DEPARTMENT OF CIVILENGINEERING

TECHNICAL SEMINAR REPORT ON

OFFSHORE STRUCTURE FONDATIONS

Submitted by,

SAGAR RATHOD

1RV16CV081

Under the guidanceof

VENUGOPAL G
Assistant Professor Deptof
CivilEngineering RV College
ofEngineering

In partial fulfilment for the award of degree of

Bachelor of Engineering in
CIVIL ENGINEERING
2019-2020
CIVIL ENGINEERING

Department of Civil Engineering, RVCE, 2019-20 Page 1

 RV COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING®, BENGALURU-59
(Autonomous Institution Affiliated to VTU, Belagavi)

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE

Certified that the technical report work titled ‘OFFSHORE STRUCTURE

FOUNDATIONS is carried out by SAGAR RATHOD 1RV16CV081 who are bonafide
students of RV College of Engineering, Bengaluru, in partial fulfilment for the award
of degree of Bachelor of Engineering in Civil of R V college of engineering of the
Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi during the year 2018-2019. It is
certified that all corrections/suggestions indicated for the Internal Assessment
have been incorporated in the major project report deposited in the departmental
library. The major project report has been approved as it satisfies the academic
requirements in respect of project work prescribed by the institution for the said
degree.

Signature of Guide Signature of Head of the Department Signature

of Principal
Dr. ------------------
Dr.K.N.Subramanya ExternalViva

Name of Examiners Signature withDate

Department of Civil Engineering, RVCE, 2019-20 Page 2

 CONTENTS

1. Introduction

2. Objective ofstudy

3. Literature survey

4. Offshore structures

5. Types of Offshore structure

6. Foundations for offshore structures

7. Case study

8. Conclusion

9. References

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 CHAPTER 1

1.Introduction

One of the greatest discoveries of 20th century was oil and

it has so many applications that it cannot be separated from mankind. The oil
exploration has started as early as 1900 and the oil exploration initially was
concentrated on land. As the need for oil expands in an explosive rate, need for and
new discoveries were eminent. During the middle of 20th century, oil discovery
started in near shore and medium range of water depth.

The need for qualified offshore structural personnel are

rapidly increasing as the oil industry moves into deeper water in the search for
additional supplies of oil and gas, new technology is emerging at a rapid peace for the
development of new concepts for offshore platforms.

Offshore construction is the installation of structures and

facilities in a marine environment, usually for the production and transmission of
electricity, oil, gas and other resources.
Construction and pre-commissioning is typically performed
as much as possible onshore. To optimize the costs and risks of installing large
offshore platforms, different construction strategies have been developed.

One strategy is to fully construct the offshore facility

onshore, and tow the installation to site floating on its own buoyancy. Bottom
founded structure are lowered to the seabed by de-ballasting, whilst floating
structures are held in position with substantial mooring systems.

The size of offshore lifts can be reduced by making the

construction modular, with each module being constructed onshore and then lifted
using a crane vessel into place onto the platform. A number of very large crane
vessels were built in the 1970s which allow very large single modules weighing up to
14,000 tones to be fabricated and then lifted into place.
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 Specialist floating hotel vessels known as flotels are used to
accommodate workers during the construction and hook-up phases. This is a high
cost activity due to the limited space and access to materials

Oil platforms are key fixed installations from which drilling

and production activity is carried out. Drilling rigs are either floating vessels for
deeper water or jack-up designs which are a barge with lift-able legs. Both of these
types of vessel are constructed in marine yards but are often involved during the
construction phase to pre-drill some production wells. Other key factors in offshore
construction are the weather window which defines periods of relatively light weather
during which continuous construction or other offshore activity can take place. Safety
is another key construction parameter, the main hazard obviously being a fall into the
sea from which speedy recovery in cold waters is essential.

2.Objective Of Study :

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 3. Literature Survey
Pedro Gomes Simões de Abreu et al (2006)

Offshore structures can be broadly categorised as fixed platforms, compliant

towers, floating structures and subsea systems. Foundation for offshore structures
has been classified into shallow water foundation(<500m) and deep water
foundation (>500m) .I.e Spudcans , Piles ,Gravity base structures (GBS)
Concrete caissons ,Steel Buckets and gravity and embedded based anchors.Both
of the torpedo and the SEPLA solutions have setback a in common which is their
patented installation method.estimation of the penetration depends on soil, the
precise soil strength profile and the presence of stiff elements.

Subhamoy Bhattacharya et al(2014)

Offshore Wind Turbines are new types of offshore structure characterised by low
stiffness (as a result flexible and having low natural frequency) and therefore
sensitive to the dynamic loading imposed upon them. The article discusses the
complexity involved in designing the foundation of these structures. It has been
shown that design guidelines available for offshore oil and gas installation
foundations cannot be direct extrapolated/ interpolated to offshore wind turbine
foundation design.

Sergio Sánchez et al(2016)

Offshore wind energy is experiencing constant growth in recent years, consolidating
itself as one of the fields with more potential. For this form of energy generation to
be competitive, several years of research and development have been necessary.
Monopiles are the most used foundations in shallow (0–15 m) and intermediate
depths (15–30 m). The simplicity of designing and manufacturing, together with a
vast knowledge inherited from experience, especially in Europe, has led this typology
to be the first option in more than 60% of the world’s offshore wind foundations
nowadays. • Jacket and tripod structures remain as strong competitors to monopiles
when the seabed depth is higher than 30 m. Floating solutions, which are beginning
to be used for real energy production, are supposed to take the market by storm in
the near future, bringing this sector to places that remain unavailable nowadays.

