02.4 ENSTP - 2019 Earthworks - Equipment

Road Infrastructures Design
L2.4 – Earthworks
ECOLE NATIONALE SUPERIEURE

DES TRAVAUX PUBLICS
Davide Dalmazzo, PhD
UNIVERSITY OF PADUA
DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENT, LAND AND DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL, ARCHITECTURAL AND
TRANSPORTATION INFRASTRUCTURES ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
Planning and organization of earthworks
For the planning and organization of a construction site in which earthworks are to be
performed, the following activities are necessary:
• Earthworks quantities by determining cross-section areas and the corresponding

earthworks volumes;
• Choice of the equipment needed for each activity, with the corresponding
determination of relative characteristics: type, power, quantity and number;
• Determination of the working cycle of each individual equipment and of sets of

combined interdependent equipment;
• Definition of a working scheme from which to derive the general organization

scheme of the construction site.
L2.4 - Earthworks - Equipment 2

Planning and organization of earthworks
Elements which should be taken into account:
- planned construction operations/activities;
- type and characteristics of soils;
- volume of soil;
- volume of soil of adequate quality and of materials to be added;
- levels of production of equipment;
- transport distances of all materials;
- available working time.

Earthworks volumes
Cross sections are identified by the curvilinear abscissa (stations, s) and are perpendicular to
the horizontal alignment.
3 a
4 7
2
6
1 b
5
135 m
130 m 125 m
Dq1 = 1,5 m
Projection of the Dq2 = 3,5 m
130 m 128,5 m
axis on the terrain
Terrain elevation 125 m
a b

Earthworks volumes
A template section (continuous line), a section outline of the proposed highway, is placed on
the original ground cross section (dashed line) to determine the areas in “cut” and the areas
in “fill”.
H1
Shoulder Road centerline

Roadside
Carriageway
3
2
H1

Earthworks volumes
Then the “excavation” and “embankment” volumes are computed between two successive
cross-sections.
S = cut 1
R = fill
d12
2
d23
3

Earthworks volumes
cross-sections.
S = cut 1
R = fill CUT SECTION
d12
2
CUT AND FILL SECTION

d23
3

Earthworks volumes
The simplest way of measuring volume is by means of the average end-area method.
Assumption: the volume between two consecutive cross-sections is the average of their areas
multiplied by the distance between them.
𝑨𝟏 + 𝑨𝟐
𝑽𝑿𝒀 = ⋅𝑫
𝟐
When more precise results are needed, and the field data are sufficiently exact to warrant them,
volumes may be determined with the prismoidal formula:
𝐴1 + 4𝐴𝑚 + 𝐴2
𝑉𝑋𝑌 = ⋅𝐷
6
L2.4 - Earthworks - Equipment Source: O’Flaherty, 2002 8

Earthworks volumes
Surface (area) diagram for volumes analysis
2 3
1

Earthworks volumes
cross-sections.
S = cut 1
R = fill CUT SECTION
d12
2

d23
3

Earthworks volumes, exercise
Calculate cut and fill volumes by making use of the average end-area method, for the following
types of consecutive road sections and plot the corresponding surface area diagram. Consider a
constant distance of 50 m.
R1 = 7.52 m2 3
S1 = 9.64 m2 2
R1 = 5.57 m2 S2 = 6.96 m2 S2 = 7.63 m2
1
R2 = 6.89 m2
5
R1’ = 9.64 m2; R1’’ = 9.64 m2
R2 = 6.96 m2 ; S2 = 1.76 m2
4
R1 = 0.68 m2; S1’ = 0.68 m2; S1’’ = 3.99 m2

R2’ = 2.20 m2; R2’’ = 0.73 m2; S2 = 1.82 m2
R1 = 5.57 m2 VR = 311.5 m3
R2 = 6.89 m2

