Road Infrastructures Design

L8 – Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete

ECOLE NATIONALE SUPERIEURE

DES TRAVAUX PUBLICS

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD

UNIVERSITY OF PADUA
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL, ARCHITECTURAL AND
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
 Asphalt pavements

Flexible Pavement Semi-rigid Pavement

Wearing course (AC) Wearing course (AC)

Binder course (AC) Binder course (AC)

Base course (AC) Base course (AC)

Subbase course Base course

(unbound mixtures UM) (cement treated mixture CTM)

Subgrade (Soil) Subbase course

(unbound mixtures UM)

Subgrade (Soil)

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 2

 Mix design
Asphalt concrete (AC) is a hot-produced bound mixture consisting of virgin aggregates,
bitumen and additives. The use of reclaimed asphalt (RA) can be considered. The objective of
the mix design is to define an economical blend of asphalt binder and aggregate that
produces a paving mix having sufficient bitumen and air voids as well as satisfactory
performance characteristics.

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 3

 Mix design
The mix design procedure can be divided into two main phases: the first phase in which type
of aggregates, gradation, type of bitumen and initial trial bitumen content are determined;
the second phase in which the optimization of the mixture is carried out.
If the designed mix does not meet the expectations, the mix needs to be redesigned and/or the
materials need to be reselected (trial and error process). Therefore, the process needs the
selection of the most appropriate standard specifications spelling out the requirements for the
materials (acceptable/not acceptable levels).
Note that performance-based properties directly govern the response of the pavement to
load; performance can be predicted from this response. Performance-related properties are
those which are directly related to performance. Asphalt binder properties, aggregate
characteristics and volumetric properties are used as surrogate values to ensure adequate
pavement performance against the major distresses (thermal and fatigue cracking, rutting).
Historically asphalt mix design has been accomplished using the Marshall design method
(1930s). In 1995 the Superpave mix design procedure (report SHRP-A-407) was introduced.
The primary differences between the two procedures is the machine used to compact the
specimens and strength tests used to evaluate the mixes.

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 4

 Mix design
No matter which design procedure is going to be used, the AC mixture that is placed on the
roadway must meet certain requirements.
The mix must have
 sufficient asphalt binder to ensure a durable, compacted pavement by thoroughly
coating, bonding and waterproofing the aggregate;
 enough stability to satisfy the demands of traffic without displacement or distortion
(rutting);
 sufficient voids to allow a slight amount of added compaction under traffic loading without
bleeding and loss of stability. However, the volume of voids should be low enough to
keep out harmful air and moisture. To accomplish this, the mixes are usually designed by
4% Vm in the lab and compacted to less than 7% Vm in the field;
 enough workability to permit placement and proper compaction without segregation.

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 5

 Mix design
The Italian mix design employs empirical, performance-related aggregate and binder
specifications and principles of volumetric mix design to obtain a paving mixture with
satisfactory performance. Final selection of the design asphalt content is based on specified
levels of air voids at initial, design, and maximum levels of compaction and mixture
strength.
It is not possible to estimate the pavement performance with regard to permanent deformation,
fatigue cracking, or low-temperature cracking without performance-based tests. However, this
mix design level provides a reasonable guarantee of adequate performance if all of the
specified criteria are met. In specific cases performance-based tests can be required.
Reliable laboratory compaction is the key to successful mix designs.

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 6

 A. Selection of aggregates
The aggregates have to comply with the EN 13043 and the project specifications (developed
on the basis of experience and research). Example, aggregates for binder courses:
COARSE
AGGREGATO AGGREGATE
GROSSO – Strato di Binder
Parametro
Property Metodo
Test di prova
method Valori richiesti
Required value Categoria
Category
UNI EN 13043
Resistenza alla
Resistance frammentazione (LA)
to fragmentation UNI EN 1097-2 ≤30% LA30
Crushed
(LA) surfaces
Percentuale di particelle frantumate UNI EN 933-5 ≥ 80 C80/0
Maximum
Dimensionesize Max UNI EN 933-1 30mm -
Passing
Passante to
allo0.063
0.063mm UNI EN 933-1 ≤1% f1
Resistance togelo
Resistenza al e disgelo
freezing and UNI EN 1367-1 ≤1% F1
Coefficiente
Flakiness
thawing Index di appiattimento UNI EN 933-3 ≤30% FI30
Water absorption
Assorbimento d’acqua UNI EN 1097-6 ≤1,5% WA242

AGGREGATO FINE – Strato di binder

FINE AGGREGATE
Property
Parametro Testdimethod
Norma prova Required value
Valori richiesti Category
Categoria
UNI EN 13043
Sand equivalent
Equivalente in sabbia UNI EN 933-8 ≥70% -
Crushed surfaces
Quantità di frantumato UNI EN 933-5 ≥50% -
Passing
Passante to
allo0.063
0.063mm UNI EN 933-1 ≤2% f2

FILLER – strato di Binder

Parametro
Property Norma
Test dimethod
prova Valori richiesti
Required value Categoria
Category
UNI EN 13043
Plasticity Index
Indice di plasticità UNI CEN ISO/TS 17892-12 N.P. -
Voids ofdel
Porosità dry compacted
filler filler (Rigden)
secco compattato (Ridgen) UNI EN 1097-7 30-45% v38/45
Stiffening
StiffeningPower
power - Rapporto filler/bitume
(filler/bitumen ratio= =1,51.5) UNI EN 13179-1 ≥5% ∆R&B8/16

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 7

 B. Aggregate gradation
Generally, in a quarry, the gradation of each stockpile aggregate material is determined first an
then the gradations are analyzed to determine in what proportion the aggregates from the
different stockpiles can be combined to produce a specific gradation developed on the basis of
experience and field and laboratory studies.

0 , 45
 di 
P = 100 ⋅   Pj ,m = α1 Pj ,1 + α 2 Pj , 2 + ... + αiPj ,i
D
Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 8
 Size and gradation of AC
Gradation affects almost all the properties of an asphalt concrete (AC) including stiffness,
stability, durability, permeability, workability, fatigue resistance, frictional resistance and
resistance to water damage. Therefore the specifications place limits on aggregate
gradations.
The gradation having high density provides good stability through increased inter-particle
contacts (good particle packing) and reduced voids in the mineral aggregate. However there
must be sufficient space to allow bitumen to be incorporated and leaving some air space
in the mixture to prevent bleeding or rutting.

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 9

 AC gradation
Specific gradation can be designed for specific asphalt products.

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 10

 Typical AC grading
Nominal maximum size: one sieve size larger than the first sieve to retain more than
10 percent of the aggregate. Mix designations generally use the nominal maximum size
of aggregate (between 90 to 100% passing the nominal maximum size sieve). It can be
also defined as the largest sieve that retains some aggregate particles but generally not
more than 10%.
Maximum size: one sieve size larger than the nominal maximum size. It can be also
defined as the smallest sieve though which 100% of the aggregate particles pass. From the
construction point of view, the maximum aggregate size is generally about one-half of
the layer thickness (the layer thickness should be at least two times the maximum size).
100 100
Base course Stone Mastic

Passing [%]
Passing [%]

90 90 Asphalt (SMA)
80 80 Porous Asphalt
Binder course
70 70
Wearing course -
60 60 thickness of 3cm
50 Wearing course - 50
thickness from 4
40 to 6 cm 40
30 30
20 20
10 10
0 0
0,0 0,1 1,0 10,0 0,0 0,1 1,0 10,0
Sieve size [mm] Sieve size [mm]

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 11

 Gradations for maximum density
One of the best known gradations for the densest particle packing is the Fuller’s curve
where di is the diameter of the sieve size considered and D is the maximum size of aggregate.
n
 di  di
Pi = 100 ⋅   n = 0,5 ⇒ Pi = 100 ⋅
D D
100 Sieve [mm]
31.5
D32 Fuller 0.5 D20 Fuller 0.5 D12 Fuller 0.5
100.0 100.0 100.0
D32 Fuller 0.5
Passing [%]