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Monopiles evolution has been studied according the following monomials:
diameter/length, diameter/turbine power, length/turbine power, diameter/water
depth, length/diameter, dimeter/distance to the coast, length/distance to the coast,
and water depth/ distance to the coast, with the following average values: 0.11;
1.48; 14.2; 0.37; 3.5; 0.32; 2.92; 0.86 TheDiameter/Length monomial has the lowest
variation,stayingcloseto0.10,0.11duringthelast years, so it can be used for a first and
fastfigure of the length of the pile .The other coefficient with a higher variability can
be used for thefirst estimate in case of using the monomials value obtained in last
years, the most current ones.
Ioannis Chatzigianneli et al
Selection of the proper foundation system depends on ground conditions and
requires in depth knowledge of geotechnical engineering and significant construction
experience. Adverse ground conditions, extreme design loads and construction in the
open sea require innovative construction, well engineered solutions. .A monotower is
a fixed structure in which the whole structure, or at least the upper part of the
structure, consists of a single vertical column (tubular or framed) that carries the
topsides. Where the monotower consists of a single vertical column over its full
height that continues into the seabed as the foundation pile, this is described as a
„free-standing caisson‟ or simply „caisson‟. A „braced caisson‟ is a monotower
where the lower part of the column is laterally supported by one or more inclined
braces between the column and one or more foundation piles. Monotowers are
designed to be unmanned or not normally manned.
Paul A Frieze et al (2009)
A monotower is a fixed structure in which the whole structure, or at least the upper
part of the structure, consists of a single vertical column (tubular or framed) that
carries the topsides. Where the monotower consists of a single vertical column over
its full height that continues into the seabed as the foundation pile, this is described
as a „free-standing caisson‟ or simply „caisson‟. A „braced caisson‟ is a monotower
where the lower part of the column is laterally supported by one or more inclined
braces between the column and one or more foundation piles. Monotowers are
designed to be unmanned or not normally manned.

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Torgeir Moan et al(2016)
fatigue analysis,static and dynamic analysis is carried out in design of foundatio
Long-term wave climate is the starting point fatigue analysisyn and sea loads and
load effects are incresed by considering several factors in ssuming required factor of
safety.
Gande Sandhya et al (2018)
Calculation of the stresses acting on the structure for different load cases as found
by selecting the maximum stress producing load combination gives maximum
structural stability.
Fabian Kirsch et al(2013)
In case of driving offshore piles ,Dynamic pile testing is essential in case of wind
turbines under heavy cyclic study.CAPWAP analysis can be used to calculate bilinear
p-y-curves for lateral loading in order achieve maximum stability of the structure.

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4. OFFSHORE STRUCTURE
Offshore structures are generally classified as bottom supported fixed structures or
floating structures. The most common form of fixed offshore platforms (jacket
structure) may be supported on piled foundations or gravity based structures (GBS)
resting on the seabed. Piles are usually tubular, open-ended and driven. Piles are
also drilled and grouted in calcareous sediments, and other crushable material,
where the shaft friction obtained with driven piles can be extremely low. Gravity
platforms are steel or concrete structures equipped with skirts that penetrate into
the seabed, and frequently ballasted. Jack-up platforms are restricted to shallow
waters and are normally installed for a limited duration, and are typically supported
on spudcans. The floating structures may be grouped as neutrally buoyant structures
(Spars, semisubmersible MODUs and FPSs, ship-shaped FPSOs and drill ships) and
positively buoyant structures (TLPs, and buoyant towers) . Anchor systems are used
to moor buoyant facilities. Anchors are divided into two types; gravity anchors or
embedded anchors (anchor pile, suction caisson, drag anchor, vertically loaded
anchor (VLA), suction embedded plate anchor (SEPLA) and dynamically penetrated
anchor (DPA).

Loads acting on the offshore structures are differentiated as either static

or dynamic. Static loads acting on the structures are gravity loads, deck loads,
hydrostatic loads and current loads. The dynamic loads originate from wind and
waves. In some areas, earthquake imposes high dynamic loads. All these loads are
carried by the foundation and hence foundation engineering is a critical element in
the design process.

5. Types of Offshore Structures

The offshore structures built in the ocean to explore oil and gases are
located in depths from very shallow water to the deep ocean. Depending on the
water depth and environmental conditions, the structural arrangement and need for
new ideas required. Based on geometry and behaviour, the offshore structures for oil
and gas development has been divided into following categories.

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1. Fixed Platforms
I. Steel template Structures
II. Concrete Gravity Structures

2. Compliant tower
I. Compliant Tower
II. Guyed Tower
III. Articulated Tower
IV. Tension Leg Platform

3. Floating Structures
I. Floating Production System
II. Floating Production, Storage and Offloading System

1. Fixed Platforms
The fixed type of platform shall exhibit a low natural period and deflection again
environmental loads.