S1 = 9.64 m2 VS = 415.0 m3
S2 = 6.96 m2

R1 = 7.52 m2 VR = 93.3 m3
S2 = 7.63 m2 VS = 96.1 m3

R1’ = 9.64 m2; R1’’ = 9.64 m2 VR = 618.8 m3

R2 = 6.96 m2 ; S2 = 1.76 m2 Vs = 6.8 m3

R1 = 0.68 m2 ; S1’ = 0.68 m2 ; S1’’ = 3.99 m2aa VR = 81.5 m3

R2’ = 2.20 m2 ; R2’’ = 0.73 m2 ; S2 = 1.82 m2 VS = 153.5 m3

Earthworks volumes, exercise 2
Calculate cut and fill volumes by making use of the average end-area method, for the following
types of consecutive road sections and plot the corresponding surface area diagram. Consider a
constant distance of 20 m.

Earthworks volumes, exercise 2
SOLUTION:
Areas
(-) A1 = (3.38 ∙ 3.68) /2 = 6,22 m2
(-) A2 = (3,38 + 5,50) ∙ (6.11 + 2.39) /2= 37,74 m2
(-) A3 = (5,50 + 5,59) ∙ (2,74 - 2,39) /2 + (5,59 + 5,84) ∙3.37 /2 + (5.84 ∙ 9.88) /2 = 50,05 m2
(-) B1 = (1.71 ∙ 1.45) /2 = 1,24 m2

(-) B2 = (1,45 + 2,18) ∙ 4.05/2 + 2.18 ∙ (2.06 + 2.39) /2 = 12,20 m2
(+) B3 = (1.82 ∙ 3.72) /2 + (1.82 ∙ 3.57) /2 = 6,63 m2
Distances
d1P/ A3 = d12/ (A3+B3)
d1P = 50,34 / (50,34+6,63) ∙ 20 = 17,67 m
Volumes
R = (6.22 + 1.24) ∙ 20 /2 + (37.74 + 12.20) ∙ 20 /2 + 50,05 ∙ 17,67 /2 = 1015,90 m3
S = 6,63 ∙ (20 – 17,67) /2 = 7,72 m2

Earthworks volumes
Soil volume to be considered for a construction activity is usually evaluated in one of the
following ways (see Technical Specificatons):
1) volume (m3) of material measured in its original position and condition, i.e.
bank or in situ (Vb);
2) volume (m3) of material after any handling process which changes its
original configuration, i.e. loose state (Vs);
3) volume (m3) of material measured in the completed construction work after

all necessary transportation and compaction activities, until reaching
required density, i.e. compacted state (Vc).
In general:
• Soil to be tranported after excavation has a higher volume than before excavation (Vs >
Vb). The swelling must be taken into account for transport, costing and construction
purposes.
• As a result of compaction soils reach a density higher than that of the loose state, but can be
higher (or sometimes lower) than the original one (Vs > Vb ≥/≤ Vc)

Earthworks volumes
In order to quantify earthworks, it is necessary to know the ratio between the various volumes.
𝑀
𝑉𝑏 =
𝛾𝑏
𝑀
𝑉𝑠 =
𝛾𝑠
𝑀
𝑉𝑐 =
𝛾𝑐
V 𝛾𝑏
SWELLING FACTOR → fr (from bank to loose): fr = V s ∙ 100 = ∙ 100 ≥1
b 𝛾s
LOAD FACTOR → fc (from loose to bank): fc =

Vb 𝛾
∙ 100 = 𝛾𝑠 ∙ 100 ≤1
Vs b

Earthworks volumes
TRANSFORMATION COEFFICIENTS/1

Earthworks volumes
TRANSFORMATION COEFFICIENTS/2
EXAMPLE:
The bank density is 1600 kg/m3, and the loose density is 1420 kg/m3.
Using the load factor, 0.89 m3 of the undisturbed excavation soil will occupy a volume of 1 m3
during transportation.

