CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background Of Study

Recycled material have now become a part of the processing stream, taking the place of
virgin material in manufacturing. Manufacturing with recycled material can be reduce cost
conserves raw materials and reduce energy consumption. The material used is porcelain, where
it contains of material ball clay, kaolin, silica, and feldspar. Silica is the most expensive raw
material and therefore its replacement would represent a signification reduction in final costs.
Silica also as a flux in the ceramic body.

The production of porcelain body made by hand former recycling industrial waste is an
innovative development in ceramic industry. Many researchers have paid much attention to
produce all type of ceramic product and sintered material from industrial wastes to make them
reasonably safe for the environment.

For example hand former waste in ceramic system has capable to improve the
performance compare to conventional ceramic material, especially in highly demanding the
structural application. Factors such as particle size distribution and fillers used during powder
preparation, processing method and sintering process are among crucial factors that should be
properly considered. Physical analyses and mechanical testing for the product should also be
considered in order to ensure its quality. Particle size distribution is important, depending on which
consolidation or shaping technique is to be used. Low porosity and fine grain size are beneficial
to achieve a porcelain body that added with hand former.

1
1.2 Problem Statement

Today in Malaysia, recycled waste such as hand former, glasses, papers, plastics and
others are not used constructive. Usually the waste management used landfill method to throw
out this disposal. Only certain of that disposal are being used for recycling purpose.

Regarding to these, disposal like hand former is reused by crushed into small pieces and
sieving into the small mesh size. Then hand former is reformed into desired shape like powder.
Recently, hand former is choose as an alternative material in upgrading porcelain that is useful
for various structural applications.

Thus is an alternative way in recycling hand former waste. Example of porcelain used for
structural application are crucible ceramic which used waste of hand former and raw material that
is ball clay, kaolin, silica, feldspar. It is essential and possible to produce new body that exhibit
the economically and environmentally benefits for this applications.

Therefore, it is necessary to characterize and determine the properties for the crucible
ceramic produce forming. In this work such as possibility is investigated, recycled hand former is
being used to produce the new body because of its potential to improve the general properties of
porcelain. In this research, new advanced material are produced to fulfill the requirement as
beneficial materials in order to ensure that the new body available for structural applications, it is
being characterize and its physical and mechanical properties.

2
1.3 Scope Of Study

This process of using porcelain body as the main ingredient and in combination with hand
former waste to reduce the relatively high cost. Among the processes used crusher and sieving
to produce the powder that uses many hand former to produce the product. Besides that, the
testing used in this process is the % of weight after boiling, water absorption rate, dry shrinkage,
and fired shrinkage. Combustion products were done in this process aims to strength the product.

The aim of this work was to study the possible use of hand former waste powder, ceramic
in ceramic mixture, for the production of porcelain ceramic. It was prepared by the mixtures
containing varying amounts of clay, hand former waste, feldspar and silica.

1.4 Project Objective

 Reformulation of ceramic porcelain using hand former waste.

 To study the effect of body when using combination of porcelain body and hand former waste.
 To study the commercial porcelain body added specified percentage waste hand former to
fabricated product.
 Saving a cost by using hand former waste.

3
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

They first aided humans in the smelting of copper, tin and iron. A ceramic crucible is
simply a crucible made from a ceramic material, like kiln-fired clay. Chemically and physically
stable at high temperatures, or refractory, ceramic crucibles are used for working with materials
that can only be manipulated at very high temperatures, such as metals, pigments and glasses.

Ceramics are nonmetallic, crystalline, inorganic or amorphous solids that have

themselves been fired, cooled and glazed. Their surfaces are smooth and relatively inert. This
inertness is crucial to the crucible, as a reactive surface would likely, at a high enough
temperature, cause the materials within the crucible to mix with the crucible’s own materials.
Though it is established that a ceramic almost certainly must be made of ceramic material, a
customer must still make a decision about what kind of ceramic material he or she will select.
Ceramic crucibles can be made from a variety of base materials, such as silica, zircon, spinel,
alumina and magnetite, and the desired chemical composition truly depends upon the crucible’s
intended application. Each chemical composition reacts differently to heat and pressure.

Porcelain crucible, for example, enjoy a rather widespread usage because they
withstand a wide variety of temperature environments and because they are relatively
inexpensive. Ceramic crucibles are commonly used in manufacturing, particularly in the areas of
metallurgy, analysis and quality control. They also serve as common tools in such research
fields as earth science, material science and engineering.

Additionally, ceramic crucibles are common, of course, in the arts, particularly with
metalwork, pigment work and clay. Other characteristics that a customer should consider
include total capacity, overall shape, wall thickness and bottom thickness. Though in their early
days they were frequently irregularly shaped, inconsistently thick and not terribly refractory,
modern ceramic crucibles have evolved to have the ability to be used at incredibly high
temperatures and pressures, and can be manufactured to nearly limitless custom specifications.