I. Steel template Structures

The steel template type structure consists of a tall vertical section made of tubular
steel members supported by piles driven into the sea be with a deck placed on top,
providing space for crew quarters, a drilling rig, and production facilities. The fixed
platform is economically feasible for installation in water depths up to 500m.
These template type structures will be fixed to seabed
by means of tubular piles either driven through legs of the jacket (main piles) or
through skirt sleeves attached to the bottom of the jacket.

The principle behind the fixed platform design is to minimize the

natural period of the structure below 4 seconds to avoid resonant behaviour with the
waves (period in the order of 4 to 25 seconds. The structural and foundation
configuration shall be selected to achieve this

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concept.

II. Concrete Gravity Platforms

Concrete gravity platforms are mostly used in the areas where feasibility of pile
installation is remote. These platforms are very common in areas with strong seabed geological
conditions either with rock outcrop or sandy formation.
Some part of north sea oil fields and Australian coast, these kind of
platforms are located. The concrete gravity platform by its name derive its horizontal stability
against environmental forces by means of its weight. These structures are basically concrete
shells assembled in circular array with stem columns projecting to above water to support the
deck and facilities.
Concrete gravity platforms have been constructed in water depths as much as 350m.

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1. Compliant Structures
In addition to the developing technologies for exploration and production of oil and
natural gas, new concepts in deepwater systems and facilities have emerged to make
ultra-deepwater projects a reality. With wells being drilled in water depths of 3000m, the
traditional fixed offshore platform is being replaced by state-of-the-art deepwater
production facilities. Compliant Towers, Tension Leg Platforms, Spars, Subsea Systems,
Floating Production Systems, and Floating Production, Storage and Offloading Systems
are now being used in water depths exceeding 500m. All of these systems are proven
technology, and in use in offshore production worldwide

.
FIG 2.1 COMPLIANT TOWER

I. Compliant Tower

Compliant Tower (CT) consists of a narrow, flexible tower and a piled foundation that can
support a conventional deck for drilling and production operations. Unlike the fixed
platform, the compliant tower withstands large lateral forces by sustaining significant
lateral deflections, and is usually used in water depths between 300m and 600m.

II. Guyed Tower

Guyed tower is an extension of complaint tower with guy wires tied to the seabed by
means of anchors or piles. This guy ropes minimises the lateral displacement of the
platform topsides.

This further changes the dynamic characteristics of the system.

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III. Tension Leg Platforms
A Tension-leg platform is a vertically moored floating structure normally used for the
offshore production of oil or gas, and is particularly suited for water depths around 1000m
to 1200 metres (about 4000 ft). The platform is permanently moored by means of tethers
or tendons grouped at each of the structure’s corners. A group of tethers is called a
tension leg. A feature of the design of the tethers is that they have relatively high axial
stiffness (low elasticity), such that virtually all vertical motion of the platform is eliminated.
This allows the platform to have the production wellheads on deck (connected directly to
the subsea wells by rigid risers), instead of on the seafloor. This makes for a cheaper well
completion and gives better control over the production from the oil or gas reservoir.

Tension Leg Platform (TLP) consists of a floating structure held in place by vertical, tensioned
tendons connected to the sea floor by pile-secured templates. Tensioned tendons provide for
the use of a TLP in a broad water depth range with limited vertical motion. The larger TLP’s
have been successfully deployed in water depths approaching 1250m.

Mini-Tension Leg Platform (Mini-TLP) is a floating mini-tension leg

platform of relatively low cost developed for production of smaller deepwater reserves which
would be uneconomic to produce using more conventional deepwater production systems. It
can also be used as a utility, satellite, or early production platform for larger deepwater
discoveries. The world’s first Mini-TLP was installed in the Gulf of Mexico in 1998.

SPAR Platform (SPAR) consists of a large diameter single vertical

cylinder supporting a deck. It has a typical fixed platform topside (surface deck with drilling
and production equipment), three types of risers (production, drilling, and export), and a hull
which is moored using a taut catenary system of six to twenty lines anchored into the
seafloor. SPAR’s are presently used in water depths up to 1000m, although existing
technology can extend its use to water depths as great as 2500m.

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 FIG 2.2 TENSION LEG PLATFORM

IV. Articulated Tower

Articulated tower is an extension of tension leg platform. The tension cables
are replaced by one single buoyant shell with sufficient buoyancy and required restoring moment
against lateral loads.The main part of the configuration is the universal joint which connects the
shell with the foundation system. The foundation system usually consists of gravity based
concrete block or some times with driven piles.
The articulated tower concept is well suited for intermediate water depths
ranging from 150m to 500m

FIG 2.3 ARTICULATED TOWER

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2. Floating Structures

I. Floating Production System

Floating Production System (FPS) consists of a semi-submersible unit which is equipped

with drilling and production equipment. It is anchored in place with wire rope and chain,
or can be dynamically positioned using rotating thrusters. Production from subsea wells is
transported to the surface deck through production risers designed to accommodate
platform motion. The FPS can be used in a range of water depths from 600m to 2500m
feet.