90 20 79.7 100.0 100.0

D20 Fuller 0.5 12.5 63.0 80.9 100.0
80 8 50.4 66.2 81.8
D12 Fuller 0.5 4 35.6 48.5 59.9
70 2
0.5
25.2
12.6
35.5
19.0
43.8
23.5
60 0.25
0.063
8.9
4.5
13.9
7.5
17.2
9.2
50
40
30
20
10
0
0,0 0,1 1,0 10,0
Sieve size [mm]

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 12

 FHWA aggregate grading
The Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) introduced the Fuller’s gradation using a 0.45
exponent (more space for bitumen). The particle size distribution can be represented by
cumulative percent passing on a semi-log scale or cumulative percent passing versus the sieve
sizes raised to the 0.45 power. 0 , 45
d 
P = 100 ⋅  i 
D
100
Passing [%]

90 D32 Fuller 0.5

80
70
D32 Fuller 0.45
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0,0 0,1 1,0 10,0
Sieve size [mm]

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 13

 FHWA aggregate grading
Gradations of maximum density could not provide sufficient voids in the aggregate for
bitumen implying bleeding and inadequate film thickness (aggregate coating). Deviations
from the Fuller’s curves are recommended in order to increase the voids in the mineral
aggregate (VMA). The gradation should be close to the maximum density curve but an
off-set of few percentage points either above or below the reference line should be
applied so as to provide a stable structure but also retain enough space for accommodating
adequate asphalt binder for durability. 100
D32 Fuller 0.45

Passing [%]
In a gradation chart, the maximum 90
density line can be obtained by D20 Fuller 0.45
80
connecting the origin of the 0.45 power D12 Fuller 0.45
70
chart to the maximum aggregate size
(maximum sieve size intersects 60
100% passing line). 50
40
30
0 , 45 20
 di 
P = 100 ⋅   10
D 0
0,0 1,0 2,0 3,0 4,0 5,0
Sieve size raised to 0.45 power [mm]

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 14

 AC gradation
Gradations for different types of mixes are different since they are prepared for different
applications fulfilling different functions.
To improve drainage of water open graded friction course (OGFC) is used, whereas a stone
mastic asphalt (SMA) is used as a high-rut-resistant mix. OGFC is open graded (some fraction
missing) to achieve high permeability. SMA is characterized by very low percentage passing
the 4 mm sieve to allow the interlock of coarse aggregate particles and relatively high
percentage passing 0.063 mm to stiffen the large amount asphalt binder used.

(Note: sieve size raised to the power 0.45)

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 15
 Specification bands and tolerances
Most specification require dense-graded aggregate gradations with the middle portion of
the curve approximately parallel to the maximum density curve.
The use of large stone mixtures (D > 25 mm) to minimize rutting potential can entail
segregation during placement.
Poor graded mixtures can cause tender mixtures that cannot be appropriately compacted
because they are slow in developing sufficient stability to withstand the weight of compactors.
Specification bands and tolerances have been developed through accumulated field
experiences.
100
Base course
Passing [%]

90
Min lim [%]
80
Max lim [%] grading envelope
70
D32 Fuller 0.45 or band
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0,0 1,0 2,0 3,0 4,0 5,0
Sieve size raised to 0.45 power [mm]

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 16

 Example
Binder course

100 Binder course

D20 Fuller 0.45
Passing [%]

90 Sieve [mm] Min lim [%] Max lim [%]

Min lim [%] 31.5 100 100
80 20 100 100
Max lim [%] 12.5 65 85
70 8 55 75
4 35 55
60 2 25 38
0.5 10 20
50 0.25 5 15
0.063 4 8
40
sive^0.45 D20 Fuller0.45
30 Binder course 4.72 100
3.85 100
20 3.12 81
2.55 66
10 1.87 48
1.37 35
0 0.73 19
0,0 1,0 2,0 3,0 4,0 5,0 0.54 14
0.29 7.5
Sieve size raised to 0.45 power [mm]

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 17

 Specification bands and tolerances
base course
100 Base course
Base course Sieve [mm] Min lim [%] Max lim [%] Passing [%]
Passing [%]

90 31.5
20
100
70
100
95
100
83
Min lim [%]
80 12.5
8
45
35
70
60
58
48
70 4
2
25
18
50
38
38
28
60 0.5
0.25
6
4
20
14
13
9
50 Max lim [%] 0.063 4 8 6

40
30
20
10 Example of tolerances for base course:
0 • ±5% for aggregate size d > 2 mm
0,0 0,1 1,0 10,0 • ±3% for aggregate size 2 > d > 0.063 mm
Sieve size [mm] • ±1.5 % for aggregate size d < 0.063 mm

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 18

 Specification bands and tolerances
binder course

100 Binder course

Binder course
Passing [%]

Sieve [mm] Min lim [%] Max lim [%] Passing [%]
90 31.5 100 100 100
Min lim [%] 20 100 100 100
80 12.5 65 85 75
8 55 75 65
70 4 35 55 45
2 25 38 32
60 0.5 10 20 15
0.25 5 15 10
50 Max lim [%] 0.063 4 8 6

40
30
20
10 Example of tolerances for binder course:
0 • ±3% for aggregate size d > 2 mm
0,0 0,1 1,0 10,0 • ±3% for aggregate size 2 > d > 0.063 mm
Sieve size [mm] • ±1.5 % for aggregate size d < 0.063 mm

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 19

 Specification bands and tolerances
wearing course

Wearing course - thickness from 4 to 6 cm

100 Wearing course (from 4 to 6 cm) Sieve [mm] Min lim [%] Max lim [%] Passing [%]
Passing [%]

31.5 100 100 100

90 20 100 100 100
Min lim [%] 16 100 100 100
80 12.5 90 100 95
8 70 90 80
70 4 40 55 48
2 25 38 32
60 0.5 11 20 16
0.25 8 15 12
50 Max lim [%] 0.063 6 10 8

40
30
20
10 Example of tolerances for wearing course:
0 • ±3% for aggregate size d > 2 mm
0,0 0,1 1,0 10,0 • ±3% for aggregate size 2 > d > 0.063 mm
Sieve size [mm] • ±1.5 % for aggregate size d < 0.063 mm

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 20

 Specification bands and tolerances
porous asphalt

100 Porous Asphalt

Porous asphalt Sieve [mm] Min lim [%] Max lim [%] Passing [%]
Passing [%]

90 31.5
20
100
100
100
100
100
100
Min lim [%]
80 12.5
8
80
15
100
35
90
25
70 4
2
5
4
20
10
13
7
60 0.5
0.25
4
4
8
8
6
6
50 Max lim [%] 0.063 4 8 6

40
30
20
10 Example of tolerances for porous asphalt:
0 • ±3% for aggregate size d > 2 mm
0,0 0,1 1,0 10,0 • ±3% for aggregate size 2 > d > 0.063 mm
Sieve size [mm] • ±1.5 % for aggregate size d < 0.063 mm

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 21

 Comparison among grading bands

100 100
base band

Passing [%]
Passing [%]

Popous asphalt
90 90
band
80 Binder band 80
70 70 Wearing course
Wearing course band
60 band 60
50 50
40 40
30 30
20 20
10 10
0 0
0,0 0,1 1,0 10,0 0,0 0,1 1,0 10,0
Sieve size [mm] Sieve size [mm]

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 22

 Superpave mix design, SHRP-A-407
The Superpave system defines the control
points as the maximum and minimum
limits established for each set of gradation
controls.
The Superpave system defines the
restricted zone as a zone lying on the
maximum density line which it is usually
undesirable for the gradation to pass.

