02.3 ENSTP - 2019 Earthworks - Road Prism

Road Infrastructures Design
L2.3 – Earthworks – Road prism construction
ECOLE NATIONALE SUPERIEURE

DES TRAVAUX PUBLICS
Davide Dalmazzo, PhD
UNIVERSITY OF PADUA
DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENT, LAND AND DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL, ARCHITECTURAL AND
TRANSPORTATION INFRASTRUCTURES ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
General concepts on earthworks
Earthwork
Includes the excavation of material and any hauling required for
completing the road prism that precede the construction of the pavement
structure.
Road prism
Cross section delimited by road platform (including marginal elements), original
ground and lateral slopes.
Obtained by means of earthworks with the cutting of trenches and construction
of embankments.
FILL CUT FILL
X
L2.3 - Earthworks - Road prism 2
Road prism
Shape of slopes depends upon the geotechnical characteristics of excavated and
placed soils.
Reference values:
• cut 1:1
• embankment 3:2
At the edge of the embankment and on top of excavation front adequate

hydraulic protection works need to be performed.

Road prism
FILL SECTION

Road prism
CUT SECTION

Road prism
CUT AND FILL SECTION

Construction of the road prism
Carried out by means of earthworks.
The following activities are usually performed:
• CLEARING AND GRUBBING
• REMOVAL OF TOPSOIL
• EXCAVATIONS (opening of roadway, preparation of foundations for embankments

and other elements)
• EMBANKMENT CONSTRUCTION – SUBGRADE
• FILL

CLEARING AND GRUBBING
First operations to be undertaken before any excavation.

Removal of trees, bushes, roots, rubbish.
Removed material is detained by the Contractor which handles it disposal.
Clearing refers to the removal of materials above existing ground surface.

Grubbing means the removal of objects to a nominal depth below the surface.

REMOVAL OF TOPSOIL
Topsoil = organic.
Total removal to prevent contamination of other excavated material.
Reuse for slope protection.

EXCAVATION
• opening of roadway;
• formation of pavement section in cut sections;
• remediation of embankment foundation, including
formation of transverse steps (if transverse slope > 15%);

EQUIPMENT (EXCAVATION, LAODING, TRANSPORT)

DOZER EXCAVATOR
MOTOR-SCRAPER
WHEEL LOADER DUMPER
GRADER

EMBANKMENT FOUNDATION
Functions/requisites
• construction evenness
• resistance to embankment geostatic stresses;
• embankment protection (capillarity and contamination)
Compaction + Anti-capillary materials

EMBANKMENT FOUNDATION – Compressible soils
If predicted settlements of the embakment foundation are greater than 15 cm,

the Contractor will prepare a detailed workplan for their measurement and monitoring
in time.
Embankment construction will be scheduled in order to have a residual settlement (still
to occur) at the end of construction less than of 10% of the total estimated settlement
and in any case lower than 5 cm.
(CIRS Technical Specifications)
Improvement techniques for compressible soils to accelerate consolidation

phenomena
Compressible silts • Preloading

• Vertical drains
• Column treatment
• Vacuum consolidation

EMBANKMENT FOUNDATION – Settlements
S = Si + Sc (t ) + Ss (t )
• Immediate settlement Si – due to load
application (undrained conditions)
• Consolidation settlement Sc(t) – due to
the progressive load transfer to soil
particles
• Secondary settlement Ss(t) – due to
viscous strains (Du=0)
In the case of coarse-grained soils no

consolidation: initial and secondary.

EMBANKMENT FOUNDATION – Bearing capacity requirements
Deformation modulus Md (first loading cycle) comprised in the range

0,05÷0,15 N/mm2:
• 15 N/mm2 , for H > 2,00 m;

• 20 N/mm2, for 1,00 < H < 2,00 m;
• 30 N/mm2, for 0.50 < H < 1,00 m.
Subgrade
Embankment
foundation

EMBANKMENT FOUNDATION – Anti-capillary layers
Composed of natural material, thickness usually of the order of 30-50 cm,

constituted by granular soil (gravel), with particles sizes comprised between 2
and 50 mm, with a percent passing 2 mm sieve not greater than 15% and
percent passing 0,075 mm sieve non greater than al 3%.
Absence of unstable components (soluble, degradable, sensitive to
freeze/thaw) and organic residues; the use of crushed or recycled materials is
admitted.
GEOTEXTILE