4
2.1.1 Literature 1 - Silica Facts

Silicon dioxide, also known as silica, is one of the most abundant

compounds in the earth’s crust. It is commonly found in rocks, sand, soil and in
some living organisms. As well as being used in glass manufacture and ceramics,
silica is frequently found as a dust during mining, construction and excavation.
Silica can be found in many forms, including crystalline silica such as quartz. This
has an arranged molecular structure that can pose a serious health hazard if the
particles are inhaled.

Silica is essential to the production of both ceramics and refractories. When

manufacturing ceramics, the use of silica (SiO2) helps modify thermal expansion,
regulate drying and shrinkage, and improve structural integrity and appearance.
Silica is necessary for both glazing and body construction of products such as
tableware, sanitary ware, and floor and wall tiles. In the ceramic body, silica is the
skeletal structure upon which clays and flux components attach. In addition to
skeletal formulation, Silica is often used to alter the properties of other products to
increase thermal stability, the longevity of the product, and even provide pigment
extension, thereby reducing demand for high-priced pigments such as titanium
dioxide. Ceramic products created using SiO2 demonstrate increased
performance with greater brightness, reflectance, color consistency, and
absorption of oil.

Silica products are also used as primary aggregates in shape and

monolithic-type refractories. The silica provides resistance, in high-temperature
situations, to acidic attack in industrial furnaces. The use of Silica allows ceramics
and refractories to retain their key characteristics at a lower cost while providing
more benefits to their producers.

5
2.1.2 Literature 2 – Slip casting

Slip casting or slip casting is a ceramic forming technique for the mass-
production of pottery and other ceramics, especially for shapes not easily made on
a wheel. Slip cast ware should not be confused with slipware, which is pottery
formed by any technique that is decorated using slip. In slip casting, a liquid clay
body slip usually mixed in a blunger is poured into plaster moulds and allowed to
form a layer, the cast, on the inside walls of the mould.

In a solid cast mould, ceramic objects such as handles and plates are
surrounded by plaster on all sides with a reservoir for slip, and are removed when
the solid piece is held within. For a hollow cast mould, for objects such as vases
and cups, once the plaster has absorbed most of the liquid from the outside layer
of clay the remaining slip is poured off for later use. After a period for further
absorption of water, the cast piece is removed from the mould once it is leather-
hard, that is, firm enough to handle without losing its shape. It is then "fettled"
(trimmed neatly) and allowed to dry out further, usually overnight or for several
hours. This produces a green ware piece which is then ready to be decorated,
glazed and fired in a kiln.

The technique is suited to the production of complex shapes, especially if

with relief decoration and thin walls. Much modern fine factory porcelain is made
by the technique, very often the entire production. It is also commonly used for
sanitary ware, such as toilets and basins, and smaller pieces like figurines
and teapots. The technique can also be used for small-scale production runs or to
produce limited edition, one off objects, especially reproductions of antique dolls
and modern porcelain doll-making.

An additive with deflocculated properties, such as sodium silicate, can be

added to the slip to disperse the raw material particles. This allows a higher solid
content to be used, or allows a fluid slip to be produced with a minimum of water
so that drying shrinkage is minimized, which is important during slip casting.

6
2.2 Market Survey

Ceramic slip casting product:

I. Did you know about ceramic slip casting before?

a) Yes

b) No

II. Did you know that ceramic products can be produced ceramic slip casting using recycle
material?

a) Yes

b) No

III. Do you think the products that produced from ceramic slip casting from recycle waste is more
attractive?

a) Yes

b) No

IV. Would you like to suggest to your friend about this product?

a) Yes

b) No

7
2.3 Material

A ceramic is an inorganic, non-metallic, solid material comprising metal, non-metal or

metalloid atoms primarily held in ionic and covalent bonds. This article gives an overview of
ceramic materials from the point of view of materials science.

The crystalline of ceramic materials ranges from highly oriented to semi-crystalline,

vitrified, and often completely amorphous like glasses. Most often, fired ceramics are either
vitrified or semi-vitrified as is the case with earthenware, stoneware, and porcelain. Varying
crystalline and electron consumption in the ionic and covalent bonds cause most ceramic
materials to be good thermal and electrical. With such a large range of possible options for the
composition or structure of a ceramic such as nearly all of the elements, nearly all types of
bonding, and all levels of crystalline, the breadth of the subject is vast, and identifiable attributes
like hardness, toughness, electrical conductivity that are hard to specify for the group as a whole.
General properties such as high melting temperature, high hardness, and poor conductivity, high
moduli of elasticity, chemical resistance and low ductility are the norm, with known exceptions to
each of these rules such as piezoelectric ceramics, glass transition temperature, and
superconductive ceramics. Many composites, such as fiberglass and carbon fibers, while
containing ceramic materials, are not considered to be part of the ceramic family.