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 23

 C. Selection of the binder
The bitumen has to comply with the EN 12591 (or EN 14023 or SUPERPAVE specifications)
and the project specifications (developed on the basis of experience and research).
Example, bitumens for binder courses:

BITUMEN
BITUME – Strato di Binder Tipo 50/70 Ttipo 70/100
Property
Parametro Test method
Normativa Unit di misura
unità Required
Valori value
richiesti Required
Valori value
richiesti
Penetration
Penetrazione at a2525°C
°C UNI EN1426 dmm 50-70 70 - 100
Punto di rammollimento
Softening point UNI EN1427 °C 46-54 43 - 51
Punto di
Fraass rottura point
breaking (Fraass) UNI EN12593 °C ≤-8 ≤ -10
Viscosità cinematica
Kinematic viscosity UNI EN 12595 mm2/s ≥ 0,15 ≥ 0,10
Solubilità
Solubility UNI EN12592 % ≥ 99 ≥ 99
ValoriRTFOT
After dopo RTFOT UNI EN12607-1 unità di misura
Unit Valori richiesti
Required value Valori richiesti
Required value
Variazione
Mass di massa
variation UNI EN12607-1 % ≤ 0,5 ≤ 0,8
Penetrazione
Retained residua at
penetration a 25°C
25 °C UNI EN1426 % ≥ 50 ≥ 46
Punto di rammollimento
Softening point UNI EN1427 °C ≥ 48 ≥ 45
Incremento
Increase del puntopoint
of softening di UNI EN1427 °C ≤ 11 ≤ 11
Rammollimento

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 24

 D. Bitumen content

How much bitumen?

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 25

 General procedure for mix design
• Preparation of 4 or 5 mixtures of with different dosage of bitumen (fixed aggregate blend).
The mixing temperature has to be selected on the basis of the type of bitumen (usually,
T70/100=150±10°C; T50/70=160±10°C; Tmod.bitumen= 180±10°C). Mixing and compaction
temperatures should be selected to provide a certain viscosity (e.g.0.17±0.2 Pa·s and
0.28±0.3 Pa·s, respectively).
• Loose mix is placed, immediately after mixing, and held in a forced draft oven for 4 hours
at 135°C, after which the mix is brought to the appropriate compaction temperature and the
specimen compacted. The short term aging is used to simulate what is happening in the hot
mix plant during the mixing, storage and placement operations. Moreover it allows time for
aggregate to absorb bitumen and helps minimize variability in volumetric calculations.
• Analysis of results in terms of volumetric and mechanical properties
• Determination of the optimal mixture

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 26

 Initial trial bitumen content

Bitumen [%] = M ⋅ 5 ∑

∑=
(0,25 ⋅ g + 2,3 ⋅ S + 12 ⋅ s + 135 ⋅ f )
≅ 2,5 + 1,3 ⋅ f
100
Σ: surface area [m2/kg] Bitumen [% by mix weight ] =
bit.[% by aggr. weight ]
 bit.[% by aggr. weight ] 
M: richness modulus 1 + 
 100 
M = 3,75 for wearing course bit.[% by mix weight ]
M = 3,50 for binder course Bitumen [% by aggr. weight ] =
 bit.[% by mix weight ] 
1 − 
g: material retained on 5 mm [%]  100 
S: material retained on 0.315 and passing thorough 5 mm [%]
s: material retained on 0.08 e passing thorough 0.315 mm [%]
f: filler [%]

Italian Motorway specifications:

Base: 4,0 ÷ 5,5%; Binder: 4,5 ÷ 6,0%; Wearing course: 5,0 ÷ 6,5% (by aggregate weight)
The initial trial bitumen content is calculated as the average value of the limit values
established by the specifications.

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 27

 Marshall mix design method
Main steps:
1. Select aggregate type, gradation and binder type (already explained);
2. Conduct viscosity tests to assess mixing and compaction temperature (already explained);
3. Prepare different mixtures varying binder content (above and below the initial trial content);
4. Compact specimens using the Marshall hammer (impact compactor) applying a number of
blows per side depending on the traffic level of the project (usually six specimens are
prepared for each bitumen content - 4 specimens to be subjected to Marshall test and 2
specimens to be subjected to volumetric analysis);
5. Determine the volumetric properties of the specimens (air voids);
6. Run Marshall tests;
7. Select the optimum bitumen content on the basis of the results of the Marshall test and air
voids (e.g. according to the technical specifications of the project).

One of the strengths of the Marshall method is its attention to density/voids analysis. This
ensures that the important volumetric properties of the mix are at their optimum levels to
achieve a durable HMA pavement. Another advantage is that it required equipment that was
relatively inexpensive and very portable. This lead to its use for quality control operations.
Unfortunately the impact method of compaction does not simulate densification that occurs
under traffic in a real pavement. The strength parameter does not adequately measure the
real shear strength of the AC.

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 28

 Impact compactor, EN 12697-30
The Marshall compactor is used to prepare specimens of bituminous mixture (made in
laboratory or from a work site or plant sampling) with not more than 15% by mass retained
on the 22.4 mm sieve and none on the 31.5 mm sieve. The heated asphalt mixture has to be
transferred into a specified mould. The mixture is compacted by a mass falling from a
specified height with a specified number of blows (usually 50 or 75 blows per face) on the
foot of the hammer located on top of the asphalt specimen.

Hammer

4,536 kg
457 mm

Pedestal
63,5 mm ± 3,2

Mould

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 29

 Impact compactor, EN 12697-6
The specimen shall be a cylinder of
diameter 101.6 mm and height 63.5±2.5 mm.
The amount of mixture needed for a specimen
of specified height varies generally between
1050 to 1400 g. The amount required shall be
determined by carrying out a trial compaction.

101,6 mm

COLLARE
PROLUNGA
87,5 mm

63,5 mm

STAMPO
CILINDRICO
(FUSTELLA)

FONDO

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 30

 Volumetric properties
Volumetric properties are the basis of any good mix design since they have been shown to
have significant correlations with the performance of asphalt mixes.
Air voids content (Vm): volume of the air voids in a bituminous compacted specimen,
expressed as a percentage of the total volume of that specimen;
Void in the mineral aggregate (VMA): volume of inter-granular void space between the
aggregate particles of a compacted bituminous mixture that includes the air voids and the
volume of the bituminous binder in the specimen, expressed as a percentage of the total
volume of the specimen;
Void filled with binder (VFB): percentage of the voids
in the mineral aggregate filled with binder

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 31

 Volumetric properties
Mass determinations are usually simple: you place a material on a scale and read the mass.
Determining key volumes is more difficult. Therefore, to simplify the measurements
problems, weights are used instead of volume and density is used to convert from weight
to volume.

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 32

 Bulk density of compacted sample
When the sample is compacted, the total volume will also contain a percentage of air voids.
The bulk density ρb (bulk specific gravity) is the ratio between total specimen mass (mass of
aggregate and bitumen) and the total specimen volume (volume of aggregates, bitumen
and air).

Bitumen
Air voids

Aggregate

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 33

 (Theoretical) Maximum density
Maximum density (specific gravity) is the densest configuration that the mix can assume
(0% air voids). The maximum density is calculated as the ratio between total mass
(aggregates and bitumen) and volume of solids (aggregates and bitumen) or it is the ratio
of the weight in air of an uncompacted bituminous sample to the weight of an equal volume of
water at a stated temperature. The volume considers the volume of aggregate plus volume of
impermeable voids plus volume of permeable voids not filled by bitumen plus total volume of
bitumen.
This value, along with the compacted specific gravity is used to calculate air voids in the
compacted specimen (the maximum density is always equal or larger than compacted bulk
density and lower than aggregate density). This test is carried out on uncompacted
bituminous paving mixtures (loose sample).