Earthworks volumes
TRANSFORMATION COEFFICIENTS
Payement for earthworks is usually based on excavation quantities, then the reference condition
is the undisturbed soil (bank or in situ).
SHRINKAGE FACTOR, SF (from bank to compacted) [%] :
Vc 𝛾𝑏
𝑆𝐹 = ∙ 100 = ∙ 100 ≥/≤ 1
Vb 𝛾c
EXAMPLE:
The bank density is 1600 kg/m3, and the embankment density is designed to be 1750 kg/m3.
Using the shrinkage factor, 1094 m3 of the undisturbed excavation soil are needed to obtain
1000 m3 of embankment.

Earthworks volumes
Mass diagram
The mass diagram is a graphical representation of the amount of earthwork and embankment
involved in a project or at particular locations.
PROFILE
MASS DIAGRAM
The horizontal axis represents

distance (m or stations)
The vertical axis represents the

cumulative quantity of
earthwork in cubic meters
(Excavation positive, fill negative)

Earthworks volumes
Mass diagram
The mass diagram is a graphical representation of the amount of earthwork and embankment
involved in a project or at particular locations.
Change from fill to cut gives

a minimum ordinate
Convex loop: from left

If negative slope, the preceding to right
section is in fill.
If positive slope, the preceding

section is in cut.
Net accumulation is the difference Balancing line

in ordinates. Total cut and fill are
balanced

Earthworks volumes
Mass diagram
Earthwork includes the excavation of material and any hauling required for completing the
embankment. The mass diagram also indicates where excavated material can be economically
moved, for this reason it is fundamental for the earthworks balancing process.
Payment for earthwork is based
on excavation only including
hauling costs if shorter than the
free-haul distance (typically from
150 m to 350 m depending on the
project size.
If this distance is exceeded the
extra distance called overhaul is
priced.
Economic-haul limits
Economic-haul limits set the
distance at which waste good
material is more convenient, and it
depends on the availability of both Average distance to move
borrow sites and dump sites. It’s excavated material.
called borrow excavation if Distance between center
Free-haul of mass of excavation and
outside the highway limits. embankment.
distance
Mass diagram, exercise
Complete the earthworks calculation, draw the mass diagram, shows the directions of haul, and
whether you have to borrow or waste material to complete the work. The shrinkage factor is
0.85, the free-haul distance is 250 m, and the economic-haul distance is 1 km.
End Areas (m2) Volume (m3) Adj. fill Mass diagram
Station Chainage (m) Cut Fill SF Cut Fill (m3) Net volume (m3) ordinate (m3)
1 0 24.0 6.0 0.85 0 0 0 0 0
2 100 21.6 8.8 0.85
3 200 19.2 20.0 0.85
4 300 9.6 28.0 0.85
5 400 4.8 21.2 0.85
6 500 0.0 26.4 0.85
7 600 2.4 20.4 0.85
8 700 2.8 25.2 0.85
9 800 5.2 38.8 0.85
10 900 11.2 44.0 0.85
11 1000 9.2 59.2 0.85
12 1100 30.8 64.0 0.85
13 1200 43.6 27.6 0.85
14 1300 62.4 16.0 0.85
15 1400 44.8 10.8 0.85
16 1500 33.2 8.0 0.85
17 1600 27.2 3.6 0.85
18 1700 22.4 2.0 0.85
19 1800 21.6 0.0 0.85
20 1900 16.8 0.0 0.85
Complete the earthworks calculation, draw the mass diagram, shows the directions of haul, and
whether you have to borrow or waste material to complete the work. The shrinkage factor is
0.85, the free-haul distance is 250 m, and the economic-haul distance is 1 km.
End Areas (m2) Volume (m3) Adj. fill Mass diagram
Station Chainage (m) Cut Fill SF Cut Fill (m3) Net volume (m3) ordinate (m3)
1 0 24.0 6.0 0.85 0 0 0 0 0
2 100 21.6 8.8 0.85 2280 740 871 1409 1409
3 200 19.2 20.0 0.85 2040 1440 1694 346 1755
4 300 9.6 28.0 0.85 1440 2400 2824 -1384 372
5 400 4.8 21.2 0.85 720 2460 2894 -2174 -1802
6 500 0.0 26.4 0.85 240 2380 2800 -2560 -4362
7 600 2.4 20.4 0.85 120 2340 2753 -2633 -6995
8 700 2.8 25.2 0.85 260 2280 2682 -2422 -9418
9 800 5.2 38.8 0.85 400 3200 3765 -3365 -12782
10 900 11.2 44.0 0.85 820 4140 4871 -4051 -16833
11 1000 9.2 59.2 0.85 1020 5160 6071 -5051 -21884
12 1100 30.8 64.0 0.85 2000 6160 7247 -5247 -27131
13 1200 43.6 27.6 0.85 3720 4580 5388 -1668 -28799
14 1300 62.4 16.0 0.85 5300 2180 2565 2735 -26064
15 1400 44.8 10.8 0.85 5360 1340 1576 3784 -22280
16 1500 33.2 8.0 0.85 3900 940 1106 2794 -19486
17 1600 27.2 3.6 0.85 3020 580 682 2338 -17148
18 1700 22.4 2.0 0.85 2480 280 329 2151 -14998
19 1800 21.6 0.0 0.85 2200 100 118 2082 -12915
20 1900 16.8 0.0 0.85 1920 0 0 1920 -10995
5000
0
0 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000
-5000
Net cumulative volume (m3)
-10000
-15000
-20000
-25000
-30000
-35000
Stations/Chainage (m)

