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In addition to their use in relieving the symptoms of various diseases, ketogenic diets (KDs) have also been adopted by healthy
individuals to prevent being overweight. Herein, we reported that prolonged KD exposure induced cardiac fibrosis. In rats, KD or
frequent deep fasting decreased mitochondrial biogenesis, reduced cell respiration, and increased cardiomyocyte apoptosis and
cardiac fibrosis. Mechanistically, increased levels of the ketone body β-hydroxybutyrate (β-OHB), an HDAC2 inhibitor, promoted
histone acetylation of the Sirt7 promoter and activated Sirt7 transcription. This in turn inhibited the transcription of mitochondrial
ribosome-encoding genes and mitochondrial biogenesis, leading to cardiomyocyte apoptosis and cardiac fibrosis. Exogenous
β-OHB administration mimicked the effects of a KD in rats. Notably, increased β-OHB levels and SIRT7 expression, decreased
mitochondrial biogenesis, and increased cardiac fibrosis were detected in human atrial fibrillation heart tissues. Our results
highlighted the unknown detrimental effects of KDs and provided insights into strategies for preventing cardiac fibrosis in patients
for whom KDs are medically necessary.
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1
Zhongshan Hospital of Fudan University, Obstetrics & Gynecology Hospital of Fudan University, State Key Lab of Genetic Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Key Laboratory of
Reproduction Regulation of NPFPC, and Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, Fudan University, 200438 Shanghai, China; 2Collaborative Innovation Center for Biotherapy, West China
Hospital, Sichuan University, 610041 Chengdu, China; 3Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, Second Hospital of Anhui Medical University, and Cardiovascular Research Center,
Anhui Medical University, 230601 Hefei, China and 4Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience Research Institute, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Zhengzhou University,
450001 Zhengzhou, China
Correspondence: Jian-Yuan Zhao (zhaojy@fudan.edu.cn)
These authors contributed equally: Sha Xu, Hui Tao, Wei Cao.
SN 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
-SMA
H&E
-SMA
Collagen I
Collagen III
Actin
Sirius Red
Collagen I
3 *
*
Quantification of
*
2
blots
ns
ns ns
Normal (n = 6)
Collagen III
1 CR (n = 6)
Masson
KD (n = 6)
0
-SMA Collagen I Collagen III
**
Quantification of
2.0
3
*
staining
1.5 ns ns
ns
IHC
2
1.0
Normal (n = 6) ns ns
Normal (n = 6)
ns
CR (n = 6) CR (n = 6)
1
0.5 KD (n = 6) KD (n = 6)
0.0 0
H&E Sirius Red Masson -SMA Collagen I Collagen III
d e
Plasma metabolite concentration
( mol/g)
* 0.5
400 CR (n = 6) 0.4 CR (n = 6)
ns *
300 KD (n = 6) 0.3 * KD (n = 6)
200 0.2
ns
100 ns ns 0.1 ns ns
0 0.0
-OHB AcAc Acetone -OHB AcAc Acetone
f g h
SN 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
-SMA
H&E
-SMA
Collagen I
Collagen III
Actin
Sirius Red
Collagen I
4 **
Quantification of
3 * *
blots
2 ns ns ns Normal (n = 6)
Collagen III
CR (n = 6)
Masson
1
KD (n = 6)
0
-SMA Collagen I Collagen III
2.5 * 4
**
* * **
Quantification of
Quantification of
2.0
3
ns *
staining
1.5 ns ns
IHC
2
1.0
Normal (n = 6) ns ns
Normal (n = 6)
ns
CR (n = 6) CR (n = 6)
1
0.5 KD (n = 6) KD (n = 6)
0.0 0
H&E Sirius Red Masson -SMA Collagen I Collagen III
of β-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase 1 (BDH1) and succinyl- metabolic flux in cultured cell lines and primary cardiomyocytes.