II. Floating Production, Storage and offloading System

Floating Production, Storage and Offloading System (FPSO) consists of a large tanker type
vessel moored to the seafloor. An FPSO is designed to process and stow production from
nearby subsea wells and to periodically offload the stored oil to a smaller shuttle tanker.
The shuttle tanker then transports the oil to an onshore facility for further processing. An
FPSO may be suited for marginally economic fields located in remote deepwater areas
where a pipeline infrastructure does not exist. Currently, there are no FPSO’s approved for
use in the Gulf of Mexico. However, there are over 70 of these systems being used
elsewhere in the world.

6. FOUNDATIONS FOR OFFSHORE STRUCTURES

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1. SHALLOW WATER FOUNDATIONS

Water depth is considered shallow if the seabed depth does not exceed about 500
meters. The principal types of foundation used in this situation are:
a. Spudcans
b. Piles
c. Gravity base structures (GBS)
d. Concrete caissons
e. Steel Buckets

a. SPUDCANS

In the offshore industry an important role is played by self-elevating mobile drilling units,
commonly known as jack-ups, due to their flexibility and cost-effectiveness). It has proved to
be a very useful construction “tool”, especially when working in turbulent sea areas, or
breaking waves such as shoal or coastal waters, and in swift currents .
These structures consist of a buoyant triangular unit resting on three or more retractable
legs. This unit supports drilling and other topside equipment; it moves onto the intended
location with legs retracted, then releases the legs onto the seabed, and raises the hull out of
the water, as shown on Figure 16. On jack-ups, the foundation legs operate independently of
each other, and their foundations are usually known as “spudcans”.
These foundations have a unique geometry, since they are installed relying only on the
structure’s self-weight plus an additional designed preload, which is intended to minimize
settlement and improve resistance to environmental solicitations. Spudcans are roughly
circular in plan, typically they have a shallow conical underside (in the order of 15 to 30
degrees to the horizontal) with a sharp protruding spigot. In the larger jack-ups operating
today, the spudcan diameter can exceed 20 meters, with the shapes varying with the
manufacturer and rig (Randolph et al., 2005). Figure 17 illustrates two different spudcan
shapes. The usual height of a jack-up structure is over 160 m.

Figure 17 – Some example spudcan shapes (Randolph et al., 2005)

Since jack-ups started to be applied in deeper water and harsher environments,
preloading also started to play a more important role in design. Preloading induces bearing
capacity failure in the soil beneath and around each spudcan, causing the spudcan to
penetrate into the seabed until the soil resistance equals the applied load. Using the jacks on
one leg at a time, the barge acting as the reaction, the legs are forced into the soil. After
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these a pile hammer may be used on the top of the legs to gain even greater penetration. If
the same penetration was given to all legs a punch-through failure or a damage on the
foundation might occur during preloading, which could result in the jackup toppling over and
one or more legs being bent or broken. So, to avoid these risks, modern jackups are able to
preload the spudcans individually These foundations have a unique geometry, since they are
installed relying only on the structure’s self-weight plus an additional designed preload,
which is intended to minimize settlement and improve resistance to environmental
solicitations. Spudcans are roughly circular in plan, typically they have a shallow conical
underside (in the order of 15 to 30 degrees to the horizontal) with a sharp protruding spigot.
In the larger jack-ups operating today, the spudcan diameter can exceed 20 meters, with the
shapes varying with the manufacturer and rig . Figure 17 illustrates two different spudcan
shapes. The usual height of a jack-up structure is over 160 m.
Since jack-ups started to be applied in deeper water and harsher environments,
preloading also started to play a more important role in design. Preloading induces bearing
capacity failure in the soil beneath and around each spudcan, causing the spudcan to
penetrate into the seabed until the soil resistance equals the applied load. Using the jacks on
one leg at a time, the barge acting as the reaction, the legs are forced into the soil. After
these a pile hammer may be used on the top of the legs to gain even greater penetration. If
the same penetration was given to all legs a punch-through failure or a damage on the
foundation might occur during preloading, which could result in the jackup toppling over and
one or more legs being bent or broken. So, to avoid these risks, modern jackups are able to
preload the spudcans individually.

b. PILE FOUNDATIONS
Piles are slender columnar elements in a foundation which have the function of
transferring load from the superstructure through weak compressible strata or through
water, onto stiffer or more compact and less compressible soils or onto rock. They may be
required to carry uplift loads when used to support tall structures subjected to overturning
forces from winds or waves. Piles used in marine structures are subjected to lateral loads
from the impact of berthing ships and from waves.
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 Pile foundations can be used either in shallow or deep water, the link to the working
platform is what differs. In shallow water, the connection is typically made by a steel lattice
structure commonly called a jacket. This is the most used structure for fixed offshore
platforms. Piles can also be used as anchors in moored floating facilities.
There are two construction methods used for piles that are constructed offshore: driven
and grouted. The most commonly used are metallic driven piles because they are the most
reliable and have the easiest construction path.
i. DRIVEN PILES
Offshore, the most frequently used pile type is the open-ended steel pipe, which is driven into
the seabed by a hammer. Pile diameters range from 0.76 m up to 2.5 m, but exceptionally a
diameter of 5.1 m has been successfully used on offshore wind turbines. The wall thickness
may vary along the pile length, so it will be thicker where moment is greater (near the pile
head). Typical diameter to wall thickness ratios (d/t) are between 20 and 60. The lower value
represents the greatest curvature that can normally be achieved in a steel rolling machine.
The highest value represents a curvature beyond which wall-buckling or section ovalisation
effects can be common .
The process of installing an offshore driven pile through a steel jacket leg is illustrated in
Figure 18. First, the steel jacket is released onto the required location, where it will be
supported by mudmats. Mudmats are templates used in the bottom of the steel jacket to
avoid its undesirable penetration into soft soils, Figure 7 and Figure 19 shows four mudmats
at the bottom of a steel jacket structure. Then the first section of pile is lowered trough the
leg. A hammer is installed on the head of the pile, and is used to drive the first segment until
its limit, the pilling equipment is removed and another pile segment is lifted on and welded in
place. This weld is normally subjected to non-destructive testing, after which the hammer is
lifted back on, and the whole procedure starts again until the designed pile penetration is
achieved. Unless the jacket confines the pile, grout is injected into the annular space to
provide the structural connection between them.
ii. GROUTED PILES
Even though driven piles are the most common type used in the offshore environment,
there is also the equivalent of a bored pile. It involves the grouting of a steel section, which is
inserted in a previously drilled hole. Figure 21 shows the stages in construction of a drilled
and grouted pile. In order to avoid collapse of loose uncemented material near the seabed, it
is often necessary to drive a primary pile first; alternatively stabilizing mud can also be used.