5000
0
0 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000
-5000
-10000
-15000
-20000
-25000
Distance between center of mass of
excavation and embankment.
-30000
-35000

5000
0
0 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000
-5000
ca. 2000 m3 to waste
-10000
-15000
ca. 13000 m3 to borrow

-20000
-25000
Distance between center of mass of
excavation and embankment.
-30000
-35000

Equipment production
HOURLY PRODUCTION OF EQUIPMENT
1
PO = Q  η
tc
Po = production potential
Q = average quantity of material per cycle [usually in m3]
tc = mean cycle time [expressed in h]
 = efficiency or performance
η = ηh ηcl ηs η is:
where - EXCELLENT if ≥ 75 %
ηh hourly efficiency - GOOD if = 66 %

ηcl climatic efficiency - SUFFICIENT if ≅ 60 %
ηs site-specific efficiency
- INSUFFICIENT if < 50 %

Equipment production
Hourly efficiency ηh
It is the ratio between the time in which an equipment (or several equipment working in
dependency) effectively produces and one reference hour.
Generally it is assumed: ηh = 50/60 = 0.83, by considering a loss of production time of 10 min.
Climatic efficiency ηcl

It indicates the effect of local conditions (geographic position and altitude), of season/time, and
of the choice of the type of equipment (e.g. in case the equipment most fit for the intended
purpose is not available).
Typical values: very bad < 0.75, moderate 0.85, good 0.95, excellent 1
Site-specific efficiency ηs
It is related to the effects, for a given group of units, of the organization of staff devoted to the
construction site (i.e. coordination of activities). It depends upon the number of machines
available (thus, machines which work on their own have a higher ηs), on the state of mobility
infrastructures in the working site, on supply of consumables, on availability of supporting
staff.
Typical values: very bad < 0.70, moderate 0.75, good 0.80, excellent >0.85

Earthwork equipment
Equipment can be distinguished as a function of intended construction work and of specific
operation:
➢ CONSTRUCTION WORK
1. Clearing and grubbing, removal of topsoil
2. Excavations (cut sections, ditches, trenches)
3. Fill (layered construction)
4. Modelling of subgrades and slopes
5. Debris removal
6. Transport
➢ OPERATION N.B.
a) Excavation and movement A construction work may
b) Excavation and loading require several units; a
individual unit may be
c) Ripping
employed for several
d) Transport construction works
e) Compaction

Earthwork equipment
DOZER – Construction work/operation: 1,2,3/a
It is a tracked or rubber-wheeld tractor with a forward blade which is

controlled in height, tilt and pitch

Earthwork equipment
DOZER – Construction work/operation: 1,2,3/a
Dozers are typically used for removal of topsoil, clearing and grubbing.
Further use: excavation and transport for small distances
(within 100 m), for the formation of cut sections, roadway
openings, steps on slopes.
It can also be used as a pushing tractor (pusher).
Classification usually refers to blade inclination.

