The energy is
transferred through the substance in
a wave. Typically, the energy in
sound is smaller than other forms of Figure 1.15 Playing the guitar
energy.
1.4.12 Electrical energy is delivered

by tiny charged particles called
electrons, typically moving through a
wire.
Lightning is an example of electrical

energy in nature – though some will
argue over whether electricity is a
form of energy or only a means of Figure 1.16 Electricity & wires
transporting energy. However, if a
phenomenon is capable of producing
work, we can classify it as a form of
energy
Figure 1.18 Thunder and lightning storm
1.5 Sources of Energy

The following are six ultimate sources of energy:
i. The Sun
ii. Geothermal energy from the Earth’s interior heat content
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iii. The gravitational potential and planetary motion among Sun, Moon, and Earth
iv. Chemical energy from reactions among mineral sources
v. Nuclear energy from nuclear reactions
vi. Fossil fuel, i.e., oil, coal, and natural gas
These energy sources can be broadly classified as renewable or non-renewable. Both

renewable and non-renewable energy can be converted into secondary energy sources such
as electricity and hydrogen.
Renewable energy is the energy obtained

from regenerative or virtually inexhaustible
sources of energy occurring in the natural
environment – such as solar energy, wind
energy and so on. This type of energy is
replenished after its use by human beings.
It is also called non-conventional sources of
energy.
Figure 1.20 Wind energy
Figure 1.19 Sun – Releasing Energy
Non-renewable energy is derived from

static stocks of energy which get depleted
and cannot be replenished after use, e.g.,
coal, petroleum products and natural gas.
This type of energy is called finite energy
or conventional energy sources.
Figure 1.22 Coal
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Figure 1.21 Burner – natural gas
Table 1.2 Comparison of renewable and non-renewable energy systems (Tiwari &
Ghosal, 2007)
Important Renewable energy supplies Non-renewable energy
features of supplies
comparison
Examples Solar, wind, biomass, hydro, tidal, etc Coal, oil, natural gas, etc.
Sources Natural local environment Static stock
Normal State Continuous energy flow Finite source of energy
Supply time Infinite Finite
Location Site and society specific General and commercial

use
Scale potential Small scale Large scale
Skill Interdisciplinary and varied wide range Strong link with electrical
requirements of skill and engineering with
specific range of skills
Area specific Rural and decentralised industry Urban centralised industry
Dependence Self-sufficient systems encouraged Systems dependent on

outside inputs
Effects on Little environmental harm Environmental pollution,

environment particularly for air and water
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Safety Less hazardous Mostly dangerous when
faulty
Activity 1.1
1.1.1 Mention six (6) ultimate sources of energy that we use
1.1.2 Define the following forms of energy and explain the differences between them:
internal energy, work, heat.
1.1.3 Give examples of macroscopic forms of energy
1.6 Energy use

You are aware that all of the Earth’s life
forms use energy to survive. For
example, through the process of
photosynthesis, plants and trees survive
by getting energy from sunlight.
Figure 1.23. Photosynthesis illustration

Energy from the sun and wind drive the Play the following video on how water cycles on
earth’s water cycle, a critical support Earth:
system for life.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jFjI6y46QRk
Humans have always used Earth’s

energy in one form or another, and the
changing use of energy over time is
closely related to the history of human
civilization. People of old used muscle
power to do work, supplementing their
own energy with horses, mules, and
oxen for traveling, moving heavy loads,
and pulling carts or ploughs.
Figure 1.24 Use of horse power to do work
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The earliest human societies used wind,
water, and solar energy long before the
discovery of electricity, coal, or oil. The
heat of sunlight was used to dry plants
for food or fuel and to dry animal hides
for clothing or shelter.
Figure 1.25 Drying plants using solar energy
Figure 1.26 Drying of rice using solar

energy
Then, people built machines such as

windmills to capture the energy of
moving air and waterwheels to harness
the energy of a flowing river or waterfall.
These machines allowed people to get
much more work done than they could
before.
Figure 1.27 Windmill used to capture the energy

of moving air
It was not until the Industrial Revolution of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries
that people began to use fossil fuels as a primary source of energy. Coal, oil, and natural gas
changed the way that people lived and worked.
Coal and oil became even more prominent sources of energy in the early 1900s. Coal was
used in the process of making iron and steel; it was burned as fuel in the steam engine
locomotives and also burned for heat and to generate the electricity needed in homes and
buildings. Since the Industrial Revolution, fossil fuels have continued to dominate the world’s
energy usage. In the 1960s, the ecology movement brought attention to issues such as
increasing pollution and the destruction of the natural environment. Around this time, some
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people began to see fossil fuels as the root cause of these environmental problems. Today,
several different factors have combined with increasing interest in alternative energy. Concern
for the natural environment, the economy, and national security all play a part in the current
debate on energy usage.
In present-day South Africa, it is arguable that most agree that energy alternatives are needed.
An ongoing energy crisis in South Africa is impacting the livelihoods of millions of people, but
there is a case for saying that renewable energy is a sustainable option. Current public debate
is focused on the best ways to reduce the use of fossil fuels and how to move from coal toward
alternative energy.
Play the following video on the Big Energy Debate in South Africa:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OUNHCO-zf24
Some people believe that alternative energies such as wind, solar, and water power should
be developed as a substitute for the coal used to make electricity, and others believe that such
a transition will result in job losses. Some people say that alternative sources of energy are
less expensive than fossil fuels and better for the environment. However, other experts say
that more work needs to be done before any decisions can be made. Regardless of these
differences in opinion, most energy experts believe that a single energy solution may not meet
every need and that the future of South Africa will be most likely depend on an energy mix.
Our energy future will be made up of a combination of many technologies, and progress will
occur only if we can learn to compromise on a mixture of clean energy options.
Have you ever realised that the energy generation process is also a critical player in the
generation of wealth and economic development? This makes energy resources extremely
significant for every country in the world. In bringing energy needs and energy availability into
balance, there are two main elements: energy demand and energy supply. In this regard,
every country aims to attain such a balance and hence develops policies and strategies.
Several factors are considered to be important in determining world energy consumption and
production, including population growth, economic performance, consumer tastes,
technological developments, government policies concerning the energy sector, and
developments on world energy markets.
Activity 1.2
1.2.1 What percentage of South Africa's energy use comes from oil?
1.2.2 What percentage of South Africa’s electricity production comes from coal?
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1.2.3 Do you think we can eliminate the use of fossil fuels overnight – or even in the next 20
years? Discuss
1.2.4 Write a half-page essay discussing your view on the Big Energy Debate in South Africa
1.7 Conventional energy and its impact

1.7.1 Conventional energy
A conventional or non-renewable
resource is a natural resource that
cannot be re-made or re-grown at a
scale comparable to its
consumption. These energy sources
are coal, petroleum, natural gas,
and uranium. They are used to make
electricity, to heat our homes, to
move our cars, and to manufacture
products. These energy sources are
called non-renewable because their
Figure 1.28 Coal mine tunnel
supplies are limited.
Play the following videos to find out how fossil fuels
are formed and why they are unsustainable:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_8VqWKZIPrM
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pvH-h7TzSsE
Nuclear energy is a non-renewable resource because, once the uranium has been used, it is
gone! Nuclear fission uses uranium to create energy. Coal, petroleum, and natural gas, which
are called fossil fuels, are considered non-renewable because they cannot be replenished in
a short period of time. Fossil fuel is a general term for buried combustible geologic deposits
of organic materials, formed from decayed plants and animals that have been converted to
crude oil, coal, natural gas, or heavy oils by exposure to heat and pressure in the earth's crust
over hundreds of millions of years.
South Africa is the fourteenth highest emitter of CO 2 in the world and as much as 88% of this
carbon emission comes from the coal used to power our coal power plants. Coal is the most
polluting of all fossil fuels
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1.7.2 Environmental impacts of fossil fuels
Fossil fuels – coal, oil, and natural gas – do
substantially more harm than renewable
energy sources by most measures,
including air and water pollution, damage
to public health, wildlife and habitat loss,
water use, land use, and global warming
emissions.
Figure 1.30 Coal-fired power station

contributing to air pollution
Figure 1.29 Acid lake rain in the mining

environment
Figure 1.31 Water pollution from conventional

energy
Play the following videos on the environmental impact of fossil fuels:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBLQUplzZZo
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=skVdRpNa7Gg
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5uCPM7uBSPQ
Undoubtedly, the significant areas of environmental concern, which include atmospheric,

aquatic, terrestrial and ecosystem impacts, have prompted the need for alternative energies.
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Activity 1.3
1.3.1 What happens if oil disappears? Think about this before you play the video at the link
below:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oqKEHl7I-O4
1.3.2 Discuss the environmental impact of fossil fuels on the atmosphere, water and the
ecosystem.
1.8 Conclusion
Globally, the demand for energy is rising, and the transition from the use of conventional
energy sources to alternative energy sources has continued to generate intense debate.
Conventional energy is seen as a threat to society due to its emissions. The worldwide
increase in pressure, aliong with new regulations to reduce emissions even further, means
that more and more people are looking for alternative energy sources. This unit has covered
the concept, its forms, sources and usage. Finally, it has looked at the impact of conventional
energy which has prompted the need for alternative energies. The remaining units cover
alternative energies.
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STUDY UNIT 2: SOLAR POWER SYSTEMS

Specific outcome: Describe methods and components for harvesting and converting solar
energy and solve problems relating to photovoltaic system parameter determination.
• Calculate the amount of energy from the sun on a particular Julian date
• Describe methods of harnessing renewable energy
• Explore methods of converting solar power into electricity
• Explain solar cell parameters and their equivalent circuitry
• Calculate the built-in voltage, the open-circuit voltage and the conversion efficiency of
a cell
• Describe the various components of PV systems
• Describe off-grid and on-grid PV systems
2.2 Introduction
The quest for solar power as an alternative energy source dates back to 1953, when an article
in a magazine was written with the title “Why Don’t We Have Sun Power?” The amount of
solar radiation striking the earth's surface is about ten thousand times higher than the current
global electrical energy consumption. The Earth’s surface receives about 124 Exa (108) Watts
or 3,850 Zetta (1024) Joules per year of solar power.
Solar energy is by far the most abundant form of renewable energy in South Africa and has
the potential to partially replace fossil fuels.
We have been experiencing load

shedding in South Africa for some time
now, and the question is, should we go
back to the use of lanterns for lighting
(Figure 1)? Do do so would be very
archaic! Dancing to the tune of
technological advancement, a lot of
people and companies want to install Figure 2.1 Use of lantern for lighting
solar panels and either go off-grid or
become grid-tied so as to be able to buy
less electricity from ESKOM.
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In favour of this, the Eskom Integrated
Demand Management programme
encourages individuals and businesses
to save electricity through the use of
energy-efficient technologies such as
solar. Hence, younger generations in
South Africa are leading the way to Figure 2.2 Eskom power station
create renewable energy sources and to
fight blackouts.
Watch the following videos on the solar power revolution in South Africa:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kyL2GdJT30U
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=swZ2ns48Qp8
This unit presents methods of harnessing renewable energy from the sun for various uses.
The theory of the solar cell, its parameters, equivalent circuit and calculations, are
presented. The unit also discusses the various components of PV systems and their
significant specifications – including off-grid and on-grid PV systems.
2.3 Availability of energy from the Sun and geographic availability