2.4 Material Specification

Raw material is the important component in manufacturing of ceramic ware where the raw
material selection will result to the high quality of the ceramic product. The common ceramic body
is earthenware, stoneware, bone china and porcelain. The main material used in ceramic body is
kaolin, ball clay, silica and feldspar in different composition. The different composition of the
material will result to different firing temperature, toughness, hardness, porosity, and the quality
of the product.

8
2.4.1 Ball Clay

Ball clays are characterized by higher plasticity, dry shrinkage and dry
strength as compared to china clays. They are chemically impure and often contain
a large proportion of silica, iron and titanium impurities.

Ball clays are kaolinite rich secondary clay which is available in dark brown
to black color due to relatively high organic impurity content. Once it fired it will
become white to lite cream color. It consist of three major minerals that are
kaolinite, mica & quartz. It is a high plastic clay and contains more fine particles. It
is also known as plastic clay. The name ball clay came from the mining method of
cutting the clay out in balls. Many properties are similar to stoneware clays but
stoneware never gives white product after burning.

Ball clays are relatively scarce deposits due to the combination of

geological factors needed for their formation and preservation. They are mined in
parts of the Eastern United States and from three sites in Devon and Dorset in
South West England. They are commonly used in the construction of many
ceramic articles, where their primary role, apart from their white color, is either to
impart plasticity or to aid rheological stability during the shaping processes.

9
2.4.2 Kaolin

Kaolin is a naturally occurring clay mineral. It is also sometimes known as

china clay and tends to be white in color, though this can vary. Kaolin can be used
to make a range of goods ranging from pottery to paper. However in beauty, it is
ground into a fine powder which can then be mixed with essential oils or other
ingredients to form a paste. It is very absorbent but it is gentler than some other
varieties of clay, which makes it ideal for reducing oiliness and shine in all skin
types. When applied to the skin it absorbs excess moisture, and has been used
for hundreds of years as a skincare ingredient - primarily in Asia.

Kaolin is a good way of reducing excess oiliness, deep cleaning and

removing impurities, making it ideal for those who suffer from acne-prone skin. It
is also known for reducing inflammation, meaning that it can help reduce redness
and swelling around existing blemishes as well as helping to prevent new ones
from occurring. Because it is gentle it is also a good choice for sensitive skin,
though - as with all clays - overuse could lead to excess dryness. Consider using
it in the form of a weekly mask, to balance skin's oil levels.

2.4.3 Silica

Silica, also known as silicon dioxide or SiO2, is a colorless, white, chemical

compound. Silica is made of the most common elements on earth, silicon (Si) and
oxygen (O2). It’s also the most abundant compound in the earth's crust, where it
makes up 59% of the total composition. Silica is used everywhere, from industrial
applications to the food and beverage industry.

10
2.4.4 Feldspar

Feldspar is the name given to a group of minerals distinguished by the presence

of alumina and silica (SiO2) in their chemistry. This group includes aluminum silicates of
soda, potassium, or lime. It is the single most abundant mineral group on Earth. They
account for an estimated 60% of exposed rocks, as well as soils, clays, and other
unconsolidated sediments, and are principal components in rock classification schemes.
The minerals included in this group are the orthoclase, microcline and plagioclase
feldspars.

Feldspar is mined from large granite bodies (called plutons by geologists), from
pegmatite’s (formed when the last fluid stages of a crystallizing granite becomes
concentrated in small liquid and vapor-rich pockets that allow the growth of extremely large
crystals), and from sands composed mostly of feldspar.

Because feldspar is such a large component of the Earth’s crust, it is assumed that the
supply of feldspar is more than adequate to meet demand for a very long time to come.
Present mines worldwide are adequately meeting the need for raw feldspar.

Hard-rock mining for feldspars is done by open-pit methods, either by the mine owner
or by contractors. After the feldspar ore is drilled and blasted, secondary breakage is
performed with a conventional drop ball. Ore is then loaded with a hydraulic shovel onto
trucks and hauled to the crushing plant, which is adjacent to the flotation plant.

Feldspar is used to make dinnerware and bathroom and building tiles. In ceramics and
glass production, feldspar is used as a filler.

11
2.4.5 Porcelain

Porcelain is fine white clay made up of a combination of ceramic elements.

Porcelain is also a ceramic material made by heating materials, generally including kaolin,
in a kiln to temperatures between 1,200 and 1,400 °C (2,200 and 2,600 °F). The
toughness, strength, and translucence of porcelain, relative to other types of pottery,
arises mainly from verification and the formation of the mineral mullite within the body at
these high temperatures. Though definitions vary, porcelain can be divided into three main
categories: hard-paste, soft-paste and bone china. The category that an object belongs to
depends on the composition of the paste used to make the body of the porcelain object
and the firing conditions.