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 34

 Volumetric properties, EN 12697-8
Air voids content (Vm): volume of the air voids in a bituminous specimen, expressed as a
percentage of the total volume of that specimen
𝑣𝑣𝑚𝑚 𝑣𝑣𝑎𝑎 + 𝑣𝑣𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑣𝑣𝑚𝑚 − 𝑣𝑣𝑎𝑎 + 𝑣𝑣𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑣𝑣𝑎𝑎 + 𝑣𝑣𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏
𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 = × 100 = × 100 = 100 − × 100 =
𝑣𝑣𝑎𝑎 + 𝑣𝑣𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑣𝑣𝑚𝑚 𝑣𝑣𝑎𝑎 + 𝑣𝑣𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑣𝑣𝑚𝑚 𝑣𝑣𝑎𝑎 + 𝑣𝑣𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑣𝑣𝑚𝑚

𝑀𝑀𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇
𝑣𝑣𝑎𝑎 + 𝑣𝑣𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑣𝑣𝑚𝑚 𝜌𝜌𝑏𝑏 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 − 𝜌𝜌𝑏𝑏
= 100 − × 100 = 100 − × 100 = × 100
𝑀𝑀𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚 𝜌𝜌𝑚𝑚
𝑣𝑣𝑎𝑎 + 𝑣𝑣𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏

vm: volume of voids [m3]

va: volume of aggregates [m3]
vbr: volume of asphalt [m3]
MTOT: total mass of the specimen [kg]
ρb: bulk density of the specimen [kg/m3]
ρm: theoretical maxium density of the specimen [kg/m3]
Mbr: mass of the bitumen [kg]
Ma: mass of the aggregates [kg]
B: percentage bitumen content by weight [0,1% (v/v)]
ρB: density of the bitumen [kg/m3]
Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 35
 Volumetric properties, EN 12697-8
Void in the mineral aggregate (VMA): volume of inter-granular void space between the
aggregate particles of a compacted bituminous mixture that includes the air voids and the
volume of the bituminous binder in the specimen, expressed as a percentage of the total
volume of the specimen. This equation does not consider the porosity of aggregates.
𝑣𝑣𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑀𝑀𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑀𝑀𝑎𝑎 + 𝑀𝑀𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑣𝑣𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 = 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 + 𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 + × 100 = 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 + × × × 100 =
𝑣𝑣𝑎𝑎 + 𝑣𝑣𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑣𝑣𝑚𝑚 𝑀𝑀𝑎𝑎 + 𝑀𝑀𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑣𝑣𝑎𝑎 + 𝑣𝑣𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑣𝑣𝑚𝑚 𝑀𝑀𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏

𝐵𝐵 × 𝜌𝜌𝑏𝑏
= 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 +
𝜌𝜌𝐵𝐵

vm: volume of voids [m3]

va: volume of aggregates [m3]
vbr: volume of asphalt [m3]
MTOT: total mass of the specimen [kg]
ρb: bulk density of the specimen [kg/m3]
ρm: theoretical maxium density of the specimen [kg/m3]
Mbr: mass of the bitumen [kg]
Ma: mass of the aggregates [kg]
B: percentage bitumen content by weight [0,1% (v/v)]
ρB: density of the bitumen [kg/m3]
Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 36
 Volumetric properties, EN 12697-8
Void filled with binder (VFB): percentage of the voids in the mineral aggregate, filled with
binder

𝑣𝑣𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑀𝑀𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑀𝑀𝑎𝑎 + 𝑀𝑀𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑣𝑣 𝐵𝐵 × 𝜌𝜌𝑏𝑏

𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 × × 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏
𝑣𝑣 + 𝑣𝑣𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑣𝑣𝑚𝑚 𝑀𝑀𝑎𝑎 + 𝑀𝑀𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑣𝑣𝑎𝑎 + 𝑣𝑣𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑣𝑣𝑚𝑚 𝑀𝑀𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝜌𝜌𝐵𝐵
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 = × 100 = 𝑎𝑎 × 100 = × 100 = × 100
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉

vm: volume of voids [m3]

va: volume of aggregates [m3]
vbr: volume of asphalt [m3]
MTOT: total mass of the specimen [kg]
ρb: bulk density of the specimen [kg/m3]
ρm: theoretical maxium density of the specimen [kg/m3]
Mbr: mass of the bitumen [kg]
Ma: mass of the aggregates [kg]
B: percentage bitumen content by weight [0,1% (v/v)]
ρB: density of the bitumen [kg/m3]
Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 37
 (Theoretical) Maximum density, EN 12697-5
Maximum density ρm (specific gravity) is the densest configuration that the mix can
assume (0% air voids). The ρm is the ratio of the weight in air of an uncompacted bituminous
sample to the weight of an equal volume of water at a stated temperature. The volume
considers the volume of aggregate (including the volume of impermeable voids and volume of
permeable voids not filled by bitumen) plus total volume of bitumen.
Three procedures can be adopted.
In the volumetric procedure, the sample volume is measured by means of the water displaced
by the sample in a picnometer.
In the hydrostatic procedure, the sample volume is measured by means of the sample mass
immersed in water.
In the mathematical procedure, the maximum density is calculated by means of the
composition and densities of constituent materials.

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 38

 Volumetric procedure, ρm
Weigh the empty picnometer with the stem (m1) with known volume (Vp).
Introduce the sample in the picnometer, insert the stem, and weigh sample, picnometer and
stem (m2).

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 39

 Volumetric procedure, ρm
Pour water (gas-free distilled water or boiled water) and partially fill the picnometer.
Apply a vacuum (residual pressure less than 4 kPa) for 15 minutes. Manually roll, invert, and
agitate the pycnometer, or mechanically agitate the pycnometer, to eliminate all air bubbles.
Fill completely the picnometer with water bringing the water level in the pycnometer to its
calibrated capacity.

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 40

 Volumetric procedure, ρm
Measure the water testing temperature.
Weigh the picnometer with water and sample (m3).

m2 − m1
ρ mv =
m3 − m2
Vp −
ρw

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 41

 Water density
When the volume of a solid is determined by the equivalent mass of water which occupies the
same volume, the density of water at the testing temperature has to be precisely
determined.

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 42

 Mathematical procedure, ρm
The composition must be expressed by the mixture weight, (in 100% mixture, aggregate
percentage plus bitumen percentage = 100% m/m).
Where:
ρmc: maximum density [kg/m3, 1 kg/m3]
pa: percentage of aggregate in the mixture [m/m, 0.1%]
pb: percentage of bitumen in the mixture [m/m, 0.1%]
ρa: apparent density of aggregate in the mixture [kg/m3, 1 kg/m3]. Considering the absorbed
bitumen, Gse should be used.
ρb: density of bitumen in the mixture [kg/m3, 1 kg/m3]

100
ρ mc = =
 pa  +  pb 
 ρ   ρ 
 a  b

100
=
 pa1  +  pa 2  + ... +  pb 
 ρ   ρ   ρ 
 a1   a2   b

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 43

 Bulk density, EN 12697-6
This European Standard describes test methods for determining the bulk density of a
compacted bituminous specimen or specimens from cores cut from the pavement after
placement and compacting.
This European Standard describes the following four procedures, the choice of which is
used being dependent on the estimated content and accessibility of voids in the specimen:
a) bulk density - dry (for specimens with a very closed surface);
b) bulk density - saturated surface dry (SSD) (for specimens with a closed surface);
c) bulk density - sealed specimen (for specimens with an open or coarse surface);
d) bulk density by dimensions (for specimens with a regular surface and with geometric
shapes, i. e. squares, rectangles, cylinders etc)
The bulk density of an intact compacted bituminous specimen is determined from the mass of
the specimen and its volume. The mass of the specimen is obtained by weighing the dry
specimen in air.
For the first three procedures the volume of the specimen is obtained from its mass in air and
its mass in water. In the dry procedure the mass in water is determined without pre-
treatment. In the SSD-procedure the specimen is first saturated with water, after which
its surface is dried with a cloth. In the sealed specimen procedure, the specimen is sealed
before immersion in water to prevent access of water to the voids in the specimen. In the
procedure by dimensions the volume of the specimen is obtained by measurement of the
dimensions.

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 44

 Bulk density, EN 12697-6
The ideal procedure takes into account exactly those voids that are part of the volumetric
material composition, but neglects those voids that occur as specimen irregularities due to the
specimen preparation method.
In the procedures A and B the water penetrates the surface voids, they are not
considered as a part of the volume of the specimen. This is correct if the surface voids
occur due to the specimen preparation method or due to sampling defects. However this
is not correct in the case of a coarse bituminous mixture with a high voids content.
In the procedure D the volume is obtained via measuring the dimensions of the specimen
which means that all surface voids are incorporated in the specimen volume. This
procedure will be correct if the surface voids are an intrinsic part of the bituminous
material.
An intermediate result is obtained when the specimens are sealed (procedure C). Part of
the surface voids will be measured as belonging to the specimen volume, part of the voids
will be excluded from the specimen volume. This procedure theoretically will provide the
most realistic results; however due to practical operational problems, the increased
complexity of this procedure (which is not relevant to all materials) and costs, this procedure
is not applied in all cases.