The intensity of energy arriving from the sun, as measured in space, just outside the Earth’s
atmosphere, is approximately 1 367 W/m2. This is called the solar constant. Although it is
termed a “constant,” it varies over time. The solar constant can be used to calculate the
irradiance, 𝐼0 , incident on a surface perpendicular to the Sun’s rays outside and the Earth’s
atmosphere on any day of the year:
𝐼0 = 1367(1 + 0.034 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (2𝜋𝑁/365)) (2.1)
where N is the day number of the year (e.g., January 1 is day 1; December 31 is day 365).
N is also called the “Julian date,” from the Julian calendar.
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Average irradiance, or solar energy reaching a Table 2.1: Worldwide sample
given location on earth, will be lower than the average irradiance values for some
amount available outside the atmosphere due cities
to:
City Insolation
• Absorption and diffraction of sunlight in
the atmosphere Seattle 125
• Changing weather
EI Paso 240
• The absence of sunlight at night
Rio de Janeiro 200
Table 2.1 shows the worldwide average
values for some representative cities, with that Glasgow 100
of Johannesburg South Africa being 230.
Tokyo 125
We must, therefore, look for ways to harness
Naples 200
this abundant energy.
Cairo 280
Johannesburg 230
Mumbai 240
Sydney 210
Example 1
Determine the day number of the year for which the irradiance is 1405.30 W/m 2
Solution:
1405.30 = 1367(1 + 0.034 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (2𝜋𝑁/365))
1405.3 = 1367 + 46.478 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (2𝜋𝑁/365)
2𝜋𝑁 1405.3 − 1367

𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( )=
365 46.478
365 1405.3 − 1367

𝑁= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 ( ) = 𝑑𝑎𝑦 36, which is February 5
2𝜋 46.478
Example 2
If the day number of the year in a leap year is 6, calculate the irradiance, 𝐼0 of the day number
of the year.
Solution:
The Julian date is day 6, which is January 6.
23
𝐼0 = 1367(1 + 0.034 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (2𝜋 ∗ 5/365))
𝐼0 = 1367 + 46.478 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (5.9178) = 1367 + 46.230 = 1413.23 W/m2
2.4 Ways of harnessing solar energy

Energy from the sun can be harnessed through passive or active techniques (Figure 2.8)
2.4.1 Passive Technique: Passive, in this

case, refers to direct use of the heat
generated by the sun to heat living spaces or
things during the day, e.g. merely letting the
sunshine in through windows to heat the
inside of a building, the drying of clothes by
direct sunlight, greenhouse heating
Figure 2.5 Greenhouse heating
Figure 2.4 Sunshine coming through

windows to heat the inside of a building Figure 2.6 Drying of clothes by direct
sunlight
2.4.2 Active Technique: Active solar

heating, on the other hand, uses mechanical
or electrical equipment for the conversion of
solar energy to heat and electric power. In
active solar heating, a solar collector is
needed –either a solar panel or a solar
thermal collector.
Figure 2.7 Solar Panel
24
Strategies for
capturing solar
energy
Active Passive
Solar Panels Solar

(Photovoltaic thermal Solar
cells) collector heating
Non-
concentrating Concentrating
collector collector
Flat plate Line

collector focussed Point focussed
Evacuated Linear Parabolic dish

tube Fresnel reflector
collector reflectors
Parabolic
trough Power tower
reflector
Figure 2.8 Methods of harnessing solar energy from the sun
2.4.2.1 Solar panels: devices designed to absorb the sun's rays as a source of energy and
convert this into electricity.
2.4.2.2 Solar thermal technology, where heat from the sun is used to make hot water or
steam. This technology is based on concentrating solar power (CSP) by mirrors or other types
of reflectors to produce high temperatures to generate water vapour or high-pressure steam
to rotate turbines to generate electricity.
Play the following YouTube video that explains what CSP is, how it works, and how
systems like parabolic troughs produce renewable power:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rO5rUqeCFY4
25
2.5 Photovoltaic cells
2.5.1 Working principle of solar cell
A photovoltaic (PV) cell absorbs light and
converts it directly into electricity.
The working principle of solar cells is based
on the photovoltaic effect, i.e., the
generation of a potential difference at the
junction of two different materials in
response to electromagnetic radiation.
Figure 2.9 Solar cells
PV cells are made of unique materials called semiconductors (silicon) and, when a light
particle hits the panel, it has enough energy quanta called photons to knock electrons loose
from the semiconductor atoms allowing them to flow freely.
The energy of such a photon is given by 𝐸 = ℎ𝑣 (2.2)
where h is Planck’s constant and ν is the frequency of the light.
The photovoltaic effect can be divided into three stages, as follows:

• The generation of charge carriers due to the absorption of photons in the materials
that form a P-N junction
• Subsequent separation of the photo-generated charge carriers in the junction
• Collection of the photo-generated charge carriers at the terminals of the junction
Play this 3-minute video to understand how a P-N junction solar cell works:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2AX0qvnjSnM
2.5.2 Solar Cell Equivalent Circuit and Parameters
Equivalent circuit
An ideal PV cell can simply be modelled as a real diode in parallel with an ideal current source.
However, adding a shunt resistance and a series resistance component in the model will make
26
it more realistic, as shown in Figure 2.10. From the equivalent circuit, characteristic equations
can be derived. Play the following videos for more information on the IV characteristics and
parameter extraction of PV cells:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xD5PG-WOUcU
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rZTnivM_TOM
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ilp7_3TLvw4&t=308s
Figure 2.10 Equivalent circuit of a Solar cell
2.5.3 External cell parameters

The following parameters are used to characterise the performance of a solar cell:
• The short-circuit current density Jsc, – this is used to describe the maximum current
delivered by a solar cell. For example, crystalline silicon solar cells can deliver, under
an airmass AM1.5 spectrum, a maximum possible current density of 46 mA/cm 2.
To understand how to calculate air mass (AM), altitude and tilt angle, watch this video:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Cjsz7y-rBeY
• The open-circuit voltage Voc: This is the maximum voltage produced by a solar cell
when it is not delivering any current. For example, commercial solar cells typically have
Voc exceeding 600 mV under standard AM1.5 conditions. Voc is determined using the
following equation:
𝑘𝑇 𝐽𝑝ℎ
𝑉𝑜𝑐 = ln ( + 1) (2.3)
𝑒 𝐽0
Where
𝑘𝑇
𝑒
- the thermal voltage
𝐽𝑝ℎ - photo-current density
27
𝐽0 - saturation current density
In the ideal case, 𝐽𝑠𝑐 equals 𝐽𝑝ℎ
Typical Jsc and Voc parameters for a crystalline silicon solar cell are approximately
35 mA/cm2 and up to 0.65 V respectively.
• The peak power Pmax,

Peak power, or Pmax, is the maximum power that can be obtained while varying
resistive load on the module between open and closed circuit. This is also called the
nominal power of the module in "Wp".
• The fill factor (FF)

This is the ratio of maximum power (Pmax = JmpVmp) generated by a solar cell to the
product of Voc with Jsc (see equation 2.4). FF value for a crystalline silicon solar cell is
typically in the range of 0.75 to 0.8, and for an ideal cell, the value is 1.
𝐽𝑚𝑝 𝑉𝑚𝑝
𝐹𝐹 = 𝐽𝑠𝑐 𝑉𝑜𝑐
(2.4)
FF can also be expressed as equation 2.5, if it is assumed that the cell behaves as an
ideal diode
𝑣𝑜𝑐 −ln (𝑣𝑜𝑐 +0.72)
𝐹𝐹 = 𝑣𝑜𝑐 +1
(2.5)
• Conversion Efficiency
Conversion efficiency η of solar cells is the ratio between the maximum generated
power and the input power. The standard value input power, which is the irradiance or
incident power, is taken as 1000 W/m2 for the AM1.5 spectrum. Typical conversion
efficiency of crystalline silicon solar cells lies in the range of 17 to 18%
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐽𝑚𝑝 𝑉𝑚𝑝 𝐽𝑠𝑐 𝑉𝑜𝑐 𝐹𝐹

𝜂= 𝑃𝑖𝑛
= 𝑃𝑖𝑛
= 𝑃𝑖𝑛
(2.6)
2.6.3 I-V characteristic curve of the PV

I-V characteristic curve of the PV module/array is one of the essential properties of PV
systems. It provides essential performance information of PV modules, such as short circuit
current, open-circuit voltage, maximum rated power, maximum current, maximum voltage, and
the module's conversion efficiency.
Watch the following videos to better understand the I-V characteristics curve of the PV module:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xD5PG-WOUcU
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E82Is5EMc2Q
28
2.6.4 Maximum power point tracking (MPPT)
The maximum power point (MPP) is the ideal point on the I-V curve where current and voltage
multiply to provide maximum power at a given moment. This point is dependent on ambient
conditions. A change in irradiance or temperature will change the I-V and the P-V
characteristics, therefore shifting the MPP. Maximum power point tracking (MPPT) is a
technique used to track and extract maximum power from a PV cell under all conditions. This
unique technique brings an exceptional application of power electronics to the field of
photovoltaic systems. Figure 2.11 shows the I-V and P-V relationship of a PV cell for MPPT
measurement and Figure 2.12 shows the effects of irradiance on the I-V curve of PV cells.
Watch the following video to better understand the concept of MPPT:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5Us5mM87PU8
Figure 2.11 The I-V and P-V relationship of a PV cell for MPPT measurement:
https://www.powerelectronics.com/solar/solar-system-efficiency-maximum-power-
point-tracking-key
29
https://www.itacanet.org/a-guide-to-photovoltaic-panels/photovoltaic-pv-cells/
Figure 2.12 The effects of irradiance on the I-V curve of PV cells
Activity 2.1
1. If, during solar energy harness assessment, the Julian date of a non-leap year is 145,
determine the irradiance, 𝐼0 of the day number of the year.
(Ans. 1329.87 W/m2 )
2. Play the videos in the links below to obtain a general understanding of the working
principle of solar cells and to answer the questions that precede each.
a. Describe two methods of converting solar power into electricity (Answer:
follow the link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qPnEw-MC_JE )
b. What is the range of the energy of each light photon? (Answer: follow the
link https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZYO83TkM0To )
c. What is the bandgap between the valence band and the conduction band?
(Answer: follow the link:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OR8EQ0DWpPw)
d. What is responsible for developing potential difference across the P-N
junction?
(Answer: follow the link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qPnEw-
MC_JE )
30
2.7 Photovoltaic complete system
2.7.1 General photovoltaic system
Although the solar panels are the heart of a PV system, other components, as mentioned, are
required to make it a complete working system. The components are called the Balance of
System (BOS). For successfully planning a PV system, it is crucial to understand the functions
of all the components and to know their significant specifications.
A complete photovoltaic system may include some or all the following components:
• photovoltaic units
• batteries
• charging controllers
• inverters
• load controllers
• wiring
• circuit breakers, and
• a mounting structure
PV systems can be straightforward, consisting of just a PV module and load, as in the direct
powering of a water pump motor which only needs to operate when the sun shines. However,
when a whole house needs to be powered, for example, the system must be operational day
and night. It may also have to feed both AC and DC loads, have reserve power and might
even include a back-up generator (see Figure 2.13).
Charge Controller Inverter