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This solution is only used if an adequate drilling barge is already on the site, since it is more
expensive to install and has longer construction period than driven piles .
Whenever the seabed is composed of calcareous sediments, and other potentially
crushable material, where the shaft friction obtained with driven piles has been found to be
very low, drilled and grouted piles are more reliable. The low shaft friction is associated with
very low radial effective stresses around the pile, a situation remedied by drilled and grouted
pile construction, where the original horizontal effective stresses in the ground can be
restored by appropriate grouting design .

C. GRAVITY BASE STRUCTURES

Gravity base structures (GBS) are designed to be founded at or just below the seafloor,
transferring their loads to the soil by means of shallow footings. Usually these structures are
made of reinforced and prestressed concrete, but some were built of steel or a hybrid of
concrete and steel. These structures have a large base “footprint” with purpose of
minimizing soil-bearing loads. An important advantage of these solutions is the possibility of
oil storage within the base structure, i.e. the base operates both as foundation and storage
facility.
GBS are also used for offshore wind power plants. By the end of 2010, 14 of the world's
offshore wind farms were supported by gravity-base structures.
Design loads for an offshore GBS are superior to onshore conditions. Due to its large
volume, inertial forces under waves, earthquake, and impact from vessel or icebergs are
much greater than usual. Thus, sliding tends to become the dominant mode of failure. So, to
prevent this possibility, concrete or steel skirts and dowels are employed; these are designed
to penetrate the seabed and thus force the failure surface deeper below the seafloor. Skirts
also provide protection against scour and piping.
These structures have evolved over time, the first of its kind was the Ekofisk tank, which
was installed in the North Sea in 1973 . The experience gained on this first project lead to
conceptualization of a better, and now common, concrete deep water structure called
Condeep. A Condeep gravity base comprises a number of cylindrical cells usually displayed in
a hexagonal arrangement, the underside of the cells has a convex profile and half a metre
inside the concrete skirts the top of the dome touches down on the seabed, as illustrated in
Figure 22(b). In Figure 22 it is visible the more complex design of Condeep foundation
relative to the Ekofisk tank is apparent. While the Ekofisk tank had short (40cm) concrete

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skirts, the Condeep has steel skirts (to 3.5m), that project from concrete skirts. The condeep
design has much smaller wave forces acting on the structure as the major volume is located
below the water surface. In Figure 23, it is possible to see this characteristic on some
different condeep platforms.

Fig3.1 a) Plant of Ekofisk Tank b) condeep gravity base structure

d.CONCRETE CAISSONS FOR TENSION LEG PLATFORMS

Concrete caissons evolved from deep skirted concrete base foundations, and comprise
individual or clusters of small concrete caissons or “bucket” foundations. Figure 26(a) illustrates a
TLP and its foundation system. This foundation system has the particularity that the resistance is
provided by a combination of concrete self-weight and the interaction between the caisson and
seabed. The average static tension is counteracted by the weight of concrete foundation, while
load originating from cyclic waves and wind (design storm) are transferred to the soil by skirt
friction and suction under the top cap . During a storm, the TLP will drift out of alignment with
the foundations introducing a moment action into them, which gives the most critical load
situation .
Caissons have certain advantages over piles as anchors for deeper water moorings, if they can
provide enough tensile capacity. For example, the pumps used for caisson installation do not have
the same problems as piling hammers at great working depths (even though new systems are
being developed for the latter to allow operations in water depths of 3 km). Also, the larger
diameter of caisson foundations provides a larger area for ballast and can also mobilize greater
reverse end bearing or passive suction during uplift compared to a pile foundation .

e.STEEL BUCKETS FOR JACKETS

Steel buckets (also known as suction cans) are used as an alternative to pile foundations for
jackets. They have also been used extensively for offshore wind turbine foundations. These