Three main types:
a) straight/fixed blade (bulldozer) – max working distance
150 m
b) angledozer – max 25°-30° rotation around the vertical
axis
c) tiltdozer – max 15° rotation around the longitudinal axis

Earthwork equipment
DOZER
Hourly production –production curves
Production curve
(from HandBook – e.g. CATERPILLAR)
Correction factors for grade and job

conditions to be considered
Earthwork equipment
DOZER
Hourly production – analytical method
1
PO = Q  η Q is soil quantity measured in loose state
tc
GRANULAR, HOMOGENEUS, DRY 0.8 ÷ 0.9
Nominal BLADE CAPACITY (Q)
SOIL - GRAVEL – ORGANIC 0.9 ÷ 1
Effective BLADE CAPACITY (Qe) MIXED GRANULAR WET 1.0 ÷ 1.1
Qe = Q x fill factor (m3) COMPACTED SATURATED CLAY 1.1 ÷ 1.2
Measured BLADE CAPACITY (Q) – field method (direct measurement)

Q = 0.0138 × (HWL) where H,W,L are expressed in feet

Earthwork equipment
DOZER
Ls Lt
Hourly production – analytical method
WORK CYCLE
1) Digging;
2) Formation of soil stockpile;
3) Direction change;
4) Return (unloaded);
5) Direction change
CYCLE TIME
Tc = (LD/V1) + (Lt/V2) + [(LD+Lt)/V3] + To + Tm + 2Tp
LD = digging length (depends upon model, approximately 6-10 m)
Lt = transport length
V1 = digging speed (depends upon model, 1st gear forward)
V2 = transport speed (depends upon model, 2nd gear forward)
V3 = return speed (depends upon model, 2nd gear reverse)
To = time for blade positioning (approximately 1-2 sec)
Tm= time for speed change (approximately 4-5 sec)
Tp = time for direction change (approximately 1.0 sec for each change).
Earthwork equipment
LOADER – Construction work/operation: 1,2,5/b
Wheel loaders are special tracked or rubber-wheeled tractors. They have a forward
contrallable bucket for loading and unloading. May also be used for excavation.
Loader types:
• Front loading and unloading, the chassis can rotate up to 90°
• Front loading and back unloading, the chassis can rotate by
180° (ideal for constrained spaces, e.g. tunnels)
• Lateral unloading, with a mechanism that allows the bucket to be
tilted to a side
Earthwork equipment
WHEEL LOADER (rubber-wheeled)
Characterized by a higher power and versatility ,

which allows to operated efficiently on greater
distances. Often with articulated frame times

Earthwork equipment
TRACK LOADER
To be preferred on uneven and low bearing capacity soils

(low pressure transferred to soil: 0.5-1 kg/cm2).
Slower than wheel loader. Indicated for pushing and trailing operations.

Earthwork equipment
LOADER
BUCKETS
There are buckets which are specifically designed for different purposes
(general use, loose material, bank excavation, rock, waste)

Earthwork equipment
LOADER
Hourly production – Nomograms/Production curves
Production values need to be corrected

as a fuction of real working conditions (if
different from those of charts):
- Efficiency
- Swelling
- Loading, unloading, transport time

Earthwork equipment
LOADER
Hourly production – Analytical method
1 Q is the effective capacity of the bucket

PO = Q  η
tc (previous verification of T.L.)
Effective capacity = Nominal capacity x Bucket Fill Factor
CYCLE TIME (“V” CYCLE)
tc = tcb + tf + tt
tcb = base cycle time (loading, unloading, 4
movements in the minimum space)
tf = corrective factors of base cycle time
tt = additional time for loading and unloading
movements beyond minimum space
Base cycle time