2.4.5.1 Types of Porcelain

1. Hard Paste

Hard-paste porcelain came from East Asia, specifically China, and

some of the finest quality porcelain wares are from this category. The
earliest European porcelains were produced at the Meissen factory in the
early 18th century; they were formed from a paste composed of kaolin and
alabaster and fired at temperatures up to 1,400 °C (2,552 °F) in a wood-
fired kiln, producing a porcelain of great hardness, translucency, and
strength.

Later, the composition of the Meissen hard paste was changed and
the alabaster was replaced by feldspar and quartz, allowing the pieces to
be fired at lower temperatures. Kaolinite, feldspar and quartz (or other
forms of silica) continue to constitute the basic ingredients for most
continental European hard-paste porcelains.

12
2. Bone China

Although originally developed in England in 1748 in order to

compete with imported porcelain, bone china is now made worldwide. The
English had read the letters of Jesuit missionary Francois Xavier
d'Entrecolles, which described Chinese porcelain manufacturing secrets in
detail. One writer has speculated that a misunderstanding of the text could
possibly have been responsible for the first attempts to use bone-ash as
an ingredient of English porcelain, although this is not supported by
researchers and historians. Traditionally, English bone china was made
from two parts of bone ash, one part of kaolin and one part china stone,
although this has largely been replaced by feldspars from non-UK sources.

3. Soft Paste

Soft-paste porcelains date back from the early attempts by

European potters to replicate Chinese porcelain by using mixtures of
clay and frit. Soapstone and lime were known to have been included
in these compositions. These wares were not yet actual porcelain
wares as they were not hard nor vitrified by firing kaolin clay at high
temperatures. As these early formulations suffered from high
pyroplastic deformation, or slumping in the kiln at high temperatures,
they were uneconomic to produce and of low quality. Formulations
were later developed based on kaolin with quartz, feldspars,
nepheline syenite or other feldspathic rocks. These were technically
superior, and continue to be produced. Soft-paste porcelains are
fired at lower temperatures than hard-paste porcelain, therefore
these wares are generally less hard than hard-paste porcelains.

13
2.5 Project Costing

Project costing is a series of activities for estimating, allocating and controlling costs within

the project.

There are 5 step to calculate the costing:

1) Profit cost

2) Selling prices

3) Product cost

4) Direct cost

5) Indirect cost

Table 2.5.1: Direct Cost

ITEM MATERIAL QUANTITY COST PER TOTAL COST

SPECIFICATION KILOGRAM PER PRICE (RM)
(RM)
Kaolin 5 kg 4.20 / kg 21.00
Porcelain Feldspar 5 kg 3.60 / kg 18.00
Body
Ball clay 5 kg 2.36 / kg 11.80

Silica 5 kg 2.60 / kg 13.00

Total Product for 10 Pieces 63.80

Total Product for 1 Piece 12.76

14
 Table 2.5.2: Direct Labour

PROCESS HOUR MACHINE COST TOTAL LABOUR

(RM) (RM)

Weight material 1 hour 2 2.00

Crushing 3 hour 5 15.00

Sieving 2 hour 4 8.00

Mixing 2 hour 5 10.00

Firing 24 hour 1 24.00

Total Labour for 10 Pieces Product 59.00

Total Labour for 1 Piece Product 17.00

Direct Expenses

DIRECT COST = Total direct raw material + total direct labour

= RM 63.80 + RM59.00
= RM122.80

15
 Indirect Cost

INDIRECT COST = 25% × direct cost

= 25/100 × RM122.80
= RM30.70

Product Cost

TOTAL PRODUCT COST = direct cost + indirect cost

= RM122.80 + RM30.70
= RM153.50

Profit Cost

PROFIT COST = 25% from total product cost

= 25/100 × RM153.50
= RM38.38

Selling Price

SELLING PRICE = total product cost + total profit cost

= RM153.50 + RM38.38
= RM191.88

16
 CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

3.0 Introduction

This chapter discuss about the experiment procedures to achieve the objective in this
project. The procedure of experiment and laboratory testing of the study is explain in several
subtopic. The first subtopic focuses on the design of product. Second subtopic focuses on the
manufacturing process plan and the apparatus of machineries. Third is the quality plan and testing
analysis and the schedule of project.

Design of Product

17
18
3.2 Sample Preparation for Get Hand Former Powder

Start

Recycled Hand former

Crushing

Weighting
Sieves mesh size:-
1 mm
500 µm Sieving
200 µm
100 µm Weighting
40 µm

19
3.3 Process Flow of Product

20
3.4 Apparatus of Machineries

Apparatus that has been used in this project are disc crusher, jaw crusher, vibrating sieve,
ball mill, filter press and extruder

3.4.1 Jaw Crusher

The recycle hand former will be crushing using jaw crusher machine. The waste
material will crushing into a small piece but not completely crushing into a finer powder
because jaw crusher only reduce the particle size of the waste material. At the bottom of
the jaw crusher machine is to take the material that has been destroyed, so that it will
easier to use for the next process.