Solar Panel
AC Load
Battery
Figure 2.13 Photovoltaic system
31
2.8.1.1 Photovoltaic units & panel wiring
configurations
Due to the limited size of a solar cell, it delivers
only a limited amount of power under fixed
current-voltage conditions that are not practical
for most applications. For example, one PV cell
provides between 2 W and 3 W at about 0.2 V and
is hence too small to power most applications. To
increase power and voltage, a group of
photovoltaic cells are electrically connected and
packed to form a solar module and, in turn, a Figure 2.14 Solar Panel
group of PV modules are joined to form a solar
panel. For large-scale generation of solar
electricity, solar panels are interconnected in
series and parallel to form a solar array.
Watch the following video on wiring panels in

series and parallel for solar energy:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N86eHRGRJ
Figure 2.15 Large-scale PV
wQ
(Solar Array)
2.8.1.2 Batteries/energy storage

This a vital part of standalone systems because it
assures that the system can deliver electricity
during the night and in periods of bad weather.
Usually, batteries are used as energy storage
units.
Watch the following video link on Solar battery
system design:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_PgthByAYz
4
Figure 2.16 Solar charged battery
32
2.8.1.3 Charging controllers/DC-DC
converters
As solar panels produce a range of voltages, a
solar controller is employed to provide a constant
voltage to charge the batteries.
They are used to convert the module output,
which will have a variable voltage depending on
the time of the day and the weather conditions, to
Figure 2.17 PV system with charge
a fixed voltage output – one that can, for example,
controller
be used to charge a battery or that is used as an
input for an inverter in a grid-connected system.
2.8.1.4 Inverters or DC-AC converters

These are used in grid-connected systems to
convert the DC electricity originating from the PV
modules into AC electricity that can be fed into the
electricity grid. Figure 2.18 shows a solar power
inverter
Figure 2.18 Solar power inverter –

grid-tie
33
2.8.1.5 Wiring/cables
Used to connect the different components of the
PV system (see Figure 2.19) to the electrical load.
It is essential to choose cables of sufficient
thickness in order to minimise resistive losses.
Figure 2.19 PV installation wiring
2.8.1.6 A mounting structure

This structure is used to fix the modules and to
direct them towards the Sun. Figure 2.20 shows
the mounting structure for a PV system.
View the following installation videos for a ground

solar mounting structure and a rooftop solar
structure installation respectively:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aFpY8ogzNvY Figure 2.20 Mounting structure
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VtaI__CLyuA https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eKFkH
3q-MWM
2.8.2 Types of PV Systems

Depending on the system configuration, we can distinguish three main types of PV systems:
stand-alone, grid-connected, and hybrid. The basic PV system principles and elements remain
the same for all three. Systems are adapted to meet particular requirements by varying the
type and quantity of the essential elements. Modular system design allows for natural
expansion when power demand changes.
2.8.2.1 Standalone systems

Standalone systems rely on solar power only. These systems can consist of the PV modules
and a load only, or they can include batteries for energy storage. When batteries are used,
charge regulators are included. These switch off the PV modules whenever the batteries are
fully charged and may also disconnect the load to prevent the batteries from being discharged
below a specific limit. The batteries must have enough capacity to store the energy produced
during the day so that it can be used at night and during periods of poor weather.
34
2.8.2.2 Grid-connected systems
Grid-connected PV systems have become increasingly popular for building integrated
applications. As illustrated in Figure 2.15, they are connected to the grid via inverters, which
convert the DC power into AC electricity. In small systems, such as those installed in
residential homes, the inverter is connected to the distribution board, from where the PV-
generated power is transferred into the electricity grid (though this is not yet allowed in South
Africa) or to AC appliances in the house. These systems do not require batteries since they
are connected to the grid. The grid supplies the house with electricity in times of insufficient
PV power generation. Large PV fields act as power stations from which all the PV-generated
electricity is directly transported to the electricity grid. Collectively, they can reach peak power
of up to several hundred MW.
To utility
Sunlight
Distribution
Board
Utility
meter PV meter
inverter
To Facility Loads
Figure 2.21 Illustration of a solar on-grid system for sale and self-consumption
2.8.2.3 Hybrid systems

Hybrid systems consist of a combination of PV modules and a complementary method of
electricity generation, such as a diesel, gas or wind generator. A PV-wind hybrid system is
shown in Figure 2.2. To optimise the different methods of electricity generation, hybrid systems
typically require more sophisticated controls than stand-alone or grid-connected PV systems.
For example, in the case of a PV/diesel system, the diesel engine of the backup generator
must be started when the battery reaches a given discharge level and must be stopped again
when the battery reaches an adequate state of charge. The back-up generator can be used
to recharge batteries only or to supply the load as well.
35
Figure 2.22 PV-Wind hybrid system
Activity 2.2
Answer the following questions:
1. What is the difference between off-grid and on-grid PV systems?
2. What is the purpose of grid-tied inverters?
3. What is the function of the charge controller in an off-grid PV system?
4. List the possible examples of other means of back-up power supply in the absence of
a PV system
View the video at the following link before answering the above questions:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f1QSPBTJs5I to
2.7 Conclusion
The vast amount of research that has been carried out over the past decade has led to an
increased interest in implementing PV systems to satisfy energy needs. PV systems are
available on flexible modules and can be mounted on almost every surface to harness solar
energy. In this unit, methods of harnessing renewable energy from the sun for various uses
and converting solar power into electricity have been described. The theory of the solar cell,
its parameters, equivalent circuit and calculations have been presented. Different components
of PV systems and their significant specifications, including off-grid and on-grid PV systems,
have been elaborated upon.
36
37
STUDY UNIT 3: WIND ENERGY
Specific outcome: Explore and describe wind energy conversion systems, determine wind
turbine power and wind speed with respect to height. Analyse the Weibull distribution method
for a description of wind variation.
On completion of this unit, you should be able to

• Describe the fundamentals of wind energy
• Calculate wind power for given wind speed and radius of wind turbine blades
• Identify effects of season and height on wind speed
• Explain the Weibull distribution method for the description of wind variation
3.2 Introduction
Due to growing concerns around emission reduction requirements and sustainability, wind
energy has emerged as a promising alternative energy source. Wind-power-based energy is
one of the most rapidly growing areas among the renewable energy sources for overcoming
the world’s energy crisis.
Wind energy is a form of non-conventional energy. Wind energy or wind power defines how
the wind is used to generate electricity. It is the use of airflow through wind turbines to make
mechanical power available to turn electric generators. Wind energy, as an alternative to fossil
fuel usage, is abundant, renewable, broadly distributed, clean, yields no greenhouse gas
emissions during operation, consumes no water, and uses little land.
For the past ten years, the wind power sector has been growing at a fast rate. As a result, the
global cumulative installed capacity of offshore wind power will increase almost ten-fold by
2030 (to 228 GW) and even more substantially towards 2050, with complete offshore
installation nearing 1 000 GW by 2050.
In South Africa today, wind energy construction is picking up and the Africa Wind Power
Market Outlook 2019 report states that, in the longer term, the country's Integrated Resource
Plan is expected to target more than 10 GW of additional wind power capacity by 2030. This
shows that wind power will be a significant player in future clean energy scenarios. Watch the
following video about a 138 MW wind farm in South Africa:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G2wnoMwgYp8
38
This unit presents the fundamentals of wind power generation, determination of output power
of a wind turbine, the effects of season and weight on wind speed and the use of Weibull
distribution, a statistical method for predicting wind energy output.
3.3 Wind energy conversion

Wind energy can be harnessed to produce power in a variety of forms. The wind can power
mechanical assemblies that grind grain, pump water, generate electricity, and more. The wind
turbine is the primary device in a wind energy conversion system. Wind turbines converts the
kinetic energy of the wind into mechanical energy. The wind turbine is connected to the
electrical generator through a gearbox (see Figure 3.1). The output of the generator is then
connected to the grid through a step-up transformer and appropriate controllers.
Play the following YouTube links for a better understanding of how a wind turbine works:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LNXTm7aHvWc
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cuKpaPbxlvk
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DILJJwsFl3w
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qSWm_nprfqE
Generator
Gearbox
Rotor
blade
D
Mechanical
Electric
Power
Power
Wind Power
Grid
Step up
Transformer
Figure 3.1. Wind turbine schematic
Play the following YouTube video to find out more about what is inside a wind turbine:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LNXTm7aHvWc
39
3.3.1 Power conversion and power coefficient
The power contained in the wind passing an area A with the wind velocity 𝑣1 is given by:
𝜌
𝑃𝑤 = 𝐴𝑣13 (3.1)
2
where
𝜌 - is the specific air which may be assumed to be 1.2 kg/m3 for practical calculations
A – is the circular swept area
The useful mechanical power and corresponding torque obtained are expressed by means of
the power coefficient 𝑐𝑝 and torque coefficient 𝑐𝑇 , respectively, as
𝜌
𝑃 = 𝑐𝑝 2 𝐴𝑣13 (3.2)
𝐷𝜌
𝑃 = 𝑐𝑇 𝐴𝑣12 (3.3)
22
𝑐𝑝 is between 0.4 and 0.5 due to losses (tip loss, profile loss and loss due to wake rotation).
The torque varies with the square of the wind speed, and the power varies with the cube of
wind speed.
The tip-speed ratio (TSR) λ, which is the ratio of the circumferential velocity of the blade tips
and the wind speed, is given by
𝑢 𝐷 2πN
λ= = (3.4)
𝑣1 2 𝑣1
where
D is the outer turbine diameter
Ω is the angular rotor speed
N is the rotational speed in rev/sec
Play the below video to learn more about what a wind turbine TSR is and the need for it to be
optimally designed:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0Lx3tErrlzg
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ejRt-PtQOIk
40
Example 3.1
A wind generator produces 5 kW of power for a wind speed of 6 m/s.
(a) Calculate the power produced for a wind speed of 12 m/s
(b) If the radius of the blades is halved (wind speed is still 12 m/s), calculate the new power
output
Solution:
1
(a) 𝑃 = 2 × 𝐴 × 𝜌 × 𝑉3
1
P = 5 kW, V= 6 m/s substituting these into the equation gives: 5 = 2
× 𝐴 × 𝜌 × (6)3
10
𝐴 × 𝜌 = (6)3 = 0.0463
Since the area and the density are constant, this means 𝐴 × 𝜌 is also constant. We apply it
for the case of a wind speed of 12 m/s. This gives:
1 1
𝑃 = 2 × 𝐴 × 𝜌 × 𝑉 3 ; 𝑃 = 2 × 0.0463 × (12)3 = 40𝑘𝑊
(b) Since the radius of the blade is halved, then power is multiplied by half:
1 1 1 1
𝑃 = 2 (2 × 𝐴 × 𝜌 × 𝑉 3 ) = 4 (𝐴 × 𝜌 × 𝑉 3 ) = 4 × 40 = 10𝑘𝑊
3.3.2 Total power conversion coefficient and effective power output