Earthwork equipment
EXCAVATOR – Construction work/operation: 2/b
Excavating device constituted by two arms (base

arm and excavating arm) and a final bucket.
Rotating chassis mounted on tracks or rubber
wheels.
Tracked excavators: can move on uneven terrain

with low pressures trasferred to supporting soil
(of the order of 0,7 – 0,9 kg/cm2 ).
Typical solution for hevay and high-power
excavators.
Lower center of gravity which increases stability
during movement and excavation.
Rubber wheeled excavators: to be preferred in

the case of high mobility and when soil can be
damaged by tracks.

Earthwork equipment
EXCAVATOR
Hourly production – Analytical method
1
PO = Q  η Q effective bucket capacity (Bucket Payload)
tc
Average Bucket Payload =(Heaped Bucket Capacity) × (Bucket Fill Factor)
VERIFICATIONS:
- Lift Capacity
- Static stability
CYCLE TIME
tc = tcb + tf
tcb = base cycle time (loading, unloading,

rotations in loaded and unloaded conditions).
tf = corrective factor
Earthwork equipment
GRADER – Construction work/operation: 3,4/a
Used for several works:

• finishing of slopes;
• surface levelling;
• preparation of sites;
• distribution of loose
material;
• pre-ripping;
• snow removal.
Frame conected to a front axle and to the rear vehicle (with cabin and motor).
Soil levelling occurs with a blade connected to the chassis (different positions).
Distances within 600 m (heavy digging) or up to few km (mean-intensity levelling);
penetration of blade occurs in 12÷25 cm with working speeds 4÷24 km/h.

Earthwork equipment
GRADER
Hourly production
Depending upon the case, it can be expressed as:
- Volume of soil dug out and positioned in the unit of time [m3/h];
- Length of profiled track in the unit of time [km/h];
- Area of levelled surface in the unit of time [m2/h].
Calculation of required time:
D
t= n
Vη
D = distance in km
V = Operating Speed in km/h
n = number of passes for operation
η = efficiency
Hourly production [m2/h] can be calculated as:

AV
P= η
n
A = area of the transverse working section (efficient length of the blade x digging depth)

Earthwork equipment
GRADER
Hourly production
Hourly production [m3/h] of levelled surface is
calculated by means:
P = V (LE − L0 ) 103  η
V = average operative speed (km/h)
LE = Effective blade Length (m)
L0 = overlap length (usually ~ 0.6 m)
 = efficiency (usually 0.7÷0.75 per digging,

0.75÷0.8 per heavy operations, 0.8÷0.85 for
mixing, 0.85÷0.9 for maintenance).

Earthwork equipment
TRUCKS AND DUMPERS – Construction work/operation: 6/d
TRUCKS are widely used in construction works.
The majority has a overturnable body.
Can circulate on roads.
DUMPERS characterized by greater size and capacity.
Cannot circulate on roads.
Both are used in combination with loaders or excavators.
Optimal loading height :

C  tan(30)
A  B+
2
Earthwork equipment
TRUCKS – DUMPERS
Hourly production
EFFECTIVE BODY CAPACITY
1 Q = Theoretical capacity x filling factor
PO = Q  η
tc (generally declared by producer - Target Payload)
CYCLE TIME
tc = tfixed + tvariable
Q
dumper
tfixed → loading time (to be calculated) tc = t loader
Q
loader
manouvering time in loading area = 0.1-0.4 min
unloading time and corresponding manouver = 1.0-1.2 min
tvariable → time required to move from loading to unloading area and viceversa
Distance i (m)
t variable = ෍ 3,6
average dumper speed i (km/h)
P
NUMBER OF DUMPERS PER LOADER NDUMPERS = loader
Pdumper
Earthwork equipment
ROLLERS (COMPACTORS) - Construction work/operation 3, 4 /e
Different types:
- Steel rollers;
- Vibrating;
- Sheep-footed;
- Rubber wheeled.