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 45

 Dry procedure (A)
a) Determine the mass of the dry specimen (m1). The mass changing in 30 minutes has to be
less than 0.1% (m/m).
b) Determine the density of the water at test temperature at the nearest 0,1 kg/m3 (ρw).
c) Immerse the specimen in the water-bath kept at known test temperature.
d) Determine the mass of the specimen immediately the water has settled after immersion (m2)
using a balance connected with a wire basket.

Procedure A is suitable for measuring the

bulk density of very dense, practically
non-absorptive bituminous specimens.
It is a quick, easy method and is, for
example, particularly convenient for many
dense laboratory prepared specimens.

m1
ρ bdry = ⋅ ρw
m1 − m2

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 46

 Saturated surface dry procedure (B)
a) Determine the mass of the dry specimen (m1).
b) Determine the density of the water at test temperature to the nearest 0,1 kg/m3 (ρw).
c) Immerse the specimen in the water-bath at known test temperature. Allow the water to
saturate the specimen sufficiently long enough for the mass of the specimen not to change (the
required saturation period is at least 30 minutes).
d) Determine the mass of the saturated specimen when immersed (m2), taking care no air
bubbles adhere to the surface of the specimen or leave the specimen when weighing.
e) Remove the specimen from the water, dry the surface from adhered drops by wiping with a
cloth.
f) Determine the mass of the saturated surface dry (SSD) specimen in air immediately after
drying (m3).
Procedure B is suitable for measuring the bulk density of dense-graded bituminous specimens
(with voids contents up to approximately 5%), having a low water absorption level or a slow
drainage of absorbed water. Extreme care should be taken in achieving the saturated surface
dried state of the specimen. An excess film of moisture on the surface will lead to an under-
estimation of the bulk density.
m1
ρ bssd = ⋅ ρw
m3 − m2
Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 47
 Sealed specimen procedure (C)
a) Determine the mass of the dry specimen (m1).
b) Determine the density of the water at test temperature to the nearest 0,1 kg/m3 (ρw).
c) Seal the specimen in such a way, that no extra voids are
included between seal and specimen or in seal folds after
sealing. When using paraffin, obtain sealing bringing
the paraffin to its melting temperature +10 °C and immerse
the specimen partially in the paraffin for less than 5 s,
agitating the specimen to make the air balls free.
After cooling and solidification of the paraffin on this part
of the specimen, repeat the same procedure until a
continuous film of paraffin is obtained, which totally covers
the specimen (the specimen shall be inaccessible to water
when submerged).
d) Determine the mass of the dry sealed specimen (m2).
e) Immerse the specimen in the water-bath kept at known testing
temperature and determine the mass of the sealed specimen under
water (m3), taking care no air bubbles adhere to the sealing when
weighing.
m1
ρ bsea =
[(m2 − m3 ) / ρ w ] − [(m2 − m1 ) / ρ sm ]
Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 48
 Geometric procedure (D)
a) Determine the dimensions of the specimen in millimetres.
b) Determine the mass of the dry specimen (m1).

Procedure D is suitable for void contents greater than 15% (v/v). Specimens should have a
regular surface and a geometric shape to facilitate the measurement of their dimensions. Also
in this procedure the surface texture voids are considered as part of the internal specimen
voids, which may cause an under-estimating of the specimen density or an over-estimating of
the air voids level of the specimen. Procedure D is particularly applicable to porous asphalt.

where:
m1
ρbdim is the bulk density of the specimen procedure
"by dimensions", in kilograms per cubic metre (kg/m3);
ρ b dim = 2
d
m1 is the mass of the dry specimen, in grams (g);
d is the diameter of the specimen, in millimetres (mm);
π ⋅ ⋅h
h is the height of the specimen, in millimetres (mm); 4
l is the length of the specimen, in millimetres (mm);
m1
w is the width of the specimen, in millimetres (mm).
ρ b dim =
l ⋅ w⋅h

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 49

 Void characteristics, EN 12697-8
Vm is the air voids content of the mixture, in 0,1 percent (v/v);
VMA is the voids content in the mineral aggregate in 0,1 % (v/v)
VFB is the percentage of the voids in the mineral aggregate filled with binder in 0,1 % (v/v);
ρm is the maximum density of the mixture, in kilograms per cubic metre (kg/m3);
ρb is the bulk density of the specimen, in kilograms per cubic metre (kg/m3).
ρB is the density of the binder, in 1 kilogram per cubic metre (kg/m3);
B is the binder content of the specimen (in 100% mixture), in 0,1 % (m/m);

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 50

 Volumetric properties of AC, exercise 1

Core bulk density [kg/dm3] Aggr [%] Bit [%] ρaggr. [kg/dm3] ρbit. [kg/dm3] ρmax. [kg/dm3]
2.310 95 5 2.650 1.020 2.454
Vm [%] VMA [%] VFB [%]
6 17 66

Core bulk density [kg/dm3] Aggr [%] Bit [%] ρaggr. [kg/dm3] ρbit. [kg/dm3] ρmax. [kg/dm3]
2.200 93 7 2.650 1.020 2.383
Vm [%] VMA [%] VFB [%]
8 23 66

Core bulk density [kg/dm3] Aggr [%] Bit [%] ρaggr. [kg/dm3] ρbit. [kg/dm3] ρmax. [kg/dm3]
2.310 95 5 2.600 1.020 2.413
Vm [%] VMA [%] VFB [%]
4 16 73

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 51

 Marshall test
After demoulding, wait at least 4 h (not longer than 32 h) before further testing begins. Immerse
the cylindrical specimens, on their flat surface, in the water bath for at least 40 min and not
longer than 60 min. Maintain the temperature of the water in the bath at (60±1)°C. Remove
the test specimen from the water bath and place it centrally on its side in the test head ensuring
good surface contact between the specimen and the test head.
Apply the load to the test specimen to achieve a constant rate of deformation of 0.85 mm/s.
Continue the application of this load until the maximum reading is obtained on the load
measuring device.
Load
Water
measuring device
Bath

Displacement
measuring device

Temperature Test head

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 52

 Marshall test, EN 12697-34
Stability (S): maximum resistance to deformation, in kilonewtons (kN)
Flow (F): deformation of the specimen in millimetres (mm) at maximum load
Marshall quotient (Q): ratio between the stability S and the flow F.
The Marshall stability and flow do not provide fundamental properties of asphalt
concretes. However, on the basis of extended experimental data, they are good indicators of
the resistance against permanent deformation or disgregation of asphalt concrete.

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 53

 Marshall test

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 54

 Marshall test
The maximum load attained represents the stability of the mix only if the specimen height
equals the required 63,5 mm. A corrected stability shall be reported by multiplying the
maximum load with the correction factor C.
Corrections outside the range of specimen heights from 60,5 mm to 66,5 mm can lead to
inaccurate results.

Specimen thickness [mm] Correcton Factor Specimen thickness [mm] Correcton Factor
60.3 1.09 63.5 1.00
60.5 1.09 63.7 1.00
60.7 1.08 63.9 0.99
S corrected = S ⋅ C 60.9
61.1
1.07
1.07
64.1
64.3
0.98
0.98
61.3 1.06 64.5 0.98

S corrected 61.5 1.05 64.7 0.97

Q= 61.7
61.9
1.05
1.04
64.9
65.1
0.97
0.96
F 62.1
62.3
1.04
1.03
65.3
65.5
0.96
0.95
62.5 1.03 65.7 0.95
62.7 1.02 65.9 0.94
62.9 1.02 66.1 0.94
63.1 1.01 66.3 0.94
63.3 1.01 66.5 0.93

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 55

 Marshall stability

S [kN]

B [%]

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 56

 Marshall flow

S [kN]
F [mm]

B [%]

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 57

 Marshall quotient

S [kN]
F [mm]
Q [kN/mm]

B [%]

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 58

 Marshall air voids

S [kN]
F [mm]
Q [kN/mm]
Vm [%]

B [%]