The mechanical energy captured by wind blades is further converted into electrical energy via
wind generators. In this stage, the converting efficiency is determined by the following:
• Gearbox efficiency 𝜂𝑔𝑒𝑎𝑟

• Generator efficiency 𝜂𝑔𝑒𝑛
• Electric efficiency 𝜂𝑒𝑙𝑒
𝜌
The effective output power of the wind turbine = 𝜂𝑡 𝑃𝑤 = 𝜂𝑡 𝐴𝑣13 (3.5)
2
where
𝜂𝑡 = 𝑐𝑝 𝜂𝑔𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝜂𝑔𝑒𝑛 𝜂𝑒𝑙𝑒 (3.6)
3.3.3 Power Output Variation with wind speed (Cut in/out speed)
41
Wind turbine power curve displays the power as a function of the mean wind speed. As shown
in Figure 3.2, the wind turbine starts to produce usable power at a low wind speed known as
cut-in speed.
As wind speed increases, the speed and output power of the turbine increase continuously
until the rated speed and rated power output are reached. At very high wind speeds that can
potentially damage the wind turbine, the wind turbine shuts down. The wind speed at which
shut-down occurs is called the cut-out speed, or sometimes the furling speed.
Having a cut-out speed is a safety feature that protects the wind turbine from damage.
Play the following YouTube video and see how a wind turbine shuts down in a storm:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W2MsUeV-KFs
Shut-down can be achieved in a wind turbine in a number of ways:
• Use of an automatic brake which is activated by a wind speed sensor

• Some machines use furling to twist or “pitch” the blades to spill the wind.
• Still others use “spoilers” – drag flaps mounted on the blades or the hub which are
automatically activated by high rotor revolutions, or mechanically activated by a spring-
loaded device which turns the machine sideways to the wind stream
Rated Power
Power output (kW)
Wind speed (m/s)
Cut-in speed Rated speed Cut-out speed
Figure 3.2. Typical wind turbine power output with steady wind speed
42
4.4 Wind Regime and Utilisation
3.4.1 Wind Speed Distribution

When implementing a wind energy project at any place, realistic expertise is needed to predict
the wind speed distribution and its average at the place concerned. Wind speed varies with
the height above ground and is influenced by the surface roughness. Obstacles, in the form
of topographic features, buildings and vegetation, usually limit the wind near the ground
surface. Since the effect of these obstacles decreases with height above ground, wind speeds
tend to increase with height above the ground. Figure 3.3 shows the wind speed-height
relationship. In the figure, wind speed over a grassy area and a forest are compared. You can
observe that a forest virtually eliminates ground-level winds; hence, the effective ground level
shifts upward. It should be pointed out here that the wind speed increases more rapidly with
height over a forest than over a grassy area. This variation of wind speed with height is called
wind shear.
View the YouTube video at the link below to understand more about the wind speed-height
relationship:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HOcp7TCvWYQ
Wind profile
Wind profile
over open field
altered by trees
Wind increases
rapidly with Effective
height ground surface
Little or no wind
Figure 3.3 Wind Speed vs Height
Wind energy engineers typically model wind shear using one of two mathematical models, the
logarithmic profile or the power-law profile. If stable conditions are assumed, the dependence
of velocity v on height z may be described by a logarithmic profile. The wind speed v 2 at z2 is
calculated from a reference speed v 1 at z1 by:
43
𝑍
𝑣(𝑍ℎ𝑢𝑏 ) ln( ℎ𝑢𝑏⁄𝑍 )
𝑜
= 𝑍 (3.7)
𝑣(𝑍𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑚 ) 𝑙𝑛( 𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑚⁄𝑍 )
𝑜
Logarithmic profile
𝑍
𝑣2 ln( 2⁄𝑍 )
𝑜
𝑣1
= 𝑍 (3.8)
𝑙𝑛( 1⁄𝑍 )
𝑜
Power law profile
𝑣2 𝑍 ∞
𝑣1
= (𝑍2 ) (3.9)
1
where z0 is the roughness length (m) and ∞ is the power law exponent
Conventional parameters of z0 are 0.03 m for farmland, 0.1 m for heath scattered shrubs and
trees, 0.5 to 1.6 m for forest.
Example 3.2
Suppose a wind speed of 5.57 m/s is obtained at an elevation of 30 m. A wind analyst

evaluates the data and presumes that, if the turbine height is increased, the site may be
commercially viable for wind turbine placement. The analyst believes that an average wind
speed of 7.5 m/s will make the site commercially viable. At what height will this wind speed be
obtained if the power law exponent for the site is 0.2?
Solution:
Rearranging the power-law profile equation gives:
1 1
𝑣 ∞ 7.5 0.2
𝑍2 = 𝑍1 × ( 2) = 30 × ( ) = 134.4𝑚
𝑣1 5.57
3.4.2 Wind Speed Variations

When assessing the feasibility of a potential wind farm site, data on the variation of wind speed
over an area are required. Since wind speed varies randomly, measured wind speed data are
commonly available in time-series format. Knowledge of the statistical properties of the wind
speed is essential for predicting the energy output of a wind energy conversion system. Speed
variation in a typical site over a period can be represented by different probability distribution
functions (PDF).
44
Wind power that will be generated by wind turbine is highly correlated with the wind speed
distribution for any typical location of wind farm. Description of the variation of wind speed for
a typical location is very important for the following reasons:
• Prediction of wind energy
• Design optimisation of turbine to minimise costs
• Application in wind load studies
• Estimated expected income for turbine investors
Selection of appropriate probability distribution functions (PDF) to describe the actual wind
speed distribution of the site is crucial for accuracy in power prediction
The description of wind variation for a typical site is usually done using the so-called Weibull
distribution. It is a two-parameter function, which is characterised by probability density
function 𝑓 (𝑣) and cumulative Distribution Function 𝐹 (𝑣) expressed mathematically as:
𝑣 𝑘
𝑘 𝑣 𝑘−1
𝑓 (𝑣) = ( 𝑐 ) ( 𝑐 ) 𝑒 −(𝑐 ) (3.10)
and
𝑣 𝑘
∝
𝐹 (𝑣) = ∫0 𝑓(𝑣) 𝑑𝑣 = 1 − 𝑒 −(𝑐 ) (3.11)
where
𝑣 is the wind speed
𝑘 is the Weibull shape (form) parameter. It specifies the shape of distribution and its value is
between 1 and 3. A small value of k shows very variable winds and larger value of k signifies
constant winds.
𝑐 is the scale parameter in m/s and a measure for the characteristic wind speed of the
distribution. It is proportional to the mean wind speed.
Visit the link shown below to learn more about online tools that can be used to approximate a
wind speed distribution with a Weibull function.
https://wind-data.ch/tools/index.php
Though Weibull is the most commonly used and accepted probability distribution function
(PDF), other PDFs are Rayleigh, lognormal, beta, and gamma distributions.
45
Activity 3.1
1. A 400 kW, three-blade wind turbine is designed to deliver power at a wind speed of
15 m/s. The blades have a depth of 14 m, and the rated speed of the turbine is 48 rpm.
The air density is 1.226 kg/m3. Calculate (a) area swept out by the turbine (b) wind
power available to drive the turbine (c) capacity factor of the turbine (d) the tip speed
ratio.
Answer (a) 615.75 m2 (b) 1 274 kW (c) 0.314 (d) 4.689
2. A three-blade wind turbine has a speed of 140 rpm for a rated speed of 8 m/s,
coefficient of power= 0.43, mechanical efficiency of 90% and electrical efficiency of
82%. Estimate the electrical output of a turbine having a blade length of 12 m. Take
𝜌 = 1.226𝑘𝑔/𝑚 3.
Answer: 50552.67 W
3. With the aid of a well-drawn diagram, illustrate the conversion process of wind to
energy.
Answer: https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/wind-energy-conversion-system
4. Suppose a wind speed of 6.5 m/s is obtained at an elevation of 25 m. A wind analyst

evaluates the data and presumes that, if the turbine height is increased, the site may
be commercially viable for wind turbine placement. The analyst believes that an
average wind speed of 8 m/s will make the site commercially viable. At what height will
this wind speed be obtained if the power law exponent for the site is 0.2?
5. List wind energy farms in South Africa.
6. Use a flow chart to explain a wind power project’s phase.
7. What is the difference between Weibull and Rayleigh as probability distribution
functions (PDF) for wind speed description.
3.5 Conclusion
Wind power has come to be a significant alternative source of energy generation around the
world. It is abundant, renewable, broadly distributed, clean, yields no greenhouse gas
emissions during operation, consumes no water, and uses little land.
In this unit, wind energy fundamentals, determination of output power of wind turbine, the
effects of season and weight on wind speed, wind regime, and a statistical method for
predicting wind energy output has been presented.
46
STUDY UNIT 4: Biomass Energy
Specific outcome: Describe sources, origin and technology of biomass, and biogas
digesters, and evaluate biomass availability
• Describe sources of biomass and origin
• Explain the advantages and disadvantages of biomass
• Describe biomass technologies and applications
• Classify Biogas digester and size
• Evaluate biomass availability and plant size
4.2 Introduction
Biomass is one of the most sustainable renewable energy sources and is derived from various
humane and natural waste products. It is generated virtually everywhere. Biomass is non-
fossil biological materials which are direct or indirect products of photosynthesis. It is any
organic materials that have stored sunlight in the form of chemical energy, such as plants,
crops, residues, municipal wastes and so on. Biomass may be one of the oldest sources of
energy after the sun because, for many years, people have burned wood to heat their homes
and cook their foods. It is a renewable energy source because its supplies are not restricted.
We can always grow trees and crops, and waste will continue to exist for as long as living
things exist. Thus, biomass has been identified as promising alternative energy; it is eco-
friendly, natural, can be produced locally and will always be available. Though there are plenty
of advantages of biomass, there are however also some shortcomings which can find out
about at the following link:
https://www.syntechbioenergy.com/blog/biomass-advantages-disadvantages.
Bio-energy obtained from biomass is environmentally friendly because the biomass cycle
maintains the environmental balance of oxygen, carbon dioxide, rain and so on.
This unit covers the sources, origin and technology of biomass. Descriptions of the
technologies involved in extracting energy from biomass and the techniques for evaluation of
biomass availability and plant sizing are also presented.
47
4.3 CLASSIFICATION OF BIOMASS AND CONVERSION OF BIOMASS TO ENERGY
Biomass can be broadly classified into four categories, as shown in Figure 4.4. Figure 4.5
shows the principal biomass energy resources and their division into two categories. Examples
of the names of the biomass sources are listed alongside each category.
Wood, agricultural products and solid

wastes are solid biomass which can be
burned directly to produce heat.
Figure 4.1. Burning wood