CoA:3-ketoacid CoA transferase (SCOT) in β-OHB-treated cells Decreased levels of citrate cycle metabolites and increased levels
(Fig. 2f), and atrial tissues from KD-fed and β-OHB-injected rats of the glycolytic metabolites pyruvate and lactate were observed
(Fig. 2g), suggesting that increased input of ketone bodies did not in β-OHB-treated cells (Fig. 2h). Together with our results showing
enhance ketolysis. We next evaluated the glycolytic and citrate that decreased levels of citrate cycle metabolites and increased
t
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d Dapi TUNEL Merged e
Rat atrial tissues
Normal
Caspase 3
KD model
3
Rat atrial tissue
1
f
0
Saline
B
al
KD
e
lin
H
m
-O
Sa
or
-OHB model
BDH1
-OHB
SCOT
Actin
g h i
Rat atrial tissue Control -OHB Rat atrial tissue
Relative metabolites levels
4 ** 2.5
Normal KD Normal KD
*
**
SN 1 2 3 1 2 3 2.0 *
3 H9C2
BDH1 1.5
2 ns ns
SCOT 1.0
ns ns *
* * *
Actin 1
0.5
0 0.0
Relative metabolites levels
4 **
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e
at
at
-K
a
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Py
Fu
Su
2.5
BDH1 Saline -OHB
ns ns ns *
1 * 2.0 *
SCOT
Actin 1.5
0
ns ns
4 ns
1.0
*
**
3 ** Primary cardiomyocyte 0.5
0.0
2
te
e
e
at
at
-K
a
na
ta
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ns ns
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1 * *
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at
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-K
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Fig. 2 Increased β-OHB promoted cardiomyocyte apoptosis by decreasing mitochondrial metabolism. a Cell apoptosis associated with various
treatments in different cultured cell lines. Trichostatin A (TSA) is a general histone deacetylase inhibitor; n = 5. b Cell apoptosis associated with
various treatments in primary cells isolated from neonatal mice; n = 5. c Western blotting analysis of caspase 3 in different cell lines with
various treatments. d TUNEL analysis of atrial tissues from rats with different treatments; n = 3. e Western blotting analysis of caspase 3 in atrial
tissues from rats with various treatments. f Western blotting analysis of BDH1 and SCOT in different cell lines treated with or without β-OHB.
g Western blotting analysis of BDH1 and SCOT in atrial tissues from rats with various treatments. h Metabolite concentrations in cell lines and
primary cardiomyocyte treated with or without β-OHB; n = 5. i Metabolite concentrations in atrial tissues from rats; n = 5. Some full-length
blots are presented in the Supplementary Fig. 13
1.5 1.5
-OHB concentrations -OHB concentrations
Relative mtDNA/nDNA
MTG MFI a.u.
1.0 ns 0 mM 1.0 ns 0 mM
ns ns
ns
* * * 2.5 mM * 2.5 mM
* * * * *
* * * *
0.5 5 mM 0.5 5 mM
10 mM 10 mM
0.0 0.0
HCM H9C2 HL-1 HCM H9C2 HL-1
c d e
Mouse cardiomyocytes Rat model Rat model
1.5 1.5 1.5
Relative mtDNA/nDNA
Relative mtDNA/nDNA
Relative mtDNA/nDNA
ns ns
1.0 1.0 1.0
*
* * *
0.5 0.5 0.5
Control Control
-OHB 800 -OHB
400 TSA TSA
600
400
200
200
0 0
20 40 60 80 100 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)
1
2
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4
5
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9
10
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13
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
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9
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13
h i
Control 2000
OCR (pmol/min/40000cells)
Control
KD
-OHB
1500
1000
1000
500
500
0
0
20 40 60 80 100 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min)
Time (min)
1
2
12
13
3
4
5
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8
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10
11
10
11
12
13
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