EMBANKMENTS
Construction operations:
• thickness of layers depends upon characteristics of materials and available equipment;
• thickness of layers not smaller that twice the maximum particle size of employed soil (s
> 2 Dmax); in any case, Dmax < 300 mm (coarser particles should be discarded)
• inclined working planes for water runoff
• construction of a layer depends on preliminary verification of underlying layers
(bearing capacity, in situ density)
• work with water content values close to optimum (resulting from Proctor study)
4%

ROLLER COMPACTORS – Types
WITH PADFOOT DRUM COMBINED
PNEUMATIC-TIRED TANDEM STEEL DRUMS

Compaction technique
Compaction increases the density and decreases the void ratio of a soil mass. The
mechanism of compaction consists of reorientation of soil particles, fracture of soil
particles (modification of the gradation) and breaking of bonds between them, and
bending or distortion of soil particles. For coarse-grained soil, the primary mechanism
is reorientation with some fracture whereas in fine-grained soil the primary
mechanism of compaction is reorientation and distortion.

The type of compaction has an influence
on the soil structure. Compaction might be
achieved by means of static, vibratory or
kneading rollers. Static rollers are steel
wheel rollers. Kneading action is
provided by rubber tyre rollers and
sheep foot (padfoot) rollers. A vibratory
roller is either a steel wheel or a
tamping roller on which a vibratory
mechanism is attached.
Generally, the maximum layer thickness
that can be compacted is between 250
and 400 mm.

In fine-grained soil, the compactive effort must be high enough to overcome the
cohesive/interparticle forces. At optimum moisture content, silty soils are relatively
easy to compact. At high water content and under the influence of vibration, silt
transforms in a more or less fluid mass. Vibratory padfoot rollers (frequency 25 – 30
Hz, amplitude 1.5 – 2 mm) are very effective when the clay is at the dry side or at
optimum moisture content as they can provide the high stresses needed (when the
clay appears in large lumps the pulverizing of the clay can be required). Clay, with a
moisture content above optimum can be compacted with pneumatic tyre rollers or
smooth drum vibratory rollers. Vibration at high water contents however can result in
a migration of moisture to the surface resulting in unworkable conditions. Smooth
drum rollers might be used to seal the layer which facilitates water run off when it
rains. However, the smooth surface affects the adhesion between subsequent layers.
Generally, static padfoot rollers are very effective to compact fine-grained soils.

For coarse-grained soil the compactive effort must be high enough so as to
overcome the friction between particles to make them reoriented. Water helps in
the compaction by lubrication of the contacts. Effective compaction requires
reduction in frictional forces between the particles. Vibration is effective in moving
particles relative to each other
and reducing the normal force and hence the friction.
All vibratory compactors are effective and economical on sand and gravel.
Heavy to medium weight rollers will achieve compaction in thick layers. Light vibratory
compactors will also achieve good compaction results on limited lift thicknesses.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF IN SITU COMPACTION
Static compaction
Based on the action of dead weight of equipment which translates into vertical stresses.
Internal friction is overcome and soil volume is reduced.
Limited effect in depth (effects typically extend down to 20 cm).

Smooth static compaction is useful for finishing operations after oscillatory/vibratory
compaction (limits the risks of suface disgregation).
Dynamic compaction
Based on the transmission of vibrations to soil (with superpose with dead weight
effects). Dynamic forces rearrange soil particles by reducing internal friction.
Vibration is induced by an
eccentric mass which rotates
around the drum axis.

INTELLIGENT COMPACTION
Several compactors have a measurement system which allows real-time monitoring of

mechancial properties of soil and the consequent modification of the compaction
procedure in order to obtain required final results (Intelligent Soil Compaction)
Fs and zd measured by equipment
Estimate of E (EVIB)
COMPACTION TECHNIQUES
“STRIP by STRIP”
“SUPERPOSED CHANGE”

SITE TRIALS
Necessary for all major construction works.

The purpose is to define and validate the routine working technique in terms of
employed equipment and layer thicknesses.
End results have to be checked in terms of dry density and bearing capacity.