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 59

 Specifications

METODO MARSHALL
Marshall method Pavement
Strato course
pavimentazione
Condizioni
Test di prova
Conditions Unità di misura
Unit Base Binder Usura
Surface
Compaction
Costipamento 75 Blows
50 colpi x faccia
per face
Requirements
Risultati richiesti
Marshall Stability
Stabilità Marshall KN 8 10 11
Marshall
Rigidezza quotient
Marshall KN/mm > 2,5 3–4,5 3–4,5
Voids
Vuoti residui (∗) % 4–7 4–6 3–6

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 60

 Determination of the optimum bitumen content

S [kN]

B [%]

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 61

 Determination of the optimum bitumen content

S [kN]
F [mm]

B [%]

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 62

 Determination of the optimum bitumen content

S [kN]
F [mm]
Vm [%]

B [%]

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 63

 Determination of the optimum bitumen content

S [kN]
F [mm]
Vm [%]

%B
%Bmin %Bmax

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 64

 SUPERPAVE mix design method
The Superpave mix design method is a direct result of the Strategic Highway Research Program
(SHRP). Overall, the Superpave system includes new grading system for asphalt binder (PG)
consensus properties of aggregate, new mix design procedure and mixture analysis procedure.
In particular, the Superpave mix design method is a rational procedure that could be used to
better predict performance of HMA fro various traffic volumes, axle loads and environment.
The compaction method is based on a gyratory compactor able to accommodate larger maximum
aggregate size since 150 mm diameter mold can be used.
[Note that it is of crucial importance that laboratory mixtures are compacted to the same general
air voids content to which the traffic will finally compact it under service conditions. Thus the
selection of the laboratory compaction level is critical in designing a mixture that will provide
adequate field performance]
The method uses volumetric properties of compacted specimens to select optimum asphalt
mix design. The number of gyrations is varied to simulate various level of traffic and the
mixture should meet some requirements about volumetric properties at specified numbers of
gyrations.

No part of the research effort looked specifically at aggregates, evaluating them separate from
the other mixture components. Commonly recommended performance test(s) are still missing.

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 65

 SUPERPAVE mix design method

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 66

 Volumetric properties, SHRP-A-407

Water permeable porosity not

filled with absorbed asphalt

Aggregate apparent Air voids (Va)

volume (impermeable
voids included)

Effective asphalt binder

(Vbe)

Absorbed asphalt (Vba) Voids in mineral aggregates

(Vma)

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 67

 Volumetric properties, SHRP-A-407
Air voids (Va) are the percent by volume of air between coated aggregate particles in the
compacted asphalt mixture.
Voids in mineral aggregate (VMA) are the volume of compacted paving mix not occupied
by the aggregate when the volume of the aggregate is calculated from its bulk specific gravity
(not the apparent specific gravities).

Gsb = bulk specific

gravity of aggregate;
Gmb = bulk specific
gravity of
compacted mix
Ps = aggregate, percent
of total weight of mixture

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 68

 Volumetric properties, SHRP-A-407
Absorbed asphalt volume (Vba) is the volume of asphalt binder absorbed into the aggregate.
It is equal to the difference between the aggregate volume when calculated with bulk specific
gravity and with effective specific gravity.
Asphalt content (Pb) is the percent by weight of asphalt binder in the total mixture, including
asphalt binder and aggregate.

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 69

 Volumetric properties, SHRP-A-407
Effective asphalt volume (Vbe) is the volume of asphalt binder which is not absorbed into the
aggregate. It is represented by the portion of the asphalt binder volume shown above the bulk
aggregate volume.
Voids filled with asphalt (VFA) is the percentage of VMA filled with asphalt binder. It is the
effective asphalt volume divided by the voids in the mineral aggregate.

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 70

 SUPERPAVE mix design method
Main steps:
1. Select aggregate type (consensus properties) and binder type (Performance Graded) on the
basis of environmental conditions and traffic;
2. Select some trial aggregate gradations and an estimate preliminary binder content;
3. Compact specimens using the Superpave gyratory compactor applying a number of gyrations
depending on the traffic level and environmental conditions of the project (use mixing and
compaction temperatures from the viscosity-temperature chart);
4. Select a gradation on the basis of volumetric properties (voids, VMA, VFB) and traffic level;
5. Prepare different mixtures varying binder content (above and below the initial trial content);
6. Compact specimens using the Superpave gyratory compactor applying a number of gyrations
depending on the traffic level of the project;
7. Determine the volumetric properties of the specimens (voids, VMA, VFB) using the
theoretical maximum density of mixes and bulk specific gravities of aggregates and asphalt;
8. Select the optimum bitumen content on the basis of optimum voids content and allowable
VMA and VFB;
9. Prepare specimens at construction voids (7%) with optimum asphalt content;
10. Run indirect tensile strength tests on a set of moisture-conditioned and another set of dry
specimens in order to compute the tensile strength ratio as indicator of the moisture
resistance (usually ≥ 80%).

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 71

 SUPERPAVE mix design method
The asphalt binder selection was discussed earlier (Performance Grade)

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 72

 SUPERPAVE mix design method
Consensus properties of aggregates that are specified as result of the SHRP program include
aggregate angularity and shape as well as cleanliness (sand equivalent test).

[Note: Traffic expressed in millions of Equivalent Standard Axle Load (ESAL)]

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 73

 Initial trial aggregate blends (SHRP method)
The gradation of the aggregate is important to ensure adequate maximum aggregate size and
VMA as well as a satisfactory aggregate skeleton.
100 percent of the aggregate must pass the maximum size and at least 90-100 percent of the
aggregate must be finer than the nominal maximum aggregate size whereas less than 90 percent
of the aggregate must pass the first sieve smaller than the NMAS. Control points are also set on
the 2.36 mm and the 0.075 mm sieve size.

A part of the grading specification of the

Superpave requirements is the restricted zone.
The restricted zone is no longer a recommended
requirement but it is still a good guide for a
proper mix design.
The restricted zone is a zone lying on the
maximum density line which it is usually
undesirable for the gradation to pass.

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 74

 Initial trial aggregate blends (SHRP method)
Typically for mix design, two-three aggregate gradations matching Superpave requirements will
be evaluated (many times a fine-graded and a coarse-graded aggregate will be included).
It could happen that the aggregate structure regardless the gradation does not meet some
volumetric requirements. This is a good indication that the source of the aggregate is not
acceptable.

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 75

 Initial trial bitumen content (SHRP method)
Most often an estimate is determined based on past experience or specifications of the project.
However, a good estimate should be available from the design aggregate blend trials.

Calculating an initial trial bitumen content requires the following steps:

1. Determine the bulk and apparent density (specific gravity) of each aggregate fraction.
2. Calculate the bulk and apparent density of the total aggregate blend.
3. Estimate the effective specific gravity of the total aggregate blend.
4. Estimate the percent volume of bitumen absorbed into the aggregate.
5. Estimate the volume percent of effective bitumen.
6. Calculate the initial trial bitumen content (Pbi expressed as percent of the bitumen by
weight of the total paving mix) fixing a target value of voids and VMA.

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 76

 Gyratory compactor, EN 12697-31
Such compaction is achieved by combining a rotary shearing action and a vertical
resultant force applied by a mechanical head achieving the orientation of the aggregate
particles similar to that observed in the field.
The method is used for:
a) determination of the air voids content of a mixture for a given number of gyrations or
derivation of a curve density (or void content) versus number of gyrations;
b) preparation of specimens of given height and/or at a predetermined density, for
subsequent testing of their mechanical properties.
This compaction method applies to bituminous mixtures (both made up in laboratory and
resulting from work site sampling), with an upper aggregate size not larger than 31,5 mm.

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 77

 Gyratory compactor, EN 12697-31
The bituminous mixture is contained within a cylindrical mould limited by inserts and kept
at a constant temperature within specified tolerances throughout the whole duration of the test.
Compaction is achieved by the simultaneous action of a low static compression, and of the
shearing action resulting from the motion of the axis of the mould which generates a
conical surface of revolution while the ends of the test piece should ideally remain
perpendicular to the axis of the conical surface.
If the nominal maximum size of the aggregates is 16 mm or less, the diameter of the
specimens shall be 100 mm, 150 mm or 160 mm. If the maximum size of the aggregates is
more than 16 mm, the diameter of the specimens shall be 150 mm or 160 mm.