j k
ns
25 50
ns
Cell apoptosis rate (%)
20 ns 40
Control Control
15 30
Oxyrase Oxyrase
10 20
-OHB -OHB
5 10
-OHB+Oxyrase -OHB+Oxyrase
0 0
H9C2 HL-1 Primary mouse cardiomyocytes
Fig. 3 Increased β-OHB decreased mitochondrion levels. a, b Mitochondrial mass, as determined by MitoTracker Green staining (a) and
mitochondrial DNA quantification (b) in cells with different concentrations of β-OHB; n = 3. c Mitochondrial mass determined by
mitochondrial DNA quantification in mouse primary cardiomyocytes; n = 3. d, e Mitochondrial mass determined by mitochondrial DNA
quantification in atrial tissues from rats with different treatments; n = 6/group. f, g Oxygen consumption rates (OCRs) in H9C2 (f) and HL-1 (g)
cells treated with β-OHB or trichostatin A (TSA). h, i OCRs in primary cardiomyocytes isolated from the atrial tissues of rats with various
treatments. j, k Apoptosis in cell lines and primary mouse cardiomyocytes treated with β-OHB and oxyrase; n = 3. Data shown are means ±
standard errors. nsp > 0.05, *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001 versus the corresponding control group according to Student’s t tests
H9C2
H9C2
GFM2 * * *
2
0.5
MRPL16 1
0.0 0
HL-1
HL-1
TFB1M * 2 **
* *
0.5
1
TFAM
0.0 0
PINK1 1.5 4 ***
ns ns ns ***
PARKIN 3
1.0
**
HCM
LC3-I 2
HCM
* * *
LC3-II 0.5
1
Actin 0.0 0
0 2.5 5 10
16
24
T
2
1M
M
FM
A
PL
PL
B
LR
TF
-OHB (mM)
TF
R
PO
M
M
d e f
H9C2 H9C2
-OHB (mM)
2.5 1.5
ns
ns
Relative mRNA levels
ns
1.0 ns
Actin 0.5
0.5
SIRT7
HCM
0.0 0.0
Gfm2 Mrpl24 Gfm2 Mrpl24
Actin
g h i
Rat Rat H9C2
** **
3 3
1.0
SIRT7 ns
2 2 Control
ns ns ns
ns ns 0.5
ns -OHB
1
Actin
1
** ** ** **
0 0.0
0
Sirt7 Gfm2 Mrpl24 Vector SIRT7
Sirt7 Gfm2 Mrpl24
j k
Rat atrial tissue
Quantification of
4
1.5 Control
staining
3
1.0 Control
2
-OHB
0.5 1
**
0.0 0
SIRT7 SOD2
A
A
N
N
R
R
sh
sh
ed
rt7
bl
Si
m
ra
Sc
overexpression of SIRT7 resulted in decreased Gfm2 and Mrpl24 overexpression of SIRT7 decreased mitochondrion levels, whereas
transcription, and saturated the effects of β-OHB treatment knockdown of SIRT7 slightly increased mitochondrion levels in
(Fig. 4f). Moreover, rats with high levels of β-OHB, including cultured cells (Fig. 4i, j). Either overexpressing or knocking down
KD-fed and β-OHB-injected rats, exhibited increased cardiac SIRT7 in cells attenuated the inhibitory effects of β-OHB treatment
SIRT7 mRNA and protein expression (Fig. 4g, h), as well as (Fig. 4i, j). Double immunofluorescence staining of atrial tissues
decreased Gfm2 and Mrpl24 mRNA levels (Fig. 4g). Furthermore, from β-OHB-injected or normal rats revealed that β-OHB
promoted SIRT7 expression and reduced mitochondrial numbers, inhibited by HDAC2,42 were increased in β-OHB-treated cells
as indicated by measuring the level of superoxide dismutase 2 (Fig. 5i) and heart tissues from KD-fed rats (Fig. 5j). Taken
(SOD2); this further indicated that β-OHB impaired mitochondrial together, these results indicated that β-OHB activated Sirt7
biogenesis by activating SIRT7 (Fig. 4k). Furthermore, although transcription by inhibiting HDAC2.
high β-OHB induced SIRT4 overexpression, forced SIRT4 over-
expression had no effect on Gfm2 or Mrpl24 expression Increased β-OHB and its consequences were observed in patients
(Supplementary Fig. 8b). These results collectively confirmed that with AF
β-OHB inhibited mitochondrial biogenesis by promoting SIRT7 In order to confirm the causal role of β-OHB in cardiac fibrosis,
overexpression. we examined cardiac fibrosis, β-OHB levels, and changes in
β-OHB-associated markers in patients with AF. First, we found
β-OHB inhibited histone deacetylase 2 and activated Sirt7 that β-OHB levels in cardiac tissues were 3.3-fold higher in
transcription patients with AF than in those with sinus rhythm (SR; Fig. 6a).
