In “Resistance Welding” electrical property of resistance to the flow of current causes heat to be

generated at weld joint when current flows through it. To make a resistance weld, the two pieces
of metal to be joined are squeezed together by the electrodes on the welding machine so they are
in good electrical contact. Then electric current is passed through them in confined area and heat
them in fraction of seconds until they begin to melt at the spot where they are in contact. The
metal from the two pieces then flow together forming a weld nugget. The current is then turned
off and the weld nugget solidifies, forming a solid metallic connection between the two pieces. In
the resistance welding no other filler materials are needed to create extremely cost-effective clean
bond in a short time.
As an example, for commonly used low-carbon steel, 1/16" thick, a typical value of current may
be about 10,000 amps; a time of approximately 1/4 second (12 cycles, at 50 Hz); and about 300
Kg of electrode force can be used to make a good weld.
To get the 10,000 amps needed for resistance welding, welding transformer is used to step the
current up to a higher value from the relatively low level available from the power line.
A step-down transformer of “turns ratio” of 50:1, can produce secondary current of 2000A from
40A current in primary mains. In a like manner the voltage will be stepped down from, say 500
volts on the primary to only 10 volts on the secondary.
Keep all steel tools and objects out of the secondary of the machine. The magnetic field of
secondary winding current will drive these objects out, often at high speed, sufficient to cause
injuries.

Use the LOWEST transformer tap, at the HIGHEST percent current,

for the SHORTEST time. This will make the best weld consistently,
mechanically and thermally.
Electrode force squeezing the metal parts together is another critical factor in resistance welding.
This force is necessary to assure good electrical contact and current flow between the parts being
welded, and to hold the parts steady until the near molten metal forming the welded joint has
time to solidify. Electrode force is produced by compressed air in a cylinder and piston
arrangement connected to upper moving electrode. Hydraulic and mechanical systems are also
available.

The length of time the welding current flows through the two pieces of metal to be welded is
very important. The device used to turn the current on and off is a critical part of the system. A
mechanical device to turn the current on and off is slow in speed and inaccurate in operation, so
are unreliable and inconsistent. Static SCR switch can turn on in a small fraction of a second by a
gate signal and conduct a large amount of current to generate the heat to make a weld. The weld
timer control signals the welding current when to start and when to stop. Analog, resistor-
capacitor (RC) time controls, provide better timing adjustment of the welding current. Discrete
digital logic timers and microprocessor-based controllers are also used.

Weld control sequence for resistance welding has four basic weld schedules: squeeze, weld,
hold, and off times.

Squeeze Time is time interval in the welding process between the initial application of the
electrode force on the work and the first application of weld current. Squeeze time is necessary
to delay the weld current until electrode force has built up to the desired level. During Squeeze
Time, built up of the required welding force before weld current flow reduce metal expulsion and
other damage to the tooling and operating personnel.

How Resistance Welding Works

When two surfaces come in contact under pressure, microscopically some
projected points start weld current and breaks the in between oxide layer and
form metal-to-metal bridges. High current density through these bridges
generates heat which causes melting. Molten metal also has a higher resistance
than non-molten metal, forcing the current toward newer bridges. As melting
occurs, new bridges are formed. The process proceeds until the entire surface is
molten. When the electrical current is turned off, the electrodes cool first, which
then cools the molten metal.  When everything solidifies the weld is formed.

Metals with high resistance to current flow and with low thermal conductivity and
a relatively low melting temperature would be easily weldable. Mild steel and
ferrous metals all fall into this category.

Metals of higher thermal conductivity like copper, aluminum and brass alloys are
slightly more difficult to weld.

Spot Welding Machine:

AC supply is given to the primary of the welding transformer through the timer which
controls the time for which the current flows. The primary has got tapings and a
particular tapping is selected by the selector switch S depending upon the current
required for welding.

The secondary is connected to the two electrodes made of copper alloy and they are
cooled by water. When pressure is not applied on the foot pedal, the electrodes are kept
apart by the spring.