Figure 3.4.1 Jaw crusher

21
3.4.2 Disc Crusher

After crushing the material into smaller particle using jaw crusher, the material
need to be crushed again using disc crusher machine. The waste material destroyed using
disk crusher machine is to bring destruction on the material of the particle size to the finer
powder.

Figure 3.4.2 Disk Crusher

22
3.4.3 Vibrating Sieve

Sieving is the classification of particle in term of their ability or in ability to pass through
an aperture of controlled size. Particle are introduced onto a stack of sieves with successively
finer aperture below, and the particle are agitated to induce translation until blocked by an
aperture smaller than the particle size. Compaction of product depends on the distribution of
granule. In order to sieve the crushed material, standard sieve size of 2mm, 1mm, 500μm,
200μm, 100μm, 63μm, 40μm, and pan collector. The sieves were placed in order to decrease
apertures size from top to bottom and electrically operated sieve shaker was used to created
vibration of the sieves.

Figure 3.4.3 Vibrating Sieve

23
3.4.4 Ball Mill

Raw material milling and mixing are important process in the production of
ceramics that determine the material properties, quality and stability of finished product.
Raw powder and solvating media (such as water) are fed into a mill with ceramic balls.
This ball mill is then rotated or shaken to create a uniform mixture (called a slurry), with
evenly distributed particles of various sizes. Adjustments are made by adding raw powder,
binder and dispersants through this process.

A ball mill consists of a hollow cylindrical shell rotating about its axis. The axis of
the shell may be either horizontal or at a small angle to the horizontal. It is partially filled
with balls. The grinding media is the balls, which may be made of steel (chrome steel),
stainless steel, ceramic, or rubber. The inner surface of the cylindrical shell is usually
lined with an abrasion-resistant material such as manganese steel or rubber.

Figure 3.4.4 Ball mill

24
3.4.5 Mould

Ceramic molds are usually made out of plaster for use with liquid clay slip, while
some may also be used as presses for clay slabs. Plaster Molds are used in pottery
because they absorb water out of the clay as it dries. This keeps clay from sticking to
them, and helps reduce warping. The molds that we currently carry are for forming slabs
and/or texturing slabs of clay and not slips of clay. If you are looking for slip-casting molds,
where you pour slip into a mold to form an object, we do not carry those. We do however
sell the casting slip used for them.

While we may not carry slip-casting molds, we also carry glass and slump-hump
molds. Slump-hump Molds are polymer and are often used as is or as initial molds create
your own plaster molds. While Glass Molds are made of ceramic (instead of polymer) so
they can be fired in a kiln. These glass molds can also be used for forming clay and work
similar to plaster since clay does not stick to them.

Figure 3.4.5 Mould

25
 3.5 Quality Plan

The process control plan provides a documented “summary description” of the method
used to minimize process and product variation. It provides a structures approach for the design,
selection, and implementation of value added control methods. It is not intended to replace the
detailed information contained in operator work instructions. Below provides an example of a
typical process control layout.

Process Machine, Control Method Control Performance

Operation Device or Characteristic Method Measurement
Tools
Vibrating sieve Granule size Sieving - Below 100μm
Raw material
Mixing Ball mill and Solid loading Milling SG viscosity SG : (1.7-1.8)
jar mill
Firing Furnace Firing curve. Firing profile Temperature Temperature
Firing graph. Time (1150°-1250° )
temperature. Thermocouple. Rate Time (24 hour)
Rate (5°/min)

Table 3.5: Quality plan

26
3.6 Testing And Analysis

Testing analysis is something that I should do to make sure the product can be use or
need any improvement. From this testing analysis, it can prove this product according to project
objectives.

3.6.1 Specific Gravity (SG)

The specific gravity is the ratio between the density of an object, and a reference
substance. The specific gravity can tell us, based on its value, if the object will sink or float
in our reference substance. Usually our reference substance is water which always has a
density of 1 gram per milliliter or 1 gram per cubic centimeter.

Figure 3.6.1 SG bottle

27
3.6.2 Granule Size Analysis

Sieving is a physical mechanism of particle removal, where a particle is denied

access through a pore or passageway that is smaller than the particle itself. Particles are
introduced onto a stack of sieves with successively finer aperture below, and the particles
are agitated to induce translation until blocked by an aperture smaller than the particle
size. Compaction of product depend on distribution of granule.