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suction foundations are steel cylindrical structures, closed on one end and open on the other.
Bucket foundations often exceed 5 m diameter, some reach 10 or 20 meters. The jackets, to
which the buckets are attached, have much larger dimensions, so the installation of these
structures can prove to be quite difficult to perform with the use of only a crane. Therefore,
pontoons are used to bring the structure to site, from which it is launched into the water. Then,
the structure dives by slowly filling the hollow sections with water and the entire structure is
aligned with the help of a crane so it is correctly placed on the seabed.
In the same manner as for concrete caissons, for installation, the open end of the bucket is
placed on the seabed and the water contained within the cylinder and the floor is pumped out.
This creates a vertical load on the structure, pulling it into the ground. Figure 27 illustrates the
three steps of the installation, first the structure touches down on the seabed, then the ballast
containers are filled so the structure penetrates the soil under its own weight, and finally, water is
pumped from the caissons producing suction penetration.
Suction foundations can be applied in sands as well as in clays, and in softer clays they work
very well . Depending on which soil the steel buckets are installed, different failures in the soil
around the bucket can occur as discussed below.

2. DEEP AND ULTRA-DEEP WATER FOUNDATIONS

The demand for oil products and natural gas, has forced companies to search for resources in
increasingly remote sites. Many of these sites are offshore and have water depths in excess of
1000 m, Figure 29. Water depths in excess of 500 m are considered to be “deep”, and “ultra-
deep” when greater than 1000 m. The economic investment associated with developing these
sites is huge, so it is vital to produce solutions with an optimal balance between reliability and
economy.
Clearly, at these great depths it becomes increasingly impracticable to build load transfer
structures such as jackets or gravity based structures. Therefore, different foundation solutions

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have been adopted, i.e. anchors with mooring systems.
There is a vast range of solutions which are sub-divided between gravity anchors and
embedded anchors.
Gravity anchor types include:
i. Boxes
ii. Grillage and Berm

Embedded anchor types include:

I. Anchor piles
II. Suction caissons
III. Drag anchors (fixed fluke)
IV. Vertically loaded drag anchors (VLA)
V. Suction embedded plate anchors (SEPLA)
VI. Dynamically penetrated anchors (DPA)

GRAVITY ANCHORS
An anchoring system is normally required to provide resistance forces that are primarily
horizontal, with cyclic as well as static components. Gravity anchors consist of heavy weight steel
structures (box, or grillage), filled or covered with granular fill (either rock-fill, or heavier material
such as iron ore), and placed on the seafloor. Simply, the structural element is placed first, and
then the bulk fill is added.
Two different structures are represented in Figure , on the left is a conventional box anchor
filled with iron ore, which provides ballast, and on the right a covered grillage. The latter is
considerably more efficient in terms of quantity of steel for a given holding capacity, but is much
less efficient in terms of the quantity of ballast required. Design of this type of anchor is also more
complex since a variety of failures mode must be considered, ranging from sliding of the complete
berm, pulling out of the grillage, or combinations involving asymmetric mechanisms.

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 PILE ANCHORS
Pile anchors have a similar behaviour to pile foundations (i.e. little skin friction developed in
calcareous soil), but the construction method and the forces they need to withstand are different.
They are very effective in many soils, and can either be drilled in and grouted using an offshore
mobile drilling rig, or driven in with an underwater hammer. Advances have been made to allow
hydraulic hammers to work in deep waters and with greater power, so the driving of the piles
does not become an issue .
The anchor pile system consists of a mooring chain or cable, and the pile. In a catenary
mooring system, the chain is laid along the seabed describing a smooth curve, and the anchoring
force that it provides includes the weight of the line, the friction on the seabed, and the frictional
resistance from the soil on the buried part of the anchor line, as well as the pull-out resistance of
the pile itself. The soil resistance along the length of a buried chain or cable can be a significant
proportion of the overall anchoring resistance provided by the system.
The concept of an anchor pile starts with a pad-eye that is attached to a pile and a line is
attached to the pad-eye. The location of the pad-eye is designed with the purpose of reducing
potential rotation of the pile when loaded. Then the pile is driven into the seabed, and may be left
protruding slightly above the seafloor, so as to be retrieved later. After installation, the chain is
attached to the floating platform and tightened. The most difficult anchoring soil of all is a soft
mud, silt, or loose sand overlying a hard material such as conglomerate or very dense sand and
silt. So, a conventional pile may be placed in holes excavated by clamshell bucket and then back
filled with dumped rock . However, this operation gets increasingly difficult with larger water
depths.

2.SUCTION CAISSONS
Although concrete caissons have been used, the majority of suction caissons are fabricated from
steel, which have a similar concept to steel buckets on shallow foundations. Suction caissons
operate as anchors, and vertical capacity is granted by the weight of the plug of soil inside and
the friction on the outer surfaces, and in addition, the characteristic negative end-bearing
resistance. The latter, as in a steel bucket, is the force required to separate the lower end of the
soil plug from the undisturbed soil.
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Typically, suction anchors are open at the bottom and closed at the top. They have large
diameters, typically more than 5 meters in diameter and are 20 to 30 meters in length, with a
length to diameter ratio (L/d) in the range of 3 to 6. Normally the cylinders have very high ratios
of diameter to wall thickness (d/t ~100 to 250), that require internal stiffeners to prevent
structural buckling during installation, and due to the large lateral loads imposed by taut
moorings. Mooring loads are applied by an anchor line attached to the side of the caisson at a
depth that optimises the holding capacity. Usually this requires the line of action of the load to
pass through a point on the axis at a depth of 60% to 70% of the embedded depth. Figure 33
illustrates the optimal depth (D*) of the padeye, from which it is possible to realise that a taut
wire does not require as deep a padeye as a catenary mooring.