Loading frame
rpm
Loading head

Mould
Reclining
support
Rotating base

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 78

 Gyratory compactor, EN 12697-31
If further tests are required, the ends of the specimen shall be adjusted such that they are
perpendicular to its axis using one of the three methods following:
• apply two to ten additional revolutions, while the angle φ is progressively or step by step set
to zero;
• remove the mould from the gyratory compactor; apply a static load of (8 000 ± 500) N for
100 mm diameter specimens or (20 000 ± 1 000) N for 150 mm or 160 mm diameter
specimens, parallel to the axis of the mould, on the inserts;
• cut by sawing

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 79

 Gyratory compactor: curve density
The volume of the sample can be easily monitored during the compaction by measuring the
sample height at any gyration n. Through the ratio between the sample mass and its volume at
any gyration, it is possible to calculate the relative sample bulk density ρbn.
The compaction percentage Cn at any gyration is the ratio between the relative sample
bulk density ρbn and the mixture maximum density ρm (EN 12697-05). Thus, experimental
compaction curves (Cn as a function of n), can be interpolated with a logarithmic law.
Where the experimental parameters C10 and k respectively represent material auto-
compactability and workability and allow the material compactability to be analyzed. As
k increases, as material is more sensitive to compaction energy. From the compaction
percentage Cn the air void content Vmn can be easily calculated.

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 80

 Gyratory compactor: curve density
Sample mass [g] 4500 Diameter [cm] 15
3
Bit. [% su AC] 4.1 ρbit [g/cm ] 1.020
ρmax [g/cm3] 2.504
3
ρagg [g/cm ] 2.670
3 3
Gyrations [no.] Gyrations [log(n)] Height [mm] Volume [cm ] Density [g/cm ] C [%] Vm [%] VMA [%] VFB [%]
0 - 133.5 2359 1.908 76.20 23.80 31.47 24.37
5 - 120.7 2133 2.110 84.27 15.73 24.22 35.02
10 1.000 116.9 2065 2.179 87.02 12.98 21.74 40.28
15 1.176 114.6 2025 2.222 88.73 11.27 20.20 44.22
20 1.301 113.0 1998 2.253 89.97 10.03 19.09 47.44
25 1.398 111.9 1977 2.277 90.92 9.08 18.23 50.20
30 1.477 110.9 1961 2.295 91.67 8.33 17.56 52.54
35 1.544 110.2 1947 2.312 92.33 7.67 16.97 54.77
40 1.602 109.5 1935 2.325 92.86 7.14 16.49 56.68
45 1.653 109.0 1926 2.337 93.33 6.67 16.06 58.49
50 1.699 108.5 1917 2.347 93.74 6.26 15.69 60.13
55 1.740 108.0 1909 2.357 94.13 5.87 15.35 61.72
60 1.778 107.7 1903 2.365 94.45 5.55 15.05 63.15
65 1.813 107.3 1897 2.373 94.76 5.24 14.78 64.52
70 1.845 107.0 1891 2.379 95.03 4.97 14.53 65.81
75 1.875 106.8 1887 2.385 95.26 4.74 14.33 66.93
80 1.903 106.5 1882 2.391 95.50 4.50 14.11 68.10
85 1.929 106.2 1877 2.397 95.72 4.28 13.91 69.26
90 1.954 106.0 1874 2.402 95.91 4.09 13.74 70.24
95 1.978 105.9 1871 2.406 96.08 3.92 13.59 71.15
100 2.000 105.7 1867 2.410 96.26 3.74 13.43 72.14
105 2.021 105.5 1864 2.414 96.41 3.59 13.29 73.00
110 2.041 105.3 1861 2.418 96.55 3.45 13.17 73.79
115 2.061 105.2 1859 2.421 96.69 3.31 13.05 74.59
120 2.079 105.0 1856 2.424 96.81 3.19 12.93 75.36
125 2.097 104.9 1854 2.427 96.93 3.07 12.83 76.04
130 2.114 104.8 1852 2.430 97.04 2.96 12.73 76.74
135 2.130 104.7 1850 2.432 97.13 2.87 12.65 77.28
140 2.146 104.6 1849 2.434 97.22 2.78 12.56 77.88
145 2.161 104.5 1847 2.436 97.29 2.71 12.50 78.33
150 2.176 104.4 1846 2.438 97.38 2.62 12.42 78.89
155 2.190 104.4 1844 2.440 97.45 2.55 12.36 79.35
160 2.204 104.3 1843 2.442 97.52 2.48 12.30 79.81
165 2.217 104.2 1841 2.444 97.60 2.40 12.22 80.40
170 2.230 104.1 1840 2.446 97.67 2.33 12.16 80.82
175 2.243 104.1 1839 2.447 97.71 2.29 12.12 81.12
180 2.255 104.0 1838 2.448 97.78 2.22 12.06 81.60
185 2.267 104.0 1837 2.449 97.82 2.18 12.02 81.90
190 2.279 103.9 1836 2.451 97.89 2.11 11.97 82.34
195 2.290 103.8 1835 2.452 97.93 2.07 11.93 82.64
200 2.301 103.8 1834 2.453 97.97 2.03 11.89 82.90
Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 81
 Gyratory compactor: curve density

100
Dense graded Asphalt Concrete
90
C = 8,257log(n) + 79,48
80 R² = 0,989
Volumetric parameter [%]

70

60
C [%]
50
Vm [%]
VFB = 35,58log(n) + 0,967
40 VMA [%]
R² = 0,993
VFB [%]
30
VMA = -7,426log(n) + 28,51
20 R² = 0,989

10 Vm = -8,257log(n) + 20,52
R² = 0,989
0
0 0,5 1 1,5 2 2,5
Number of gyrations[log(n)]

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 82

 Gyratory compactor: curve density
Sample mass [g] 1652 Diameter [cm] 10
Bit. [% su AC] 4.01 ρbit [g/cm3] 1.020
3 3
ρmax [g/cm ] 2.507 ρagg [g/cm ] 2.670
3
Gyrations [no.] Gyrations [log(n)] Height [mm] Volume [cm ] Density [g/cm3] C [%] Vm [%] VMA [%] VFB [%]
0 - 140.9 1107 1.492 59.52 40.5 46.3 12.7
5 - 128.5 1009 1.637 65.28 34.7 41.2 15.6
10 1.000 124.3 976 1.692 67.48 32.5 39.2 17.0
15 1.176 121.6 955 1.730 68.99 31.0 37.8 18.0
20 1.301 119.7 940 1.758 70.10 29.9 36.8 18.8
25 1.398 118.3 929 1.778 70.92 29.1 36.1 19.4
30 1.477 117.2 920 1.795 71.58 28.4 35.5 19.9
35 1.544 116.3 913 1.809 72.13 27.9 35.0 20.3
40 1.602 115.5 907 1.820 72.60 27.4 34.6 20.7
45 1.653 114.9 903 1.830 73.00 27.0 34.2 21.0
50 1.699 114.3 898 1.839 73.36 26.6 33.9 21.4
55 1.740 113.9 894 1.847 73.68 26.3 33.6 21.6
60 1.778 113.4 891 1.854 73.95 26.1 33.3 21.9
65 1.813 113.1 888 1.860 74.19 25.8 33.1 22.1
70 1.845 112.7 885 1.867 74.46 25.5 32.9 22.3
75 1.875 112.3 882 1.873 74.69 25.3 32.7 22.5
80 1.903 112.0 880 1.878 74.90 25.1 32.5 22.7
85 1.929 111.7 877 1.883 75.09 24.9 32.3 22.9
90 1.954 111.4 875 1.888 75.28 24.7 32.1 23.1
95 1.978 111.2 873 1.892 75.45 24.6 32.0 23.2
100 2.000 111.0 872 1.895 75.59 24.4 31.9 23.4
105 2.021 110.7 870 1.899 75.75 24.2 31.7 23.5
110 2.041 110.5 868 1.903 75.91 24.1 31.6 23.7
115 2.061 110.3 866 1.907 76.07 23.9 31.4 23.9
120 2.079 110.1 865 1.911 76.20 23.8 31.3 24.0
125 2.097 109.9 863 1.914 76.33 23.7 31.2 24.1
130 2.114 109.7 862 1.917 76.47 23.5 31.1 24.3
135 2.130 109.6 861 1.919 76.53 23.5 31.0 24.3
140 2.146 109.4 859 1.922 76.67 23.3 30.9 24.5
145 2.161 109.3 858 1.925 76.78 23.2 30.8 24.6
150 2.176 109.1 857 1.927 76.87 23.1 30.7 24.7
155 2.190 109.0 856 1.930 76.96 23.0 30.6 24.8
160 2.204 108.9 855 1.932 77.05 22.9 30.5 24.9
165 2.217 108.7 854 1.934 77.15 22.9 30.5 25.0
170 2.230 108.6 853 1.937 77.23 22.8 30.4 25.1
175 2.243 108.5 852 1.939 77.31 22.7 30.3 25.1
180 2.255 108.4 851 1.941 77.41 22.6 30.2 25.2
185 2.267 108.3 850 1.943 77.49 22.5 30.1 25.3
190 2.279 108.2 849 1.945 77.56 22.4 30.1 25.4
195 2.290 108.0 849 1.947 77.64 22.4 30.0 25.5
200 2.301 107.9 848 1.949 77.73 22.3 29.9 25.6