Figure 3.6.2 Vibrating Sieve

28
3.6.3 Dry Shrinkage

All clays shrink during drying. Most people who have anything to do with using
plastic clay will note that the drying shrinkage increases as does plasticity, and with that
increase comes more drying cracks. This happens because plastic clays have finer
particle sizes and thus greater particle surface area and more inter-particle water holding
things together. As that water is removed during drying, the resultant particle packing
shrinks the entire mass more. Notwithstanding this, testing effort can reward you with
sweet spots in formulation in mixes of ball clay, kaolin, feldspar, silica where higher than
expected plasticity can be achieved with lower than expected drying shrinkage. The
calculation for dry shrinkage are:

Wet length – Dry length x 100

Wet length

3.6.4 Fired Shrinkage

As kiln temperature increases bodies density particles pack closer and

closer. As temperature continues to rise, some of the particles begin to melt and
form a glass between the others that pulls them even closer. Some of the
particles shrink themselves, kaolin is an example in the raw state particles are
often loosely packed in layers, these pull together at temperature rises. These
factors result in shrinkage of ware during firing. The calculation for fired
shrinkage are:

Fired length – Dry length x 100

Fired length

29
 3.6.5 Water Absorption

Water absorption is used to determine the amount of water absorbed under

specified conditions. Factors affecting water absorption include: type of material used,
additives used, temperature and length of exposure. The data sheds light on the
performance of the materials in water or humid environments. The formula for water
absorption are:

Wet length – Dry weight x 100

Wet length

3.7 Assumption and Limitation

Assumption Limitation

 Ecofriendly  Must using a glaze because high water

absorption
 Environmental friendly
 High fired shrinkage
 Able to produce with using low
temperature

30
 Gantt Chart Project Proposal

Task Categories Week 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19

1.0 Field study
Planning
1.1 Paper work Actual
Planning
1.2 Field study in Actual
industry
2.0 Chapter 1
Planning
2.1 Project Proposal Actual
3.0 Chapter 2
Planning
3.1 Literature review Actual
4.0 Chapter 3
Planning
4.1 Methodology Actual
5.0 Chapter 4
Planning
5.1 Conclusion and Actual
Recommendation
Planning
6.0 References Actual
Planning
7.0 Presentation Actual

Log book Planning

8.0 submission Actual

31
Gantt chart Fyp Jan June 2020

32
 CHAPTER 4

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Formula for Porcelain and Hand Former Waste Slip

1. Formula Porcelain

33
2. Formula 5% Hand Former

34
3. Formula 10% Hand Former

35
4.2 Result for Specific Gravity

Table 4.1 Result SG for slip

 Good SG for slip is 1.6 to 1.8

 For porcelain, get 1.73 SG. So it good slip to use.
 5% Hand Former get 1.68. It is in the range of good slip.
 10% Hand Former get 1.63. It also in the good range for using this slip.

36
4.3 Result for % of Dry Shrinkage, Fired Shrinkage and Water Absorption

1. Porcelain

Table 4.2 Result for Porcelain Body

Figure 4.2.1 % Dry Shrinkage Porcelain

37
 Figure 4.2.2 % Fired Shrinkage Porcelain

Figure 4.2.3 % Water Absorption of Porcelain

38
 Figure 4.2.4 The Good Formula For Porcelain At 1250 °C

For formula 1 that is porcelain. We found that the lower % of dry shrinkage, % of fired
shrinkage and % of water absorption is lower in 1250 °C. That is means we will use this formula
porcelain at 1250 °C to make a comparison with mixture 5% and 10% of hand former waste.

39
2. 5% Hand Former Waste

Calculation % of
Temperature
Sample
(°C) Dry shrinkage Fired shringkage Water absorption

1150 0.77 2.38 29.88

5% HF 1200 0.44 2.99 27.25

1250 0.37 4.05 24.90

Table 4.3 Result For 5% Hand Former Waste

Figure 4.3.1 % Dry Shrinkage Of 5% Hand Former

40
Figure 4.3.2 % Fired Shrinkage Of 5% Hand Former

Figure 4.3.3 % Water Absorption Of 5% Hand Former

41
 Figure 4.3.4 The Good Formula For 5% Hand Former At 1150 °C

This is formula 2 that is 5% Hand Former waste. It approximately with

porcelain is at 1150°C that is, for dry shrinkage the different between with porcelain is 0.17%, for
fired shrinkage the different between is 0.57% and for water absorption is 27.1%. The problem is
water absorption very high. So the way of overcoming this problem is by using a glazing. This
formula suitable for glaze product.

42
3. 10% Hand Former Waste

Table 4.4 Result For 10% Hand Former Waste

Figure 4.4.1 % Dry Shrinkage Of 10% Hand Former

43
Figure 4.4.2 % Fired Shrinkage Of 10% Hand Former

Figure 4.4.3 % Water Absorption Of 10% Hand Former

44
 Figure 4.4.4 The Good Formula For 5% Hand Former At 1150 °C

This is formula 3 that is 10% Hand Former waste. It approximately with

porcelain is at 1150°C that is, for dry shrinkage the different between with porcelain is 0.07%, for
fired shrinkage the different between is 10.33% and for water absorption is 2.32%. The problem
is fired shrinkage very high. So the way of overcoming this problem is must know the real
measurement of product and predict the measuring before casting to get the actual measurement
after firing. This suitable for product that not glazing like crucible.