IV.VERTICALLY LOADED DRAG ANCHOR

High capacity drag anchors evolved from conventional ship anchors. Traditionally, drag anchors
comprise a broad fluke rigidly connected to a shank, as shown in Figure 35(a). The angle
between shank and fluke is pre-determined, though may be adjusted prior to anchor placement
on the seabed. This angle is typically around 50° for clay conditions and 30° in sand or where
clay of high strength occurs at the seabed. For installation, the anchor is positioned on the seabed
correctly orientated and it is then embedded by pre-tensioning the chain to an appropriate proof
load. Depending on soil conditions, penetration depths usually range from 1 to 5 fluke lengths
(typical fluke lengths being 1 to 8 m), and anchors can be dragged through a distance of 10 to 20
times the fluke length, typically a holding capacity of 20 to 50 times the anchor weight is
mobilized.
Vertically loaded drag anchors (VLA), also known as drag-in plate anchors, were developed to
overcome the existing limitations on fixed-fluke anchors, which could not withstand significant
vertical load components at the seabed. Actually, fixed-fluke anchors are removed by applying
vertical load to the anchor chain. Therefore, common drag anchors cannot be used for deep-
water foundations using taut or semi-taut polyester rope moorings.
V. SUCTION EMBEDDED PLATE ANCHOR
A new system, called a suction embedded plate anchor (SEPLA), was developed to overcome the
problems of the conventional plate anchor (e.g. VLA), achieving greater and more precise depth
location below the seabed).
The SEPLA uses a suction caisson (or “follower”) to embed a rectangular plate anchor, providing
a known initial penetration depth for the anchor, at a specified geographical location. The

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SEPLA installation consists of 3 steps: caisson penetration, caisson retraction, and anchor keying.
These steps are shown schematically in Figure 39. First, the caisson with a plate anchor slotted
vertically in its base is lowered to the seafloor and penetrated into the soil under its dead weight
until the skin friction and end-bearing resistance of the soil on the caisson equal the caisson’s
dead weight. The vent valve on the top of caisson is then closed and the water trapped inside is
pumped out. The ensuing differential pressure at the top drives the caisson to the design depth.
The plate anchor is then released and the water is pumped back into the caisson, causing the
caisson to move upward, leaving the plate anchor in place in a vertical orientation. The caisson is
retracted from the seabed and prepared for the next installation. As the anchor chain is tensioned,
it cuts into the soil. Simultaneously, the anchor line applies a load to the anchor’s offset padeye
causing it to rotate or “key”. In order to achieve the maximum mobilized capacity, the plate must
be as close to perpendicular to the direction of loading as possible .

SUCTION EMBBEDED PLATE ANCHOR

VI.DYNAMICALLY PENETRATED ANCHOR

As offshore exploitation moves to water depths of around 3000 m, new technologies have
had to be developed in order to reduce installation costs, and facilitate construction. Moreover,
the high number of floating production and drilling units in operation may provoke the
congestion of the sea bottom due to the high number of risers and mooring lines employed. In
this scenario, dynamically penetrated anchors (DPA), and in particular Torpedo anchors, have
proven to be a reliable alternative used in Brazilian offshore fields . The reduced mooring line
radius employed on torpedo anchors relative to catenary mooring systems with drag anchors,
reduces sea bottom congestion Torpedo anchors (TA) are the most applied type of DPA and they
have been developed by the Brazilian oil company Petrobras. TAs are cone-tipped, cylindrical
steel pipes filled with concrete and scrap metal. They penetrate the seabed relying on the kinetic
Department of Civil Engineering, RVCE, 2019-20 Page 25
energy they acquire while free falling from heights of between 30 m and 150m above the seabed.
Torpedo anchors come in various sizes from 0.76 m to 1.07 m in diameter, 12 m to 17 m in length,
and 241 kN to 961 kN in weight. The inside of the anchor shaft is filled with ballast to increase the
weight and maintain the centre of gravity below the centre of buoyancy for stability. Some
versions of the TA have been fitted with 4 flukes at the trailing edge, ranging in width from 0.45
m to 0.9 m, and 9 m to 10m long. .
Torpedoes can easily reach velocities of 25 m/s to 35 m/s at the seabed after being released
from a height of 20 m to 40 m above the seabed, allowing tip penetrations up to 3 times the
anchor length and holding capacities after consolidation that are expected to be in the range of 5
to 10 times the weight of the anchor.