Earthwork equipment
ROLLERS
Hourly production
L V H
PO = μ
P
L = Compaction width (m)

V = Compaction speed (km/h)
H = Compaction thickness (mm)
P = Number of passes
 = efficiency which considers overlap of passes
(10-15 cm): normally 0.75.

Earthworks equipment, exercise
Evaluate the time expressed in working day (8 hours) required for the preparation of the
foundation surface for the construction of an embankment 1 km long.
Work stage:
A. Clearing and removal of the organic soil: width 40 m, thickness 50 cm, in a dozer passage
B. Compaction of the foundation surface with a steel roller in 5 passes
C. Field control (according to the Technical Specifications): 1-day long
Notes:
- Activity B can be run simultaneously with A, but it can’t start or finish before A
- Activity 1C can start at the end of B
- Organic soil with a bank density of 1650 kg/m3 and a swelling factor equal to 1.22
- Dozer nominal blade capacity of 6.86 m3, fill factor of 0.95, digging length 7 m
- Dozer working speeds: digging 3 km/h; transport 5 km/h; and return 7 km/h
- General efficiency of the construction site (𝜂𝑐𝑙 ∙ 𝜂𝑠 ) is 85%
- Hourly efficiency: 50/60 for the dozer
- Steel roller compaction width of 2.1 m, working speed of 5.55 km/h and an efficiency of 0.75

Earthworks equipment, exercise
SOLUTION:
A.
Lt=(40-7)/2+10=26.5 m
tc=7/(3/3.6)+26.5/(5/3.6)+(7+26.5)/(7/3.6)+1+4+2*1=51.7 s
Ph,dozer=322.3 m3/h
VB=20000 m3
VL=24400 m3
tA=75.7 h = 9.46 d ➔ 10 d
B.
Ph,roller=1748 m2/h
A=40000 m2
tB=22.9 h ➔ 3 d
tT=10+1=11 d

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Road Infrastructures Design

ECOLE NATIONALE SUPERIEURE

Davide Dalmazzo, PhD

• Earthworks quantities by determining cross-section areas and the corresponding

• Determination of the working cycle of each individual equipment and of sets of

• Definition of a working scheme from which to derive the general organization

L2.4 - Earthworks - Equipment 2

- planned construction operations/activities;

- type and characteristics of soils;

- volume of soil of adequate quality and of materials to be added;

- levels of production of equipment;

- transport distances of all materials;

- available working time.

L2.4 - Earthworks - Equipment 3

L2.4 - Earthworks - Equipment 4

Shoulder Road centerline

L2.4 - Earthworks - Equipment 5

L2.4 - Earthworks - Equipment 6

CUT AND FILL SECTION

L2.4 - Earthworks - Equipment 7

L2.4 - Earthworks - Equipment Source: O’Flaherty, 2002 8

L2.4 - Earthworks - Equipment 9

CUT AND FILL SECTION

CUT AND FILL SECTION

L2.4 - Earthworks - Equipment 10

R1 = 0.68 m2; S1’ = 0.68 m2; S1’’ = 3.99 m2

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R1’ = 9.64 m2; R1’’ = 9.64 m2 VR = 618.8 m3

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R1 = 0.68 m2 ; S1’ = 0.68 m2 ; S1’’ = 3.99 m2aa VR = 81.5 m3

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(-) B1 = (1.71 ∙ 1.45) /2 = 1,24 m2

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3) volume (m3) of material measured in the completed construction work after

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LOAD FACTOR → fc (from loose to bank): fc =

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SHRINKAGE FACTOR, SF (from bank to compacted) [%] :

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The horizontal axis represents

The vertical axis represents the

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Change from fill to cut gives

Convex loop: from left

If positive slope, the preceding

Net accumulation is the difference Balancing line

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ca. 13000 m3 to borrow

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ηh hourly efficiency - GOOD if = 66 %

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Climatic efficiency ηcl

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It is a tracked or rubber-wheeld tractor with a forward blade which is

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