Biogas – Biomass converted into gas and
that can then be burned for energy.
Biogas forms when yard waste, food scraps,
paper and the like decompose in landfills.
Biogas can be produced by processing
animal manure and sewage in special
vessels called digesters. Figure 4.2. Biogas container
Biofuels – Biomass converted into liquid

biofuels such as ethanol (made from crops
such as corn and sugar cane that are
fermented) and biodiesel (produced from
vegetable oils and animal fats) which can
then be burned for energy.
Figure 4.3. Biofuel
48
Broad classification of Biomass
Wood and agricultural
products
Solid waste
Alcohol fuels (such as

Ethanol or Biodiesel)
Landfill gas and biogas
Figure 4.4 Broad classification of biomass
Trees (wood chips, sawdust)

Resource Category
Cultivated Energy Aquatic crops, algae, green plants
Resource Agricultural plants
Fruit farms
Rice & wheat husk
Sugar cane bagasse
Waste biomass Coconut husk, groundnut shell

resources from farms
Furniture industry waste
and bio industry
Waste from poultry, fish and
food industries, etc.
Carbohydrates, glucose, fructose
etc.
Figure 4.5 Principle biomass energy resources
49
4.3.1 Applications of Biomass
Biomass systems range from small stoves used in homes for heating or cooking to large power
plants used by centralised utilities to produce electricity. In residential applications, biomass
can be used for space heating or for cooking. Wood is the most common source of fuel,
although many different materials are used. New designs for wood stoves can improve the
efficiency of the cooking or heating system, decreasing the amount of fuel that is needed.
Industry and businesses use biomass for several purposes, including space heating, water
heating, and electricity generation. Many industrial facilities, such as lumber mills, produce
organic waste naturally.
Read more about the application of biomass through this link:

https://www.eusustel.be/public/documents_publ/WP/WP3/Biomass%20Applications%20Rep
ort%20Final%20ICEPT.pdf
4.3.2 Biomass properties

It is essential to know the inherent properties of the biomass being dealt with as this
determines the choice of conversion process. Moreover, the choice of biomass source is
influenced by the form in which the energy is required. The main material properties to be
considered during processing are shown in Figure 3.
50
• Intrinsic moisture: the moisture content of the material without the
Moisture influence of weather effects
content • Extrinsic moisture: the influence of prevailing weather conditions during
harvesting on the overall biomass moisture content.
Calorific Value • Heat Value or energy content released when burnt in air
(CV) • Unit: MJ/kg for solids, MJ/l for liquids, or MJ/Nm3 for gases
• Content like Na, K, Mg, P and Ca

Alkali metal • The reaction of alkali metals with silica present in the ash produces a
content sticky, mobile liquid phase, which can lead to blockages of airways in the
furnace and boiler plant.
Proportions of • Solid fuels, e.g coal, consists of chemical energy stored in two forms ––
fixed carbon fixed carbon and volatiles
(FC) & Volatiles • VM & FC provide a measure of the ease with which the biomass can be
Matter (VM) ignited and subsequently gasified or oxidised
Cellulose/lignin • The ratio of cellulose and lignin is a determining factor when selecting
ratio biomass plant species for biochemical processing
Ash/residue • The ash content of biomass affects both the handling and processing
content costs of the overall biomass energy conversion
Figure 4.6 Biomass properties
51
4.3.3 Biomass Conversion Technologies
The chemical energy stored in biomass can be used for power production after passing
through the various processing stages. The various stages depend on the optimum
technological and economical choice of the physical and chemical characteristics of the
selected production cycles. Figure 4 shows the conversion technologies of biomass. Wet
biomass is commonly treated biochemically, whereas dry biomass is processed
thermochemically.
Combustion
Gasification
Thermochemical
conversion
Pyrolysis
Conversion
Liquefaction
Technologies
Fermentation
Biochemical
Conversion
Anaerobic digestion
Figure 4.7 Conversion technologies of biomass
52
Watch the following videos on biomass conversion technologies:
• Biomass combustion • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XO8Ha6B0vZI

process
• Conversion of biomass • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kI7s6IRpOHA
to biofuels through
gasification
• Conversion of biomass • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IvZFfx7XhQE
to biofuels via pyrolysis
• Process of liquefaction • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HzSdt-pGNkg
• Process of • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ctNrVfXzw9o
fermentation
• Anaerobic digestion: • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AOIsYS-_czw
from waste to energy
Activity 4.1
Briefly explain the following conversion processes of biomass: combustion, gasification,
pyrolysis, liquefaction, fermentation and anaerobic digestion.
4.6 Biogas Digesters

4.6.1 Classification of Biogas Digesters
Biogas can be produced by processing animal manure and sewage in specialised vessels
called digesters.
Some industrial digesters are designed for municipal wastewater, industrial wastewater,
municipal solid waste, and agricultural waste. Some small-scale vessels are used for digesting
animal waste or food waste. The resulting biogas can be used in several ways, including gas,
electricity, heat, and transportation fuels.
Biogas digester is classified into two basic designs which are:
• Floating gas holder
• Fixed dome digester.
They are named based on the design of its digester.
Read the following link to know more about digesters
https://energypedia.info/wiki/Types_of_Biogas_Digesters_and_Plants
53
4.6.2 Digester Sizing
The energy available from a biogas digester is given by
𝐸 = 𝜂𝐻𝑏 𝑉𝑏 (4.1)
where 𝜂 is the combustion efficiency of burner or boiler using biogas (about 60%). 𝐻𝑏 is the
heat of combustion per unit volume biogas (20 MJ/m3 at 10 cm water gauge pressure, 0.01
atmosphere) and 𝑉𝑏 is the volume of biogas (m 3).
It is necessary to state that some of the heat of combustion of methane is used to heat the
𝐶𝑂2 of biogas and not available for other applications.
Thus, Equation 4.1 can be also be expressed in terms of a fraction 𝑓𝑚 of methane is biogas
(~0.7) as
𝐸 = 𝜂𝐻𝑚 𝑓𝑚 𝑉𝑏 (4.2)
where 𝐻𝑚 is the heat of combustion of methane (56 MJ/kg, 28 MJ/m 3 at STP)

The volume of biogas is given by
𝑉𝑏 = 𝑐𝑚0 (4.3)
where c= biogas yield per unit dry mass of whole input (0.2 to 0.4 m3/kg) and 𝑚0 is the mass
of dry input ( e.g. 2kg per day per cow).
The volume of fluid per day in the digester is given by
𝑚
𝑉𝑓̇ = 0⁄𝜌𝑚 (4.4)
Where 𝜌𝑚 is the density of the dry matter in the fluid ( ~50 kg/m3)
The volume of the digester is given by
𝑉𝑑 = 𝑉𝑓̇ 𝑡𝑟 (4.5)
where 𝑉𝑓̇ is the flow rate of the digester fluid and 𝑡𝑟 is the retention period in the digester for
anaerobic fermentation. The value of 𝑡𝑟 ranges approximately from 10 to 50 days.
Example 4.2
Calculate the volume parameters of a biogas digester system
Given: number of cows = 9, retention period = 20 days, temperature for fermentation = 30 0 C,
dry matter consumed per cow per day = 2 kg, burner efficiency = 0.7 and methane proportion
= 0.7
Solution:
54
The total mass of dry input ( 𝑚0 ) = 2x8 = 16kg/day
𝑚
𝑉𝑓̇ = 0⁄𝜌𝑚 = 16⁄50 = 0.32 𝑚 3 𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑉𝑑 = 𝑉𝑓̇ 𝑡𝑟 = 0.32 × 20 = 6.4𝑚 3

𝑉𝑏 = 𝑐𝑚0 = 0.2 × 16 = 3.2 𝑚 3 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑦
Table 4.1: Details of the Biomass Availability
4.7 Determination of Biomass Availability and Plant Size

Description Amount
Annual production of primary product (tons) 55 000 tons per year of sugarcane
Ratio of residual biomass to main product (%) 40%
Accessibility coefficient (%) 90%
Harvest coefficient (%) 100%
Unused fraction (%) 75%
Biomass availability for energy production (tons) 14 850 tons of sugarcane residues
Determination of biomass availability and plant size calculations are expressed in this section.
Annual Ratio of Biomass

production residual Accessibility Harvest Unused available
of primary X biomass to X coefficient coefficient X fraction for energy
X =
product main (%) (%) (%) production
(ton) product (%) (ton)
Figure 4.8: Methodology for calculation of biomass availability (Source: COWL)
Example 4.3
From the following details of biomass shown in table 4.1, determine the availability of biomass
for energy production.
The availability of biomass calculation is expressed with the details shown in Table 4.1
i.e. 55,000 X 0.4 X 0.9 X 1 X 0.75 =14,850 tons of sugarcane residues
55
Several factors determine the optimal plant size and these are listed as:
• Demand for electricity, process steam, or heat
• Amount of biomass residue available
• Site conditions (available space)
• Grid connection possibilities
• Regulatory restrictions
• Economics, including investment requirements, O&M costs, and price of energy sold
When the amount of biomass residue from a specific agricultural or forestry-based industry is
the determining factor, the approximate plant size, expressed as electrical output for a steam-
based power plant in full condensing mode, can be calculated from the equation:
0.278×𝑀×𝐻𝑢 ×𝜂
𝑃= 𝑇0
(4.6)
where P = Plant size (MWe)