7. CASE STUDY:
1. Case Study of Offshore Pile System Failure in Hurricane Ike
Platform EC368A is a 3-leg, steel jacket platform located in approximately 110 m of water
offshore the coast of Louisiana , installed in 2003 . The platform was constructed by placing the
jacket on the seafloor, driving the steel pipe piles through the jacket legs into the soils, connecting
the piles to the jacket legs with shims at the top of the legs, and then welding the platform deck
to the pile heads above the jacket legs. Piles A, B and C are all 1,220-mm (48-inch) diameter,
open-ended, steel pipe piles. The piles were fabricated using A36 steel. They were driven in
sections and welded in the field during installation. Pile A is a vertical pile that penetrates 80.8 m
below the seafloor. Piles B and C are double battered at 1-horizontal to 5-vertical (1H: 5V) away
from Pile A; they both penetrate 67.1 m below the seafloor. Platform EC368A was also equipped
with a well conductor north of Pile A. This vertical conductor, which contained an oil well, is a
508-mm (20-inch) diameter steel pipe with a wall thickness of 12.7 mm (0.5 inches). This
conductor was attached to the jacket via framing that allowed it to carry only horizontal loads. In
addition, Pile A also housed an oil well.
Department of Civil Engineering, RVCE, 2019-20 Page 26
The soil profile consists of two strata: a very soft, highly plastic, normally consolidated clay to a
depth of 4 m below the seafloor.underlain by a soft to hard, highly plastic, slightly
overconsolidated clay to the bottom of boring.
Pile Design
Ultimate Axial Capacity
The maximum side shear for undrained loading at any depth along a pile, fmax, was calculated
from

Where, Su is the design undrained shear strength at that depth D

@ is a dimensionless factor that depends on $ , the ratio of Su to the vertical effective
stress , at that depth
The piles were assumed to be plugged with the unit end bearing acting over the enclosed
cross-section of the pile tip in accordance with API design guidance for piles in clay, where the
friction between the soil plug and the pipe pile generally exceeds the end bearing acting on the
pile tip.
Pile Diameters and Lengths
The structural engineer selected pile diameters and lengths. First, structural analyses
incorporating the soil springs were performed with different pile diameters and wall thicknesses
using very long piles.Different combinations of wind, wave, current and deck loads were used to
check the structural capacity (i.e., unity checks) for all steel tubular members and joints including
the piles according to API design guidance. From these structural analyses .the pile diameters and
wall thicknesses required to satisfy the unity checks were established .The design axial loads for
the piles were determined by applying the 100-year metocean combination of wind, wave and
current loads to the structure. These design axial loads were increased by a factor of safety of 1.5
to determine the required axial capacities according to API design guidance.The pile lengths were
selected such that the ultimate axial capacity was equal to the required axial capacity.To
illustrate using Pile C, the design axial load was 11,900 kN in tension, the required axial capacity
was 1.5 times the design load or 17,800 kN in tension, and the selected pile length was 67.1 m .
Failure of pile system
eye of Hurricane Ike passed within 64 km to the southwest of Platform EC368A on September 12,
2008. Based on the hurricane hindcast (Oceanweather 2008), the maximum wave height was 22
m and the maximum wind speed was 114 km/h at Platform EC368A. For reference, the maximum

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wave height was 15 to 20 percent higher than the design wave height associated with the 100-
year metocean conditions.the base shear in Hurricane Ike was approximately 30 to 40 percent
higher than the design base shear.Hurricane resulted in pile tilted about 4 degress,pile are pulled
out upto 1m from sea bed hence axial pull-out failure of Pile C, was identified as the cause of
failure for Platform .

2.Failure Case Study of Offshore Battered Drilled Shafts Due to Seabed Rock Scouring
Construction of 3,440m long grand bridge crossing from A Island to B Island started in 2008 .
the foundation of bridge constructed is of group pile system.The bridge consists of a total of 38
piers with 31 of them founded on battered piles. soil is made of a layer of sedimentary sand,
weathered rock over granite and schist bedrock. The average water depth in the region of the
main bridge span is 20~23 m. The piers in the shallow depth region consist of four drilled shafts
with a diameter equal to 1.8 m. Piers in the deep regions consist of four drilled shafts with a
diameter equal to 1.8 m battered to enhance the lateral resistance.the piers supporting the main
bridge span, six 2.5 m diameter battered drilled shafts are used for high lateral resistance. In
August 2011 during construction, pier No. 21 of the 34 piers bridge, collapsed overnight. A month
later, pier No. 18 also collapsed.The pile foundation of the collapsed piers was investigated, and it
was found that the piles showed tensile failure in the bearing layer of weathered rocks. High tidal
velocities and waves also cause scour around the piles which is a potential safety hazard Due to
the high flow velocities at the construction site, seabed scour was assumed to be the main cause
of pile failure ,particularly large amount of seabed scour was observed at the location ofpier P17
through P19.

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8. CONCLUSION:
With advancement in the technology in field of offshore engineering, many altrernative
methods have been developed for maximum stabilty and safety of offshore structures. Many new
foundations for offshore structures has been discovered .all these advancements resulted in
progressive economic growth of the country. Bridges and sea links are developed with long
durabilty and maximum capacity.exponential growth has been seen in oil and gas industries due
to ease in oil and gas avalibilty in sea due easy installation of platforms in sea . many foundation
types for offshore structure has given the enginners to choose the suitable foundation type for a
offshore structure.

Department of Civil Engineering, RVCE, 2019-20 Page 29

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Engineering GSP 299 and ASCE
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(2019) ., “Foundations in Offshore Wind Farms: Evolution, Characteristics and Range of Use.
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[4]. Ioannis Chatzigiannelis., Khaled Elsayed., and Kostas Loukakis.(2009) , “Foundation
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