The sheets to be welded are held overlapping between the two electrodes, one moveable
and the other fixed. Pressure is applied for squeeze interval from the top electrode by
moving it downward, by pressing the foot pedal. The spot weld is made between the sheets.

High current at a low voltage flows through the circuit and is in accordance with
Ohm’s law. Welding heat is proportional to the square of the welding current,
resistance of work and total time of current flow.
 H (heat energy) ¿ I 2 × R ×T
In this formula, I = current squared in amperes, R is the resistance of the work
in ohms, T is the time of current flow in seconds.

Heavy current at low voltage is passed through the electrodes in weld time. The fusion of
material takes place at the spot. Thickness and composition of the plates determine the
duration and magnitude of the current. The time period for each weld may be 1/100th of a
second or more. The current may be of the order of 2000 amperes or more. The voltage
between electrodes about 2 volts during weld time. The open circuit voltage is less than 12
volts.
The current flows across the electrodes and metal, causing the formation of the
weld nugget by temperature rise. When the welding current is turned off, the weld
cools causing the welding nugget to become solid while joining the two pieces of
metal.

Heat generated at the contact between the welding electrodes and the work is
reduced by small value of resistance between high conductivity electrode
material and work. The electrodes are manufactured from superior conductive copper-based
alloys. These electrodes are cooled

These electrodes are also cooled by water flowing through cavities inside the electrode.
This cooling minimizes the temperature rise and weldability between the
electrode and the work.
The electrode must be able to conduct current to the workpiece and mechanically
constrain the workpiece. The electrode material has to sustain high loads at high
temperatures while maintaining adequate electrical and thermal conductivity.
Copper-based alloys electrodes having little amount of cadmium or chromium is
generally used because of high electrical and thermal conductivity. Resistive
refractive electrodes made from molybdenum are used for welding conductive
metals such as gold or copper

Electrodes shape or geometry is selected to improve electrical, thermal and

mechanical performance of weld. The diameter of the electrode contact area is
very important. If the area is too small, it will produce undersized welds with
insufficient strength; if the diameter of the electrode is too large, it will cause
inconsistent and unstable weld.

Types of Resistance Welding:

Depending on the shape of the workpieces and the form of the electrodes, resistance welding
processes can be classified into spot welding, projection welding, seam welding and butt
welding. More details are described below:

Spot Welding and Seam Welding

Spot welding is the most common resistance welding process for joining sheet metals. It
is a simple, inexpensive, versatile forging process.  It is used for assembling
bodies and components in automotive industry and manufacturing of furniture and
domestic equipment. The fusion joint is produced by pressing pointed electrodes at the
location to be welded in order to position the current and heat generation. The weld
nugget size is largely determined by the electrode tip contact area. Once sufficient
resistance heating is generated it melt the materials, which set down and combine after colling and a
weld nugget is formed.
Seam welding is a resistance welding process for joining metal sheets in continuous,
leak tight, seam joints. The welding electrodes are motor-driven wheels and
workpiece rolls between the wheel-shaped electrodes. Flow of weld current and pressure of
electrodes results in a seam resistance weld. Depending on frequency with which
current is applied and the speed with which the material is being welded, the
weld will be either an overlapping continuous seam weld or individual spot welds at
defined intervals. Seam weld is actually a series of overlapping spot welds. Usually numbers
of spots obtained per meter of the joint are between 200 to 400. Seam welding is used in
manufacturing of containers, radiators and heat exchangers etc.

Projection Welding
Projection welding is a resistance welding process for joining metal components or
sheets with projected points, embossments or intersections. Electrodes are specially
designed to fit the shapes of the workpieces and to apply squeezing forces. The
current and the heat generation are localized at the point of contact, i.e. projected points,
embossments or intersections. By large deformation and heat in the projection part of
the workpieces the projections collapse, forming the weld nugget. Projection welding is
 generally used for welds thicker materials. Projection welding is widely used
in manufacturing of sensors, valves and pumps etc.