M= Mass Flow (as received) (tons/year)
Hu= Net heating value (as received) (MJ/kg)
To= Yearly operation time (hours)
𝜂 = Efficiency of the plant
Example based on an optimised medium-sized straw-fired plant with the following details:
M= 55,000 ton/year
Hu=14 MJ/kg
TO= 6,000 h/year equivalent full load hours
𝜂 =38%
0.278×55,000×14×0.38
By applying Equation (4.6) 𝑃 = 6,000
= 13.56𝑀𝑊𝑒
56
Activity 4.2
1. Write down FOUR advantages and FOUR disadvantages of biomass.
2. Visit https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o9hqedPdwdo to answer the following
questions:
A. Discuss the energy transformation processes in Biomass
B. At what rate can biomass be produced by photosynthesis on the surface of the
earth?
C. What is the modern source of ethanol?
3. Visit https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_TmOJaok9mk to answer the following
questions:
A. Discuss the procedure of generating electricity from biomass
B. What is the net amount of CO2 released to the atmosphere from the combustion
of biomass?
C. Using details in Example 2, calculate the power available from the biogas digester
system.
a. Hint: Equation (4.5) may be useful (Answer = 43.90 MJ per day = 510 W)
4.7 Conclusion
Globally, energy demand is continuously increasing and the conventional energy sources are
no longer sustainable. One of the most available alternative and renewable energy resources
is biomass. Biomass sources are inexhaustible and are readily available. Its application is
enormous. Apart from electricity generation, biomass can be converted into liquid fuels for
transportation and it can be used to make chemical products that are usually produced from
petroleum products. Biomass also has the potential to significantly reduce greenhouse gas
emissions that are a threat to society. This unit covers biomass fundamentals, sources, origin
and energy extraction technology and, lastly, techniques for the evaluation of biomass
availability and digester plant sizing.
57
STUDY UNIT 5: HYDROELECTRIC
Specific learning outcome: Explore and describe hydroelectric energy technologies and
calculate hydroelectric power and efficiency.
• Describe the fundamentals of hydroelectric energy
• Discuss hydroelectric energy potential in South Africa and the world
• Identify types of hydroelectric generation plants
• Describe the construction and layout of hydroelectric plants
• Perform necessary calculations in respect of electrical power and the efficiency of
hydroelectric power plants
5.2 Introduction
Hydropower plants are a clean source of energy, converting the potential energy of water into
electricity. Hydro technology is mature, reliable for long term energy generation and continues
to play a significant role in the expansion of electrical service in the world today. Hydroelectric
power plants generate from just a few kW to thousands of MW. However, large scale
hydropower generation is affected by a lack of potential sites, capital cost and long
development times.
Hydroelectric energy, or hydropower, has a well-established role in the energy sector and
sustenance for additional development of this resource is vital, particularly in developing
countries. Hydroelectric energy is the only renewable energy source that has the potential to
increase access to electricity to large populations. However, it remains under-tapped in many
countries, mainly in Africa, where less than 10% of hydroelectric prospects have been tapped.
This unit covers the fundamentals of hydroelectric energy and the components of a
hydroelectric power station and it discusses hydroelectric energy potential in South Africa and
the world. The types and classifications, construction, layout and electrical power and
efficiency of hydroelectric generation plants are described.
58
5.3 Fundamentals of hydroelectric energy
In nature, a flowing stream of water
dissipates energy all through the
length of the watercourse and is of
little use for power generation. In a
hydroelectric power plant, however,
the flowing water is conveyed
through a head to turbines, which
transforms the energy of the water
into mechanical energy which, in
turn, is further converted into
electrical energy by generators.
Because of the presence of a dam
and a reservoir, the hydroelectric
Figure 5.1 Hydroelectric power station
plant is flexible, and the quantity of
power generated by the station can
be varied up or down very rapidly (in
as little as a few seconds) to adapt
to changing energy demands.
Advantages of a hydroelectric power Disadvantages of a hydroelectric power

plant plant
• No fuel is required as potential • Very high capital cost due to the

energy is stored in water which is construction of a dam
used for electricity generation • The high cost of transmission – as
• A neat and clean source of energy hydro plants are located in hilly
• Minimal running costs as water is areas which are generally far away
available free from the consumers
• Comparatively less maintenance is
required, and the plant has a longer
life
• Serves other purposes too, such as
irrigation
59
Components of a hydroelectric power station
The following are the major components of a hydroelectric power station (Figure 5.2):
Figure 5.2: hydroelectric dam (Source: Wikimedia Creative Commons)
a) Dam or run of a river:

The dam is a large impoundment of
water. The dam is formed by building a
barrier in the path of flowing water.
Consequently, the water level rises to
produce a sufficient pressure head.
Play the following video on hydropower
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q8HmRLCg
DAI
Figure 5.3 Dam
b) Penstock:
The penstock is a large diameter pipe
that is connected to the large reservoir.
60
Its function is to transport water to the
hydraulic turbine. When the water hits
the hydraulic turbine blades, rotational
motion is induced in the turbine shaft.
Figure 5.4 Penstock pipe
c) Hydraulic Turbine:
A water turbine is a rotary machine that
converts kinetic energy and the potential
energy of water into mechanical
movement of a shaft that is connected to
an electric generator.
Figure 5.6 Turbine blade
d) An Electric Generator:
A device that converts the movement of
the shaft into electric power.
Figure 5.5 Generator

Play the following video on hydroelectric power plant
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZeGDjcdETRo
For further information on the fundamentals of hydroelectricity, follow the following links:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JBrdUoU2uTE
https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-school/science/hydroelectric-power-how-it-
works?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects
61
5.4 Hydroelectric energy potential in the world
Hydroelectric is the leading renewable source for electricity generation globally, supplying
71% of all renewable electricity. Reaching 1,064 GW of installed capacity in 2016, it generated
16.4% of the world's electricity from all sources. The countries that have the most installed
hydroelectric generating capacity in the region include Ethiopia (2 552 MW), Democratic
Republic of the Congo (2 495 MW), Zambia (2 272 MW), South Africa (2 251 MW, pumped
storage 1 580 MW), Sudan (2 250 MW), Mozambique (2 187 MW), Nigeria (2 040 MW) and
Ghana (1 584 MW). Hydroelectricity generation in 2015 totalled 13.93 TWh in Zambia, 12 TWh
in Mozambique, 9 TWh in Ethiopia, 8.67 TWh in Ghana, 6.31 TWh in Sudan, 5.90 TWh in
Nigeria, 5.50 TWh in Zimbabwe and 4.41 TWh in Cameroon. Details of Hydroelectric energy
potential in the world can be obtained from:
https://www.worldenergy.org/data/resources/resource/hydropower/
https://www.worldenergy.org/data/resources/region/africa/hydropower/
Middle East & North Africa 20,6

Africa 25,3
South East Asia and Pacific 57,9
South & Central Asia 72,3
Latin America & Caribbean 159
North America 193
Europe 293
East Asia 381
Asia 511
Hydropower installed capacity by region (GW)
Figure 5.7. Hydropower installed capacity by region (GW) (Data Source:

https://www.worldenergy.org/data/resources/resource/hydropower/)
62
1%
4% 2%
Asia
4% East Asia
9% 30% Europe
North America
11% Latin America & Caribbean
South & Central Asia
South East Asia and Pacific
17% 22% Africa
Middle East & North Africa
Figure 5.8 Hydropower percentage contribution by region (Data Source:

https://www.worldenergy.org/data/resources/resource/hydropower/)
5.5 Types and classification of hydroelectric generation

plants
5.5.1 Types of hydroelectric plant
Types of hydroelectric generation plants include:
a. Run-of-river schemes
These are hydropower plants that utilise the stream flow as it comes, without any storage
being provided. Generally, these plants would be feasible only on streams that have a
minimum dry weather flow of such a magnitude that it would be possible to generate electricity
throughout the year. Since the flow would vary throughout the year, they would run during the
monsoon flows and would otherwise remain shut during low flows.
b. Storage schemes
Hydropower plants with storage are supplied with water from large storage reservoirs
developed by constructing dams across rivers. Generally, the excess flow of the river during
monsoon time would be stored in the reservoir to be released gradually during periods of lean
flow. Naturally, the assured flow for hydropower generation is more certain for storage
schemes than it is for run-of-river schemes.
c. Pumped-Storage schemes
63
Hydropower schemes of the pumped-storage type are those which utilise the flow of water
from a reservoir at higher potential to one at lower potential. The upper reservoir (also called
the head-water pond) and the lower reservoir (called the tail-water pond) may both be
constructed by providing a suitable structure across a river. During times of peak load, water
is drawn from the head-water pond to run the reversible turbine pump units in the turbine
mode. The water released gets collected in the tail-water pond. During off-peak hours, the
reversible units are supplied with the excess electricity available in the power grid which then
pumps part of the water of the tail-water pond back into the head-water reservoir
d. Tidal power development schemes
These are hydropower plants that utilise the rise in water level of the sea due to a tide. During
high tide, the water from the seaside starts rising, and the turbines start generating power as
the water flows into the bay. As the sea water starts falling during low tide, the water from the
basin flows back to the sea and can also be used to generate power, provided another set of
turbines is installed in the opposite direction. Turbines which generate electricity for either
direction of flow may be installed to take advantage of the flows in both directions.
5.5.2 Classification of hydropower plant

Hydropower plant can be classified according to installed capacity as shown in the table 5.1
Table 5.1 Classification of hydropower plant

Large hydro plant All installations with an installed capacity of more than 1 MW
Small hydro plant All installations in the range between 0.5 MW to 1 MW
Mini hydro plant Capacity between 100 kW and 500 kW
Micro-hydro plant Hydropower installations with a power output less than 100 kW
5.3 Description of construction and layout of hydroelectric plants
The following links provide details of the construction and layout of a typical hydroelectric plant:
https://www.electricaleasy.com/2015/09/hydroelectric-power-plant-layout.html
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Uoxn_bN11bY
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j3J196bLP5E
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8YoTWbWosio
64
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4dfy0iQ3j5I
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m7ImT4CdcPo
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_PH0IJ-_qOI
http://braemartechnical.com/files/Lecture-69_Hydroelectric-Powerplants-Construction-
Operations-Failures-12-April-12-Hans-Olav-Nyland-Norconsult.pdf
5.4 Estimation of electrical power and efficiency of hydroelectric

power plant
The electrical power delivered by a hydroelectric plant is given as:

𝑃 = 𝑤𝑄𝐻𝑔𝜂 (𝑊) (5.1)
where 𝑤 is the specific weight of water in kg/m 3, Q is the rate of flow of water in m3/s, 𝐻 is the
height of fall or Head in meters, g = 9.81, and 𝜂 is the overall efficiency of operation. For more
details on this, visit these links:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FkgVQ8_eYgc&t=9s
https://www.academia.edu/5738254/Lecture_9_Hydroelectric_Power_Plants
Practice the examples in the video at the following YouTube link for power and energy
calculation of hydroelectric plant: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FkgVQ8_eYgc
Worked Examples
1. If the effective head of a hydroelectric power plant 65 m and the water flow rate
800 m3/s, calculate the power developed.
Solution: discharge, Q = 80 m 3/s, Head, H= 65 m., density of water 𝑤 = 1000𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

Power developed, 𝑃 = 𝑤𝑄𝐻
= 1000 × 800 × 65 × 9.81 = 510 𝑀𝑊
2. A hydroelectric power station is supplied from a reservoir of capacity 3 × 107 𝑚 3 at a

head of 150 m. Determine the total energy available in kWh if the overall efficiency of the
plant is 70%.
65
Solution: Water head, H = 150 m
Quantity of water, Q = 3 × 107 𝑚 3
The density of water, w = 1000 kg/𝑚 3
Overall efficiency of the plant, 𝜂 = 70%= 0.7
Electrical energy available = 𝑃 = 𝑤𝑄𝐻𝜂 × 9.81 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑠
= 1000× 3 × 107 × 150 × 9.81 × 0.7 = 3.090.15 × 1010 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠
3.090.15×1010
= (3,600×1000)
𝑘𝑊ℎ = 8.58375 × 1010 𝑘𝑊ℎ
3. A hydroelectric power station has a mean head of 30 m and receives inflows from a
catchment area of 300 km2, having an average rainfall of 200 cm per annum. The rainfall
occurs during the spring period of 90 days in a year. The storage capacity of the station is
limited to half the total inflows. If 70% of rainfall reaches the reservoir, determine the minimum
capacity of the station. Assume that no head is lost in the pipes, and the efficiencies of the
turbine and generator are 85% and 95%, respectively, determine the total energy produced.
Solution: 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑚 = 𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 × 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙
200
= 300 × 106 ×= 600 × 106 𝑚 3
100
1
𝑆𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑟 = × 600 × 106 = 300 × 106 𝑚 3
2
The total quantity of water available (300 × 106 𝑚 3 ) is being used during the lean period of
(365 − 90) 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠, i.e., 275 days.
Water available for generation per second,

300 × 106 × 0.7
𝑄= = 8.838 𝑚 3
275 × 24 × 60 × 60
Available head, H = 30 m
The capacity of the plant, 𝑃 = 𝑤𝑄𝐻 × 9.81 × 𝜂𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 × 𝜂𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 × 10−3 𝑘𝑊
= 1000 × 8.838 × 30 × 9.81 × 0.85 × 0.95 × 10−3 = 2100𝑘𝑊
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑚 = 2100 × 8760 = 18.396 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑘𝑊ℎ
Activity 5.1
1. From Table 5.2 (one-year data for a hydroelectric power plant in example 1), answer
the following questions:
66
a. Draw the hydrograph (Hint: Plot the monthly discharge on the y-axis and the
months on the x-axis)
b. Determine the average inflow and the power that can be developed at the effective
head.
c. Determine the capacity of the storage reservoir based on the one-year data,
neglecting the losses due to seepage, evaporation etc. Assume overall generation
efficiency to be 70%.
Table 5.2: Discharge data
Month Discharge (m3/s)
January 200
February 400
March 600
April 2400
May 1200
June 1800
July 1600
August 1200
September 2000
October 1200
November 800
December 400
(Hint: To draw the hydrograph, plot the monthly discharge on the y-axis and the months on
the x-axis)
2. If you are required to design a hydroelectric power plant given the specifications listed
below, estimate the capacity of the station and suggest suitable machines.
67
Catchment area: 600 km2
Rainfall: 125 cm/annum, and 75% of the total rainfall is available, rest is lost to
evaporation
Available head: 40 m
Penstock efficiency: 95%
Turbine efficiency: 85%
Generator efficiency: 95%
Load factor: 40%
3. (a) Discuss the merits and demerits of hydroelectricity

(b) Discuss the various factors that affect the location of a hydroelectric station
(c) Give a general layout of a hydroelectric power plant and explain the functions of
different components in storage reservoir plants.
(d) Clearly explain the principle of a hydroelectric plant.
4. Write short notes on the following:
(a) site selection for a hydroelectric plant
(b) pumped hydro storage
(c) Run-of-river schemes
(d) Tidal power
(e) Storage schemes
5.6 Conclusion
Hydroelectric power is generated through the conversion of the kinetic energy of water into
electricity using a hydro turbine generator. There are various techniques of using the kinetic
energy of water to power a hydro turbine generator, but they all function using the same
fundamental laws of physics. This unit covered hydroelectric energy fundamentals and
described the essential components of a hydroelectric power station. Classification,
construction, layout and calculations were presented.
Further studies
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4LGxEhBmIKw&t=2544s
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i9yCpuiMze0
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JBrdUoU2uTE
68
69
STUDY UNIT 6: GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
Specific learning outcome: Identify, classify and describe geothermal energy
sources/resources and analyse geothermal heat pumps and the Carnot engine.
• Explain various forms of geothermal energy sources and their origin
• Describe applications of geothermal energy
• Explore renewability and classification of geothermal energy resources.
• Perform calculation of heat energy content
• Describe the Carnot engine and its efficiency
6.2 Introduction
Geothermal energy is a clean, renewable
resource that can generate a large amount
of energy. Heat is a form of energy and
geothermal energy is the heat energy
contained in the earth’s interior.
It produces geological phenomena on a
planetary scale. Often, geothermal energy
illustrates part of the Earth’s heat that could Figure 6.1 Geothermal power plant
be recovered and exploited by man.
The source of this heat is linked with the

internal structure of our planet and the
physical processes occurring in it.
Volcanoes, geysers, hot springs, and
boiling mud pots are the visible evidence of
the vast reservoirs of heat that lie within and
beneath the earth's crust. Even though this
heat is present in vast and practically Figure 6.2 Geothermal Energy
inexhaustible quantities in the earth’s crust,

Billions of years before the evolution of life
it is unevenly distributed, seldom
began on earth, the earth was a ball of fire.
concentrated and often at depths too great
Then, gradually, its outer surface cooled off,
to be exploited industrially. Thus, useful
enough to allow life to begin. Nevertheless,
70
geothermal energy is limited to specific in the earth’s interior, this infinite quantity of
sites. materials is yet to be fully explored.
This unit covers the concept, types, process and necessary calculations of geothermal energy.
Also presented is the basic design of geothermal heat pumps and the efficiency of the Carnot
engine.
6.3 Terms, Types and Processes of geothermal energy

6.3.1 Definition of some Terms used in Geothermal Energy
Read the following links to learn the definition of terms used in the concept of geothermal
energy:
• Geothermal energy
https://www.renewableenergyworld.com/geothermal-energy/tech.html
• Geothermal heat pumps
https://www.energy.gov/eere/geothermal/geothermal-heat-pumps
• Geothermal power plant
https://energyeducation.ca/encyclopedia/Geothermal_power_plants
• Geothermal reservoir
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/geothermal-reservoir
• Direct geothermal energy
https://www.wbdg.org/resources/geothermal-energy-direct-use
• Magma
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magma
• Radioactive decay
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioactive_decay
• Geothermal gradient
https://energyeducation.ca/encyclopedia/Geothermal_gradient
• Mantle
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mantle_(geology)
• Geyser:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geyser
6.3.2 Advantages and disadvantages of Geothermal Energy
Read the advantages of geothermal energy at this link
https://www.tutorialspoint.com/renewable_energy/geothermal_energy_introduction.htm
71
On the other hand, its major disadvantage is the release of hydrogen sulphide, identified by
the signature rotten egg smell.
6.3.4 Renewability of Geothermal Energy

Geothermal energy has been classified as a renewable energy source. On the other hand, it
is sometimes stated that this is not so. Read details of renewability of geothermal energy from
this link.
https://www.geothermal-energy.org/pdf/IGAstandard/WGC/2000/R0776.PDF
6.3.5 Types of Geothermal Energy Sources

Geothermal power plants utilise hydrothermal resources that have both water (hydro) and heat
(thermal). They require high temperatures, ranging between 1490 C and 3710 C, from
hydrothermal resources emanating from either dry steam wells or hot water wells.
Read more at this link
https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/index.php?page=geothermal_power_plants
6.3.6 Process of Geothermal Energy Extraction and basic Geothermal Energy

Calculations
The extraction and utilisation of these large quantities of heat require a carrier to transfer the
heat towards the accessible depths beneath the earth’s surface. Generally, the heat is
transferred from depth to sub-surface regions firstly by conducting and then by convention,
with geothermal fluids acting as a carrier. These fluids are mostly rainwater that penetrates
the earth’s crust from the recharge areas and is heated through encountering hot rocks. The
heated rainwater is then accumulated in the aquifers (water-bearing stratum of permeable
sand, rock or gravels), occasionally at high pressures and temperatures (at times exceeding
300° C). These aquifers (reservoirs) are the essential parts of most geothermal fields. In most
cases, a reservoir will be covered with impermeable rocks that prevent the hot fluid from easily
reaching the surface and the heated water is thus stored under pressure.
Follow the link below for more information on geothermal energy extraction:
https://www.tutorialspoint.com/renewable_energy/geothermal_energy_extraction.htm
Study the video at the link below to discover how geothermal energy is produced and what its
limitations are:
http://www.pbslearningmedia.org/resource/kqedcl11.sci.ess.geothermalenergy/
72
The following basic equations are used to determine the geothermal heat content that can be
extracted:
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 × 𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 (6.1)
The heat content, Q is defined by the volumes multiplied by the volumetric specific heat
multiplied by the change in temperature.
Thus, 𝑄 = 𝑉(𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡) × ∆𝑇 (6.2)
∆T= T1-T0 (6.3)
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 × 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠 (6.4)
Number of years the plant will be operated before the heat reservoir is exhausted will be
𝐴𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑄,𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 (6.2)