45
Comparison Porcelain Between 5% And 10 % Of Hand Former

46
 CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Conclusion

For the overall conclusion of this project is to find the new formula that
approximately with porcelain body. As we know that the porcelain temperature is the best at
1250 °C with the perfect result. As my experiment with using the testing of SG of slip, % of dry
shrinkage, % of fired shrinkage and % of water absorption, we get the prove about the fact of
porcelain body at 1250 °C is true.

For 5% of hand former waste that is reduce 5% of silica is also get a good
result but have one disadvantage that is higher water absorption. Water absorption is refers to
the ability of material to absorb water when immersed in it and is represented with water
absorbing capacity. Water absorbing capacity is defined as the ratio of the weight of water
absorbed by a material in saturated state over the weight of the dry material. So to overcome this
water absorption problem, we use a glaze to coating the product.

For 10% of hand former waste that is reduce 10% of silica is also get a good
result but have their disadvantage that is higher fired shrinkage. When get a higher shrinkage, it
is very difficult to get the actual dimension like we wants. So to overcome this problem is with
using the prediction about the dimension of product. When using this new formula, we must know
what the actual dimension and then we predict how much dimension we must get before casting
to the mold and after drying the product.

Finally, the new formula that approximately with porcelain body is 5% of hand
former waste with 1150 °C that is suitable for glazing product and 10% of hand former waste with
1150 °C that is suitable product that not in glazing like crucible.

47
5.2 Recommendation

For my recommendation, I recommend that don’t throw the waste material because waste
material can be recycle again. Like my project, I have proved that the product from recycle
material can same level as product in the market like porcelain body that is expensive.

In this project, there are still many research to be done to make this formula possible with
high quality.
Among the studies that need to be done is:
 Research about the viscosity of slip
 Plasticity of slip
 Moisture content of slip
 Hardness of the product when using this slip
 X-ray Fluorescence analysis of the hand former waste material

48
 References

S. Altoubat, “Early age creep and shrinkage of concrete with shrinkage reducing admixtures
(SRA),” Jordan Journal of Civil Engineering, vol. 4, no. 3, pp. 281–291, 2010.

Menegazzo APM, Lemos FLN, Paschoal JOA, Gouvêa D, Carvalho JC, Nóbrega RSN. Grés
Porcelanato - Parte 1: Uma Abordagem Mercadológica. Cerâmica Industrial. 2000; 5(5):7- 10.

International Organization for Standardization (ISO). ISO 10545: Part 3: Determination of water
absorption, apparent porosity, apparent relative density and bulk density.
Geneva: ISO; 1995.

Zanelli C, Raimondo M, Guarini G, Dondi M. The vitreous phase of porcelain stoneware:

Composition, evolution during sintering and physical properties.
Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids. 2011; 357(16-17):3251-3260. DOI: 10.1016/j.
jnoncrysol.2011.05.020

ASTM International. ASTM C 373-88 - Standard Test Method for Water Absorption, Bulk
Density, Apparent Porosity, and Apparent Specific Gravity of Fired Porcelain Products. West
Conshohocken: ASTM International; 2006.

Eren E, Kurama S, Solodov I. Characterization of porosity and

defect imaging in ceramic tile using casting. Ceramics International. 2012; 38(3):2145-2151.
DOI: 10.1016/j. ceramint.2011.10.056

International Organization for Standardization (ISO). ISO 13006: Ceramic - Definitions,

classification, characteristics and marking. Geneva: ISO; 2012.

49
 APPENDICES
APPENDIX 1

Sample A (Porcelain)

Initial (wet) After drying After firing After Boiling Calculation % of

Temperature
Sample weight Weight Length Weight Length Weight after Water
(°C) Length (mm) Dry shrinkage Fired shringkage Water absorption
(g) (g) (mm) (g) (mm) boiling (g) content (g)

A1 68.38 100.00 66.15 99.20 63.40 96.52 72.92 9.52 0.81 2.70 15.02

A2 66.02 100.00 64.10 99.40 61.48 94.04 70.68 9.20 0.60 5.39 14.96
1150
A3 67.25 100.00 65.62 99.60 62.91 95.57 72.19 9.28 0.40 4.05 14.75

Average 67.22 100.00 65.29 99.40 62.60 95.38 71.93 9.33 0.60 4.05 14.91

A4 70.35 100.00 68.70 99.20 65.73 95.47 70.44 4.71 0.81 3.76 7.17

A5 67.31 100.00 65.68 99.70 62.88 97.67 67.40 4.52 0.30 2.04 7.19
1200
A6 67.01 100.00 65.24 98.20 62.49 96.94 67.10 4.61 1.83 1.28 7.38