 Electrode life is much longer in projection welding than the life of electrode in spot
welding. Appearance and uniformity of the weld is better than spot welding. When
two plates to be welded are of different cross-section then in order to obtain
desirable strength it is necessary to have the projections on the thicker plate. To
make projection is an extra operation and a press type machines are required for this
type of welding.

Flash Welding
In Flash Welding a flashing action is created by very high current density between very small
contact separation of the workpieces.  At a predetermined time point after the flashing process,
force is applied to the workpiece, and they are moved together at a controlled rate.  Rapid
upset created by this force expels oxides and impurities from the weld.
Butt Welding
Butt welding is a resistance welding process for joining thick metal plates or bars at the
ends. The two parts to be welded together are placed touching each other end to end so
as to form a butt joint. A pressure is also applied in the axial direction of weld by electrodes
clamping the workpieces. The jobs are securely clamped and heavy current is passed
through them. The heat produced is sufficient to raise the temperature of material to plastic
state and fusion takes place at contact when pressure is applied on both sides. A solid-
state weld can be obtained without any melting. Butt welding is used in manufacturing of
wheel rims, wire joints and railway track joints etc.

Applications of Resistance Welding

Resistance welding is used in mass high volume of work, where consistent high-
quality production runs at high speeds is required. Automotive and appliance
industry is the major user of resistance welding. It is suitable for variety of
products made of thinner gauge metals. In the steel industry resistance welding
is used for manufacturing pipe, tubing and other structural sections.
Advantages

 Similar and dissimilar metals are capable of being welded

 Highly automated and cost-effective for mass production
 Operator skill is not important for quality weld
 Higher speeds, <.1 seconds. When thousands of welds need to be made
in a typical car or motor cycle, a process where each weld takes less than
a second is of great importance. (short process time)
 Excellent for sheet metal applications <1/4 inch
 No filler metals or consumables such as rods, fluxes, inert gasses, oxygen, or
acetylene is required
 Relatively safe due to low voltage requirements
 Environmentally friendly clean process without waste or pollution
 Joint formed is reliable
The automotive and appliance industries choose resistance welding for
manufacturing because of these advantages.

Disadvantages

 Complex and high-cost machinery – a resistance welding machine generally requires a

high level of technically trained personnel to use

 Special controlled power requirements
 Nondestructive testing is not possible as joint is invisible between sheets
Low fatigue and tensile strength, the periphery of the nugget between the sheets
acts as a stress concentrator.
  Welding set is not portable, Although individual spot-welding guns may
have limited movement on the assembly line, the power source is fixed.
 High levels of electrode wear
 The thickness of the work piece is often limited, not suitable to join thicker sheets.

 It is less efficient for high conductive materials

 Skilled technician is required for maintenance purpose.


Resistance welding equipment is more expensive than arc welding equipment. 

The process lacks the portability of arc welding. The process can produce
unfavorable power line demands.  Short time, high power demands can cause
lights to dim and computers to reset.



 2.




 This method is used for welding pipes, wires and rods etc. The voltage required for
welding is 2 to 10 volts and current varies from 50 A to several hundred amperes,
depending upon the material and the area to be welded at a time.
 Type # 5. Flash Butt Welding:
 This is similar to butt welding except that the parts to be welded are joined together
under light pressure and a heavy current passed through the joint. Due to poor
contact at the joint arcing takes place. When sufficient heat has been produced the
two parts are suddenly pressed together and the current is simultaneously stopped.
A thin film is produced around the joint which is subsequently removed to give a weld
of this type. It is used for welding chains, rail ends, shaft axles etc.