𝐴𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟
(6.5)
Example 1
A particular site covers an area of 70 km2 and the thickness of the subsurface zone from which
heat is recoverable is 2.0 km. In this zone, the temperature is 240 o C and the volumetric
specific heat is 2.51 J/cm 3 0 C.
a. Calculate the heat energy content in joules (at temperatures above the mean annual
surface temperature of 150 C).
b. For how many years can this site provide power for a 2 000 MWe plant if 1.9% of the
thermal energy can be converted to electricity?
Solution:
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 × 𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠
Given, Area = 70 km2; Thickness = 2.0 km
Therefore, the volume of the zone, 𝑉 = 70𝑘𝑚 2 × 2𝑘𝑚 = 140𝑘𝑚 3
The heat content, Q is defined by the volumes times the volumetric specific heat times the
change in temperature.
Thus, 𝑄 = 𝑉(𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡) × ∆𝑇
73
Convert 1 km3= 1x 1015cm3
Therefore, 140 km3 = 1.4x 1017 cm3
Given, Volumetric specific heat = 2.51 J/cm3 oC.
∆T= Change in temperatures
∆T= T1-T0
Given, T1= 2400 C; T0=150 C.
∆𝑇 = 240 − 15 = 2550 𝐶
Substitute the derived values into Equation (6.7)
𝑄 = 1.4 × 1017 × 2.51 × 255 = 7.9 × 1019 𝐽
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 × 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠
In this case, the electrical energy produced for each year of operation is;
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑃 × 𝑡 = 2000 × 1𝑦𝑟 = 2000𝑀𝑊. 𝑦𝑟
In order to generate this amount of energy at the overall efficiency of 1.9%, the heat energy
required for each year is:
2000𝑀𝑊. 𝑦𝑟
= 1.053 × 1011 𝑊. 𝑦𝑟
0.019
In units of joules, this is:
107 𝑠𝑒𝑐 1𝐽
1.053 × 1011 𝑊. 𝑦𝑟 × (3.15 × 𝑦𝑟
)×
𝑊.𝑠𝑒𝑐
= 3.32 × 1018 𝐽 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟
In order to calculate the number of years for which a 2 000 MWe plant will be operated before
the heat reservoir is exhausted, divide the available energy Q by the amount consumed per
year.
𝐴𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑄, 𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 (𝑎) 7.9 × 1019 𝐽

= = 23.8 = 24 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠
𝐴𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 3.32 × 1018 𝐽/𝑦𝑟
6.3.7 Application of Geothermal Energy

Geothermal energy is a renewable energy source generated from the natural heat of the Earth
itself. It has several applications, ranging from heat production to power production.
You are advised to read more at these links:
74
https://www.brgm.eu/activities/geothermal-energy/different-geothermal-applications
https://www.mse.tum.de/en/geothermal-alliance-bavaria/what-is-geothermal-
energy/applications-of-geothermal-energy/
http://www.ei.lehigh.edu/learners/energy/readings/geothermal.pdf
https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-13352-7_4
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/316283870_Applications_of_Geothermal_Energy
Activity 6.1
1. Briefly discuss the use of geothermal energy.

2. Describe the following geothermal sources:
(i) Hydrothermal (ii) Geopressured (iii) Hot dry rocks (iv) Magma.
3. Briefly discuss the advantages of geothermal energy over other sources of energy.
4. A particular site covers an area of 90 km2, and the thickness of the subsurface zone
from which heat is recoverable is 3.5 km. In this zone, the temperature is 310 o C, and
the volumetric specific heat is 2.51 J/cm 3 0C.
a. Calculate the heat energy content in joules (at temperatures above the mean annual
surface temperature of 150 C).
b. For how many years can this site provide power for a 2 000 MWe plant if 1.9% of the
thermal energy can be converted to electricity?
6.4 Basic Design of Geothermal Heat Pumps

Geothermal heat pumps are a set of systems that draw heat from a few metres below the
earth’s surface, or from groundwater, and convert it to another form. Such systems can be
installed in homes. The operation of the heating system can be described by the Carnot
circular process, in which thermal energy is taken from one body to working medium and then
from a working medium to the body being heated.
Read about the Carnot circular process here:
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Ma
ps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Thermodynamics/Therm
odynamic_Cycles/Carnot_Cycle
It is characterised by high output to input ratio. The average input energy is one-quarter of the
output energy. Factually, it means that for 1 W of electric energy, heat pump transfer from the
75
ground additional 3 W of geothermal energy. Heat pump for a primary source of energy uses
thermal energy from air, soil or groundwater.
6.4.1. The efficiency of the Carnot Engine

A general expression for the efficiency of a heat engine can be expressed as:
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 (6.6)
𝐻𝑜𝑡
It is a known fact that all the energy required will either be as a form of work or waste heat.
Therefore, work is equivalent to heat at high temperature minus the heat rejected at low
temperature. Thus, Equation 6.1 can be written as;
𝑄𝐻𝑜𝑡 −𝑄𝐶𝑜𝑙𝑑
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 𝑄𝐻𝑜𝑡
(6.7)
where 𝑄𝐻𝑜𝑡 is the heat input at high temperature and, 𝑄𝐶𝑜𝑙𝑑 is the heat rejected at low
temperature.
Also, efficiency, 𝜂 can be expressed as;
𝑄𝐶𝑜𝑙𝑑
𝜂(%) = 1 − × 100 (6.8)
𝑄𝐻𝑜𝑡
Equation 6.3 is called Carnot Efficiency and can be simplified as:
𝑇𝐶𝑜𝑙𝑑
𝜂(%) = 1 − 𝑇𝐻𝑜𝑡
× 100 (6.9)
Example 2: If heat absorbed by the engine Q1 is 10 000 J, what is the work done by the Carnot
engine? The high temperature (T1) is 800 K while the lower temperature (T2) is 400 K.
Solution:
Given: Low temperature (T2) = 400 K; High temperature (T1) = 800 K;
Heat input (Q1) = 10,000 J. Work done by the Carnot engine (W).
𝑇1 −𝑇2 800−400 1
The efficiency of the Carnot engine 𝜂 = 𝑇1
= 800
=2
By using Equation 6.1, 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝑒𝑄1 = 0.5 × 10,000 = 5000 𝐽
Example 3. The Carnot engine works at a high temperature of 600 Kelvin with an efficiency
of 40%. If the efficiency of the engine is 75% and the low temperature is kept constant, what
is the high temperature?
76
Solution:
Given: If the high temperature (TH)= 600 K, efficiency (e)= 40%=0.4
What would be the high temperature (TH) if the efficiency (e) =75% =0.75
𝑇𝐻 −𝑇𝐿 600−𝑇𝐿
𝑒= 𝑇𝐻
; 0.4 = 600
; 600 × 0.4 = 600 − 𝑇𝐿 ; 𝑇𝐿 = 600 − 240 = 360
High temperature (TH) if efficiency (e) is 75%?
𝑇𝐻 −𝑇𝐿 𝑇𝐻 −360
𝑒= 𝑇𝐻
; 0.75 = 𝑇𝐻
; 0.75𝑇𝐻 = 𝑇𝐻 − 360; 360 = 𝑇𝐻 − 0.75𝑇𝐻 ; 360 = 0.25𝑇𝐻
𝑇𝐻 = 360⁄0.25 = 1440
High temperature = 1440 K
Activity 6.2
6.1.1 How do the emissions from a geothermal power plant compare to those from a fossil
fuel power plant?
6.1.2 What effect does water or steam pressure have on geothermal energy production?
6.1.3 The Carnot engine absorbs heat at a high temperature of 800 Kelvin and the efficiency
of the Carnot engine is 50%. What should the high temperature be to increase efficiency to
80% if the lower temperature is kept constant?
Answer: Lower temperature =400 K; High temperature = 2 000 k
6.8.4 What are the benefits and potential benefits of geothermal energy use?
6.7 Conclusion
Heat energy stored over the years as a result of the formation of the earth is generally referred
to as geothermal energy. It utilises the abundant unutilised thermal energy that exists stored
under the Earth’s crust. The environmental impacts of geothermal energy facilities are lower
than those of some other energy sources. Gas emissions from geothermal plants can be
negligible compared to those of coal and oil plants. From an economic point of view,
geothermal energy is cheaper than some other energy sources.
77
This unit has presented the concept, types, process and necessary calculations of geothermal
energy, along with the basic design of geothermal heat pumps and the efficiency of the Carnot
Engine.
© Unisa
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ALTERNATIVE ENERGY-EAE3701

Department of Electrical and Mining Engineering

STUDY UNIT 1: Introduction to Alternative Energy .............................................................. 5

1.3 Energy, its definition and categories

1.3.1 Macroscopic forms of energy

• Potential energy: energy

• Kinetic energy: energy

Figure 1.1 Demonstration of macroscopic energy

1.3.2 Microscopic forms of energy

Watch the following videos to understand more about internal energy:

1.4 Forms of Energy

1.4.1 Kinetic energy: The

There are several kinds of potential

Play the following video on demonstrations of

• Elastic energy produced by

Figure 1.5 Catapult – possesses elastic energy

• Magnetic energy produced

Figure 1.6 Magnetic – with magnetic energy

• Thermal potential energy, The following video considers thermal potential

1.4.3 Chemical energy: Energy

Figure 1.7 Examples of chemical energy

1.4.5 Nuclear energy: Energy

Figure 1.9 Nucleus of an atom

1.4.7 Radiant energy: is

Figure 1.12 Heat from open-flame fire

1.4.9 Geothermal energy is the

Figure 1.13 Geothermal energy power plant

1.4.10 Motion energy is energy

1.4.12 Electrical energy is delivered

Lightning is an example of electrical

Figure 1.18 Thunder and lightning storm

1.5 Sources of Energy

These energy sources can be broadly classified as renewable or non-renewable. Both

Renewable energy is the energy obtained

Figure 1.20 Wind energy

Figure 1.19 Sun – Releasing Energy

Non-renewable energy is derived from

Figure 1.22 Coal

Sources Natural local environment Static stock

Normal State Continuous energy flow Finite source of energy

Supply time Infinite Finite

Location Site and society specific General and commercial

Scale potential Small scale Large scale

Area specific Rural and decentralised industry Urban centralised industry

Dependence Self-sufficient systems encouraged Systems dependent on

Effects on Little environmental harm Environmental pollution,

1.6 Energy use

Figure 1.23. Photosynthesis illustration

Humans have always used Earth’s

Figure 1.24 Use of horse power to do work

Figure 1.25 Drying plants using solar energy

Figure 1.26 Drying of rice using solar

Then, people built machines such as

Figure 1.27 Windmill used to capture the energy

1.7 Conventional energy and its impact

Figure 1.30 Coal-fired power station

Figure 1.29 Acid lake rain in the mining

Figure 1.31 Water pollution from conventional

Play the following videos on the environmental impact of fossil fuels:

Undoubtedly, the significant areas of environmental concern, which include atmospheric,

2.1 Learning outcomes

We have been experiencing load

2.3 Availability of energy from the Sun and geographic availability

𝐼0 = 1367(1 + 0.034 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (2𝜋𝑁/365)) (2.1)