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 83

 Gyratory compactor: curve density
100
Porous Asphalt
90

80
C = 7,699log(n) + 60,14
Volumetric parameter [%]

70
R² = 0,998
C [%]
60
Vm [%]
50 VMA = -6,940log(n) + 45,78 VMA [%]
R² = 0,998 VFB [%]
40
Vm = -7,699log(n) + 39,85
30 R² = 0,998

20 VFB = 6,755log(n) + 9,944

R² = 0,998
10

0
0 0,5 1 1,5 2 2,5
Number of gyrations log(n)]

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 84

 Volumetric mix design
After the aggregate gradation has been selected, samples characterized by different asphalt
content (above and below the estimated optimum content) are prepared and compacted with
the Superpave gyratory compactor.
The volumetric properties are evaluated at different compaction energies (number of gyrations
of the Superpave Gyratory Compactor SGC). Mixtures exposed to higher traffic levels in the
field will densify more under traffic and therefore must be compacted to a higher density in
the laboratory increasing the number of gyrations.
[In the Italian method the compaction energies are selected on the basis of the type of bitumen
and pavement layer.]

(4% Voids)

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 85

 Volumetric mix design
There are three points of interest on the SGC curve.
Ninitial which is a measure of mixture auto-compatibility. Mixtures that compact too quickly
are believed to be tender during construction and may be unstable when subjected to traffic.
Ndesign is the number of gyrations required to produce a density in the mix that is equivalent to
the expected density in the field after several years of traffic. In the mix design process, an
asphalt content is selected that will provide 4% air voids at Nd.
Nmaximum is the number of gyrations required to produce a density that should absolutely never
be exceeded in the field (estimate of the ultimate field density). The air voids at Nm are
required to be at least 2% to ensure that the mixture does not densify too much resulting in
low in-place voids thus leading to rutting.
Nd was established based on traffic level and air temperature to compare field and laboratory
densities. Then Ni and Nm were established based on Nd.

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 86

 Selection of the optimum asphalt content
Each sample is compacted up to Nd (or Nm) gyrations based on the design traffic and
temperature and the corresponding bulk density is measured. Volumetric properties at Ni can be
backcalculated. The theoretical maximum density is assessed on the same mixture and the
voids can be determined as well as the effective specific gravity of the aggregate. A previous
aging in oven is needed to allow absorption of asphalt prior to compaction and cooling (field
representative situation).
Then, it is possible to pick up the asphalt content that will provide 4% voids at Nd.
Once the optimum asphalt content is determined check for the other specifications such as
VMA, VFA, Ni and Nm (VFA is somewhat redundant since it is function of voids and VMA).
If all of the volumetric requirements are satisfied, the moisture susceptibility tests are
conducted.

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 87

 Selection of the optimum asphalt content

Percent air voids

Volumetric properties (example) 8.0

6.0

4.0

y = 282.55x -2.6265
2.0
R2 = 0.9535

0.0
3.50 4.00 4.50 5.00 5.50 6.00

Tradizionale Percent asphalt content

Percent VMA
VFA

100.0 17.0

80.0 16.0

60.0 15.0

40.0 14.0

20.0 13.0

0.0 12.0
3.50 4.00 4.50 5.00 5.50 6.00 3.50 4.00 4.50 5.00 5.50 6.00
Tradizionale Percent asphalt content Tradizionale Percent asphalt content

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 88

 Selection of the optimum asphalt content
An example of Italian specifications:
(limit values are established depending on type of bitumen and course)

Pavement Course Bitumen Voids [%] @ (n. gyrations)

Plain 12÷15 (10) 3÷5 (100) ≥ 2 (180)
Base course
Polymer modified 12÷15 (10) 3÷5 (120) ≥ 2 (200)
Plain 12÷15 (10) 3÷5 (100) ≥ 2 (180)
Binder course
Polymer modified 12÷15 (10) 3÷5 (120) ≥ 2 (200)
Plain 12÷15 (10) 3÷5 (130) ≥ 2 (220)
Wearing course
Polymer modified 12÷15 (10) 3÷5 (150) ≥ 2 (240)
Specimens prepared through the Superpave gyratory compactor:
 Inclination angle: 1.25±0.2
 Speed of revolution: 30 rpm
 Vertical pressure: 600 kPa
 Mould diameter: 100 or 150 mm

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 89

 Water susceptibility, AASHTO T-283
 Tests on samples compacted with the optimum asphalt content at a specified air voids
content (7% ± 1%);
 Moisture resistance is evaluated by measuring the tensile strength ratio (respecting a
minimum limit such as 80%) calculated as the ratio between the strength of dry specimens
and the strength of wet conditioned specimens subjected to indirect tensile strength tests.

The conditioning phase is supposed to simulate the destructive action of moisture as well as
freezing and thawing through which cohesive bonds inside the specimen are weakened
lowering the tensile strength.
This conditioning can be simply soaking and drying or it can be freezing and thawing
depending on the expected environmental conditions.

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 90

 Moisture conditioning, AASHTO T-283
The specimens compacted with the optimum asphalt content at a specified air voids content
(7% ± 1%) are divided into two groups.
The dry subset samples are placed inside a water bath maintained at 25°C after placing them in
leak-proof plastic bags. After 2 h, the samples are removed from the bags and tested for their
tensile strength.
The wet subset samples are vacuum saturated to at least 55%–80% of saturation (which should
be checked by measuring the SSD weight), after which they are covered with plastic wrap and
placed in a plastic bag with 10 mL of water inside the bag. The bag is then placed inside a
freezer at −18°C for 16 h, after which the specimen is placed in a 60°C water bath for 24 h.
Then the specimen is conditioned at 25°C water, and then tested for tensile strength.

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix Design of Asphalt Concrete 91

 Indirect tensile strength, EN 12697-23
The cylindrical specimen is brought to the specified test temperature (usually 25°C), placed in
the compression testing machine between the loading strips, and loaded diametrically along
the direction of the cylinder axis with a constant speed of displacement (usually 50 mm/min)
until it breaks.
The specimens shall be laboratory-produced cylindrical specimens, or cores taken from a
bituminous slab or cores taken from a bituminous layer.

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix design of Asphalt Concrete 92

 Indirect tensile strength, EN 12697-23
The indirect tensile strength, ITS is the maximum (calculated) tensile stress applied to a
cylindrical specimen loaded diametrically until break at the specified test temperature and
speed of displacement of the compression testing machine.

2⋅ P
ITS =
π ⋅h⋅D

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix design of Asphalt Concrete 93

 Water susceptibility
Moisture resistance is evaluated by measuring the indirect tensile strength ratio ITSR
(respecting a minimum limit such as 80%) calculated as the ratio between the strength of dry
specimens and the strength of wet conditioned specimens subjected to ITS tests

ITS wet
ITSR = ×100
ITS dry

Emiliano Pasquini, PhD Mix design of Asphalt Concrete 94