 Advantages of Flash Butt Welding:
 (i) It is a faster process. (ii) Preparation of weld surface is not required.
 (iii) Power requirement is less.
 (iv) Many dissimilar metals with different melting temperatures can be flash welded.
 (v) The process is cheap.
 (vi) It offers strength factor upto 100%.
 Disadvantages of Flash Butt Welding:
 (i) More chances of fire hazards.
 (ii) Metal is lost during flashing and upsetting.
 (iii) Concentricity and straightness of the work pieces during welding process is often
difficult to maintain.
 Applications of Flash Butt Welding:
Three factors involved are:

1. The amount of current that passes through the work

2. The pressure that the electrodes transfer to the work
3. The time the current flows through the work.

Resistance welding operations are automatic. The pressure is applied by

mechanical, hydraulic, or pneumatic systems. Required motion is applied
mechanically. Current control magnitude and time duration is completely
automatic once the welding operator initiates the weld. Resistance welding
equipment utilizes programmers for controlling current, time cycles, pressure,
and movement. Quality of welds do not depend on welding operator skill but
depends on the proper set up and adjustment of the equipment and adherence to
weld schedules.

Squeeze is the first of the three standard resistance weld sequences:

SQUEEZE
WELD
HOLD

The purpose of squeeze time is to allow the electrodes to close on the part and build up
full pressure in order to contain the weld before the current initiates. Short squeeze time
can lead to expulsion and the electrodes being damaged, running hot, inconsistent
nuggets and erratic weld quality. Long squeeze time extends the total weld time and
could mean fewer parts per shift. Selection of the proper squeeze time is important for
the efficient production of quality parts.

An automated spot welding cell needs control equipment to initiate and time the
duration of current. A spot weld timer (weld control unit) automatically controls
welding time when spot welding. It also may control the current magnitude as well
as sequence and time of other parts of the welding cycle.

Pressure, current and time (PCT) are the basic functions performed by the resistance welder.
These functions are controlled or initiated by the weld controller. It initiates each step when told
to start the weld process by input from the foot switch or automation PLC. The controller allows
time for each step to operate and controls the current amplitude. In simplified form this is
Squeeze, Weld and Hold. The squeeze sequence allows the pressure system to build up the
force to contain the weld. The weld function is the actual current flow and is totally controlled by
the weld controller. It regulates the amplitude and time of current flow. Hold is the period which
allows the weld nugget to cool down and solidify under force. The controller regulates this time.

n AC welding the time is measured in cycles. Mid frequency (MFDC) equipment

measures time in milliseconds. This time measurement applies to the squeeze, weld
and hold functions. The current segment is measured as % heat on many AC devices
but many newer devices measure current in amperes. MFDC controllers measure in
amperes.

The controller does not regulate the force on most systems. It initiates the signal to a
valve or solenoid which starts the application of force by a cylinder or servo. In some
cases the controller gets feedback that the force has reached a predefined value before
it allows the weld current to initiate.
The hold function is to ensure that the weld nugget solidifies under force. If the force is
removed too soon voids and cracks or no weld will result. In some cases extra force is
applied to forge the part during the hold function to strengthen the weld joint. A forge
diagram is shown above.

BASIC WELD SCHEDULE This basic weld schedule forms the basis for all microwelding schedules. The
amplitude and duration of all force and heating parameters can be defined in the “weld schedule.” The
four critical parameters are: electrode force, squeeze time, weld pulse and hold time. Variations can also
be dual pulse and other sequences shown below.

WELD FORCE A key parameter of all three types of resistance welding is weld pressure or force. The
proper and consistent application of force improves the mating of the materials increasing the current
paths, reducing the interface resistance, and insuring that any oxide barriers between the workpieces
are broken through. Repeatable force control insures repeatable weld quality through consistent
electrical contact resistance and consistent heat balance. Force control can also be used to trigger
welding energy when a pre-determined force level has been achieved, often called “force firing.”
Optimum welds are achieved when the applied force is precise, repeatable, controlled by time schedule,
used to fire the power supply, and regulated both to reduce the initial impact and not to become
excessive after the weld. Weld force control is equally as important as weld energy and time control.
ENERGY AND TIME The power supply with either an internal or external transformer both powers and
controls the application of heat and time in the resistance welding process. In general terms, resistance
welding applies high current with low voltag

HOLD TIME:
The time that pressure is maintained at the electrodes after the welding current
has stopped.