We next investigated how β-OHB regulated the transcription of Second, CACNA1H and CACNA2D2 expression was higher in
Sirt7. We hypothesized that histone acetylation may play a role, as cardiac tissues from patients with AF, indicating that HDAC2
β-OHB is an established inhibitor of histone deacetylases (HDACs), was inhibited in the cardiac tissues of these patients (Fig. 6b
include HDAC1, HDAC3, HDAC4, and HDAC6.12 Knockdown of and Supplementary Fig. 11a). Third, increased levels of SIRT7
HDACs individually in β-OHB-treated H9C2 cells revealed that only were observed in cardiac tissues from patients with AF
Hdac2 knockdown increased Sirt7 expression and abrogated compared with those in patients with SR, according to both
the ability of β-OHB to activate Sirt7 transcription (Fig. 5a and western blotting (Fig. 6b and Supplementary Fig. 11a) and IHC
Supplementary Fig. 9). In turn, overexpression of HDAC2, but not (Fig. 6c and Supplementary Fig. 11b). Fourth, markers of fibrosis,
other HDACs, inhibited Sirt7 transcription in H9C2 cells including type I collagen, type III collagen, and α-SMA, were
(Fig. 5b), indicating that HDAC2 was the HDAC that regulated higher in patients with AF (Fig. 6b and Supplementary Fig. 11a).
Sirt7 transcription. Accordingly, using chromatin immunoprecipi- Lastly, the number of mitochondria was significantly lower in
tation (ChIP), we found that HDAC2 bound to the core promoter cardiac tissues from patients with AF than in those from
region of Sirt7 and localized to the same region as acetylated H3K9 patients with SR, as indicated by the ratio of mtDNA to nucleic
(Fig. 5c). Moreover, the acetylation levels of H3K9 and H3K14 in DNA (Fig. 6d). These findings, together with the observation
the promoter of Sirt7 were increased in β-OHB-treated cultured that the cardiac β-OHB concentration was negatively correlated
H9C2 cells (Fig. 5d). In addition, we observed increased acetylation with the number of mitochondria (Fig. 6e), confirmed that
levels of H3K9 and H3K14 in the promoter of Sirt7 in the heart elevations in β-OHB were associated with cardiac fibrosis and an
tissues of KD-fed and β-OHB-injected rats, when compared with increased risk of AF.
those in the corresponding control rats (Fig. 5e). These results
suggested that Sirt7 transcriptional activation was related to
alterations in acetylation, which were regulated by the β-OHB/ DISCUSSION
HDAC2 pathway. Some studies have indicated that β-OHB exhibits beneficial
Although β-OHB was previously shown to be negatively effects in the cardiac system under pathological conditions and
correlated with cellular HDAC2 activity,41 direct evidence has can, for example, be used as an alternative fuel in the human
not yet been obtained to validate whether β-OHB inhibits HDAC2 failing heart.43 Moreover, this compound improves cardiac cell
deacetylase activity. Therefore, we conducted an in vitro excitation–contraction coupling during hypoxia44 and prevents
deacetylation assay and found that β-OHB had significant myocardial damage after coronary occlusion in animal model.45 In
inhibitory effects on HDAC2, with an IC50 of 2.4 mM in vitro this study, we provided evidence and mechanistic explanations
(Fig. 5f), suggesting that KD-induced elevation of β-OHB in the from cultured cells, animal models, and clinical samples to show
heart decreased HDAC2 activity by more than half. In cultured that long-term KD-induced β-OHB accumulation was detrimental
cells, we confirmed that β-OHB treatment resulted in increased to heart health by promoting cardiac fibrosis (Fig. 6f).
levels of total histone acetylation (Fig. 5g), particularly of H3K9 Several facts support our findings. First, a KD forces cells in the
and H3K14, downstream targets of HDAC2 (Fig. 5h). Trichostatin body to rely primarily on fatty acid β-oxidation rather than
A, a general HDAC inhibitor, caused phenotypes similar to those glycolysis for energy production, inevitably leading to increased
of β-OHB, including activation of Sirt7 transcription (Supplemen- ketone body production, primarily in the liver; this change
tary Fig. 10a), downregulation of Gfm2 and Mrpl24 expression elevates circulating levels of ketone bodies and exposes
(Supplementary Fig. 10a), inhibition of mitochondrial biogenesis cardiomyocytes in the heart to high levels of ketone bodies.