Average 68.22 100.00 66.54 99.03 63.70 96.69 68.31 4.61 0.98 2.36 7.24

A7 67.56 100.00 66.07 99.20 63.20 97.32 64.91 1.71 0.81 1.90 2.71

A8 68.52 100.00 66.67 99.40 63.78 98.53 65.74 1.96 0.60 0.88 3.07
1250
A9 66.30 100.00 64.62 99.60 61.81 96.95 63.38 1.57 0.40 2.66 2.54

Average 67.46 100.00 65.79 99.40 62.93 97.60 64.68 1.75 0.60 1.81 2.78

50
 Sample B (5% Hand Former)

Initial (wet) After drying After firing After Boiling Calculation % of

Temperature
Sample weight Weight Length Weight Length Weight after Water
(°C) Length (mm) Dry shrinkage Fired shringkage Water absorption
(g) (g) (mm) (g) (mm) boiling (g) content (g)

B1 70.30 100.00 53.67 99.20 50.73 96.36 66.10 15.76 0.81 2.86 30.30

B2 71.19 100.00 54.21 99.30 51.34 96.37 66.43 15.09 0.70 2.95 29.39
1150
B3 67.55 100.00 51.65 99.20 48.91 97.88 63.57 14.66 0.81 1.33 29.97

Average 69.68 100.00 53.18 99.23 50.33 96.87 65.37 15.17 0.77 2.38 29.88

B4 70.76 100.00 54.18 99.90 51.24 97.07 65.56 14.32 0.10 2.83 27.95

B5 73.79 100.00 56.16 99.80 53.12 96.35 66.82 13.70 0.20 3.46 25.79
1200
B6 73.22 100.00 55.36 99.00 52.36 96.36 67.04 14.68 1.01 2.67 28.04

Average 72.59 100.00 55.23 99.57 52.24 96.59 66.47 14.23 0.44 2.99 27.25

B7 69.90 100.00 53.31 99.40 50.36 95.79 62.61 12.25 0.60 3.63 24.32

B8 68.32 100.00 51.88 99.70 48.97 95.88 61.41 12.44 0.30 3.83 25.40
1250
B9 66.47 100.00 50.76 99.80 47.96 95.11 59.94 11.98 0.20 4.70 24.98

Average 68.23 100.00 51.98 99.63 49.10 95.59 61.32 12.22 0.37 4.05 24.90

51
 Sample C (10 % Hand Former)

Initial (wet) After drying After firing After Boiling Calculation % of

Temperature
Sample weight Weight Length Weight Length Weight after Water
(°C) Length (mm) Dry shrinkage Fired shringkage Water absorption
(g) (g) (mm) (g) (mm) boiling (g) content (g)

C1 71.73 100.00 54.05 99.10 50.77 87.38 53.55 2.78 0.91 11.83 5.48

C2 72.48 100.00 54.55 99.30 51.50 87.52 53.96 2.46 0.70 11.86 4.78
1150
C3 74.79 100.00 56.32 99.60 53.16 86.93 55.84 2.68 0.40 12.72 5.04

Average 73.00 100.00 54.97 99.33 51.81 87.28 54.45 2.64 0.67 12.14 5.10

C4 67.92 100.00 51.13 99.50 48.25 90.44 53.01 4.76 0.50 9.11 9.87

C5 70.25 100.00 53.00 99.80 49.97 90.57 54.98 5.01 0.20 9.25 10.03
1200
C6 71.07 100.00 53.60 99.20 50.47 91.15 56.14 5.67 0.81 8.11 11.23

Average 69.75 100.00 52.58 99.50 49.56 90.72 54.71 5.15 0.50 8.82 10.38

C7 64.99 100.00 48.55 99.60 45.81 87.46 48.25 2.44 0.40 12.19 5.33

C8 68.02 100.00 38.39 99.40 36.16 86.46 38.03 1.87 0.60 13.02 5.17
1250
C9 64.38 100.00 48.57 99.30 45.74 87.08 47.93 2.19 0.70 12.31 4.79

Average 65.80 100.00 45.17 99.43 42.57 87.00 44.74 2.17 0.57 12.50 5.10

52
All Formula with 1150 °C, 1200 °C and 1250°C

Calculation % of
Temperature
Sample
(°C) Dry shrinkage Fired shringkage Water absorption

Porcelain 0.60 4.05 14.91

1150 5% HF 0.77 2.38 29.88

10% HF 0.67 12.14 5.10

Porcelain 0.98 2.36 7.24

1200 5% HF 0.44 2.99 27.25

10% HF 0.50 8.82 10.38

Porcelain 0.60 1.81 2.78

1250 5% HF 0.37 4.05 24.90

10% HF 0.57 12.50 5.10

53
 APPENDIX 2

Design

54
 APPENDIX 3

55