MEASUREMENT OF IN SITU DENSITY
Sand cone method
Nuclear method
NUCLEAR DENSITY METER
Its use depends on local

Legislation
(not allowed in Italy)
Absorption proportional to gs

SUBGRADE
Soil volume in which the effects of traffic loading are non-negligible; it is the zone of
transition between embankment/ground and pavement.
H=1m

SUBGRADE
Soil volume in which the effects of traffic loading are non-negligible; it is the zone of
transition between embankment/ground and pavement.
Remediation H from
design
• Substitution of in situ material
• Stabilization of in situ material

SUBGRADE – Employed soils
Evenness of pavement laying surface leads to exclusion of particles greater than D=100
mm;
Use of granular soils, well-distributed, preferably composed of crushed particles, with
low fine content (lower than 12%) and not plastic (PI<6).
Materials belonging to groups A1-a are of premium quality.
Alternative materials:
- Soils of groups A1-b;
- Soils of groups A2-4 ed A2-5, with percent passing the 0.075 mm sieve greater than
12%, preliminarily subjected to stabilization with cement or cement-lime;
- Soils of groups A2-6 ed A2-7 with a percentage of fines greater than 5% preliminarily
subjected to stabilization with lime or cement-lime;
- Silts of groups A4 ed A5 if subjected to cement-lime stabilization, and clays of groups
A6 ed A7, with limited plasticity (PI < 25%), if subjected to lime stabilization.

EMBANKMENTS AND SUBGRADES – Requirements
IN SITU DENSITY
Subgrade* → gs, situ ≥ 95% AASHTO Mod.
Embankment → gs, situ ≥ 92% AASHTO Mod.
BEARING CAPACITY
Subgrade* → Md ≥ 50 N/mm2 To control in the range
Embankment → Md ≥ 30 N/mm2 wopt – 2% < w < wopt + 2%
* Typical minimum values; can be different

depending upon pavement design
assumptions

EMBANKMENT AND CUT SECTIONS – Slopes
Protection of slopes with organic soil of approximately 30 cm thickness; progressively

laid in horizontal strips and compacted. Seeding should be performed in due time with
proper selected seeds (as a function of local conditions and construction season).
Seeding may be repeated to obtain desired protection and aesthetics.

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Road Infrastructures Design

L2.3 – Earthworks – Road prism construction

ECOLE NATIONALE SUPERIEURE

Davide Dalmazzo, PhD

FILL CUT FILL

At the edge of the embankment and on top of excavation front adequate

L2.3 - Earthworks - Road prism 3

L2.3 - Earthworks - Road prism 4

L2.3 - Earthworks - Road prism 5

L2.3 - Earthworks - Road prism 6

Carried out by means of earthworks.

The following activities are usually performed:

• CLEARING AND GRUBBING

• EXCAVATIONS (opening of roadway, preparation of foundations for embankments

• EMBANKMENT CONSTRUCTION – SUBGRADE

L2.3 - Earthworks - Road prism 7

CLEARING AND GRUBBING

First operations to be undertaken before any excavation.

Clearing refers to the removal of materials above existing ground surface.

L2.3 - Earthworks - Road prism 8

L2.3 - Earthworks - Road prism 9

L2.3 - Earthworks - Road prism 10

EQUIPMENT (EXCAVATION, LAODING, TRANSPORT)

WHEEL LOADER DUMPER

L2.3 - Earthworks - Road prism 11

Compaction + Anti-capillary materials

L2.3 - Earthworks - Road prism 12

EMBANKMENT FOUNDATION – Compressible soils

If predicted settlements of the embakment foundation are greater than 15 cm,

(CIRS Technical Specifications)

Improvement techniques for compressible soils to accelerate consolidation

Compressible silts • Preloading

L2.3 - Earthworks - Road prism 13

In the case of coarse-grained soils no

L2.3 - Earthworks - Road prism 14

EMBANKMENT FOUNDATION – Bearing capacity requirements

Deformation modulus Md (first loading cycle) comprised in the range

• 15 N/mm2 , for H > 2,00 m;

(CIRS Technical Specifications)

L2.3 - Earthworks - Road prism 15

EMBANKMENT FOUNDATION – Anti-capillary layers

Composed of natural material, thickness usually of the order of 30-50 cm,

L2.3 - Earthworks - Road prism 16

L2.3 - Earthworks - Road prism 17

ROLLER COMPACTORS – Types

WITH PADFOOT DRUM COMBINED

PNEUMATIC-TIRED TANDEM STEEL DRUMS

L2.3 - Earthworks - Road prism 19

L2.3 - Earthworks - Road prism 20

L2.3 - Earthworks - Road prism 21

L2.3 - Earthworks - Road prism 22

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF IN SITU COMPACTION

Limited effect in depth (effects typically extend down to 20 cm).

L2.3 - Earthworks - Road prism 23

Several compactors have a measurement system which allows real-time monitoring of

Fs and zd measured by equipment

L2.3 - Earthworks - Road prism 25

Necessary for all major construction works.

(CIRS Technical Specifications)

L2.3 - Earthworks - Road prism 26

MEASUREMENT OF IN SITU DENSITY

Sand cone method

NUCLEAR DENSITY METER