(Supplementary Fig. 10b), inhibition of mitochondrial respiration However, although theoretically all cells in the body are exposed
(Fig. 3f, g), and promotion of apoptosis in cardiomyocytes to elevated levels of ketone bodies, cardiomyocytes are among
(Fig. 2a–c). In addition, we confirmed that the expression of those most vulnerable to high ketone body exposure, as high
voltage-dependent T-type calcium channel subunit alpha-1H levels of ketone bodies reduce the mitochondrial content
(CACNA1H) and voltage-dependent T-type calcium channel significantly, as demonstrated in our study. The mitochondrial
subunit alpha-2 delta-2 (CACNA2D2), which are known to be content in cardiomyocytes reaches up to 30% of the total cell
4
Input
** ** 1.0
3
2 *
0.5 anti-
1 HDAC2
0.0
0
H ctor
H C1
D 2
H C3
H C8
H C4
H C5
H C7
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Flag IgG
Region 4: -890/-528
Actin
d e f
Control ** *
Relative immunoprecipitated
* IC50 = 2.4mM
3 1.0
**
Sirt7 promoter
*
2 2
Sirt7 promoter
*
2
0.5
1 1
1
0.0
0 2 4 8 16
0 0 0
H3K9Ac H3K14Ac H3K9Ac H3K14Ac H3K9Ac H3K14Ac
g h
H9C2
H9C2 HCM
-OHB (mM) 0 2.5 5 10
-OHB (mM) 0 2.5 5 10 0 2.5 5 10
Ac-Lysine H3K9Ac
H3K14Ac
CBB
Histone 3.1
i j
Rat atrial tissue
H9C2 HL-1 HCM
Normal diet Ketogenic diet
1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6
CACNA1H CACNA1H
CACNA2D2 CACNA2D2
Actin Actin
volume, much higher than that in the cells of other organs, (Supplementary Fig. 12), long-term β-OHB exposure selectively
because the heart requires high levels of energy production from induced apoptosis of cardiomyocytes.
the β-oxidation of fatty acids.46 Therefore, although the In addition, HDAC2, which was found to be inactivated by
regulatory effects of β-OHB to mitochondrial content may be β-OHB in our study, is essential for promoting heart develop-
present in many organs because of HDAC2 and SIRT7 expression ment and maintaining heart function,47–49 and downregulation
Quantification of
5 CACNA2D2 ***
4
4 SR (n = 30)
ns
blots
GFM2
3 AF (n = 30) **
2 MRPL24 2
1 Collagen I
0
** **
-OHB AcAc Collagen III 0
C L24
A
I
AC 1H
III
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Actin
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SIRT7
Patient No. 1 2 3
1.5 **
Relative mtDNA/nDNA
SR (n = 10)
AF (n = 10)
5
SR 1.0
***
4
Quantification of
staining
Patient No. 1 2 3
3 0.5
2
0.0
1
AF SR AF
(n = 30) (n = 30)
0
SIRT7
e f
SR
y=-0.13x+1.13
Relative mtDNA/nDNA
1.5 R2=0.07
AF
1.0 y=-0.11x+1.06
R2=0.85
0.5
0.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
-OHB concentration (mM)
Fig. 6 Increased β-OHB was associated with increased risk of atrial fibrillation (AF). a Concentrations of β-OHB and AcAc in atrial tissues from
patients with sinus rhythm (SR) and AF. b The left panel shows representative western blotting analysis of SIRT7, CACNA1H, CACNA2D2, GFM2,
MRPL24, collagen I, collagen III, and α-SMA in atrial tissues from patients with SR and AF. The right panel shows the quantitative results. c IHC
analysis of SIRT7 in atrial tissues from patients with SR and AF. The right panel shows the quantitative results. d Mitochondrial mass
determined by mtDNA quantification in atrial tissues from patients with SR and AF. e Correlation between β-OHB concentration and
mitochondrial mass in atrial tissues from patients with SR and AF. f Schematic illustration showing how KD increases the risk of cardiac fibrosis.
Data shown are means ± standard errors. nsp > 0.05, *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001 versus the corresponding control group according to
Student’s t tests. Some full-length blots are presented in the Supplementary Fig. 13