Distinguished Author Series

Multiphase Flow in Pipes

by Peter Griffith, Massachusetts Inst. of Technology

Peter Griffith has been on the faculty of the Massachusetts Inst. of Technology (MIT)
since 1956. His primary research interests have been in two-phase flow, boiling,
condensation, supercritical heat transfer, and various applications of nuclear reactor
safety. He holds degrees in mechanical engineering from New York u., the u. of
Michigan, and MIT.

Introduction Books on Two-Phase Flow

Multiphase flow is found in many places. In the
petroleum industry it occurs in oil and gas wells ,
gathering systems, many piping systems, and key
pieces of equipment needed in refineries and
petrochemical industries, including boilers,
condensers, distillation towers, separators, and
associated piping. This article focuses on two-phase
flow in pipes. Though a lot has been learned about
two-phase flow in the past 25 years , much of that
knowledge has not been collected in a convenient
place . In particular, much work done for the nuclear
industry remains unknown to the petroleum industry.
The primary goal of this article is to describe the kinds
of problems we are now able to solve and to point out
where answers to these problems can be obtained.
When piping in which two phases are flowing is
designed , a number of questions can arise, depending
on the application:
I. What is the void fraction?
2. What is the pressure drop?
3 . What is the liquid level?
4. What is the flow at a break?
5. How can one separate the phases?
6. Where will corrosion occur?
7 . What is the wear rate caused by droplet
impingement?
8. What is the vibration of the pipes as a result of
two-phase flow?
I shall begin by listing available books, then
recommend flow-regime maps and correlations for
void, pressure drop, and critical flow, and finally
touch on the problems of separation, corrosion, wear,
and vibration.
0149·2136/84/0031·2895$00 .25
Various books on two-phase flow contain answers for
many of the problems that arise. Almost all of the
following books describe homogeneous and separated
flow models for calculating void fraction and pressure
drop, so I shall mention only those features unique to
each book.
Wallis I contains the most complete mechanistic
descriptions of void and pressure drop for the different
flow regimes.
Hestroni 2 has a unique section on flow instability
and also the best section on flow regimes.
Collier 3 is primarily a mUltiphase heat-transfer book
but has a unique section on two-phase pressure drop in
fittings .
Hewitt and Hall-Taylor4 collect and rep0l1 more
experimental observations on annular flow than any
other source.
Lahey and Moody 5 have a unique section on choked
flow. Their description of the drift-flux model is
excelle nt.
Govier and Aziz 6 consider both slurries and non-
Newtonian fluid plus a wide variety of solid, liquid ,
and gas systems.
Moore and Sieverding 7 have design data on screen
and chevron separators that are not reported elsewhere.
Hsu and Graham 8 consider cryogens.
Szilas 9 has a design section on both pool and
cyclone separators.
Flow Regimes
The unique feature of two-phase flow is the presence
of flow regimes- descriptions of how the two phases
are distributed in the pipe. Flow regimes and flow-
regime maps for horizontal, vertical, and inclined

MARCH 1984 361


E~_--~~~-:~~~ Stratified smooth flow
~-~--~~
Stratified wavy flow
-.5....
~~~~o~:o9 Plug flow
~o~~~d Slug flow
c:~. -__-=:;;-;J Annular flow
l~~"~ ?~;~~~~~
0 Dispersed bubble flow
Fig.1-Flow regimes for a horizontal pipe (adapted from
Refs. 2 and 10).
pipes are illustrated in Figs. I through 4.2.10.11
For quantities like void fraction or pressure drop. it
has not proved convenient to use these maps as part of
the calculation scheme. The quantities of interest are
continuous, while steps would occur at flow-regime
boundaries if separate correlations were used for void
or pressure drop for each regime. Rather, the utility of
the flow-regime maps lies in their ability to help solve
unconventional problems. such as:
Is there a liquid level?
Is there carryover?
Is there entrainment?
Is the flow steady?
Will the top of the pipe be wet?
They are also of great interest when one runs
"thought experiments." It is hard to imagine how a
two-phase flow will behave in an untested system
without also imagining how the phases are arranged.
The arrangement of the phases is the flow regime and
can be predicted with the maps. Often one can guess
how a flow regime will change as it passes through a
fitting. for example.
There are also regime maps for inclined pipes. One
of the most extensive sources of these is Ref. 12. All
angles are included, from vertical uptlow to vertical
downtlow.
The tlow-regime maps recommended have a
consistent designation for the flow regimes, a broad
data base. and a semitheoretical basis for determining
flow-regime boundaries. The approach taken in these
works reflects just about the right compromise between
precision and simplicity.
A recent work U extends the data base for flow
regimes and recommends changing the location of the
362
50
DISPERSED
BUBBLE (DB)
10
:(
ELONGATED;3 SLUG
BUBBLE
'-' INTERMITTENT (I)
Q) DISPERSED
If)
..... ///,
LIQUID (AD)
::J
.1
STRATIFIED
SMOOTH (SS)
.01
.1 10 100 500
U6 (m/sec)
Fig. 2-Flow-regime map plotted in terms of superficial
velocities of each phase for air and water in a 1-in.
[2.54-cm]-ID pipe at room temperature and pressure.
Crosshatched bands represent the data of
Mandhane. 2 ,5,10
wavy stratified annular dispersed boundary farther to
the right. Our experiments indicate that these
recommendations improve the map,
Void Correlations
One of the most basic quantities in two-phase flow is
void fraction or its complement, liquid fraction,
Various methods exists for calculating this quantity;
each has its advantages and faults.
The simplest is the homogeneous model, which
assumes that both phases move at the same velocity.
However, they rarely do. Void is usually
overestimated in horizontal and upflow and
underestimated in downflow when this model is used.
If pressure drop, rather than void, is the primary
concern and the gravity contribution to the pressure
drop is small (say 20% of the total), this model is
often satisfactory,
The next most complicated expression for void
assumes that the liquid moves more slowly than the
vapor. These are called "slip correlations." The well-
known Martinelli, Thom, or Baroczy correlations
mentioned in all the handbooks on two-phase flow 1-3,8
fit into this category, Where pressure drop as such is
the issue. these methods can be satisfactory. Martinelli
and Baroczy have a data base that includes a wide
variety of fluid properties in the correlations, At low
velocity, however, they can give poor answers because
the gravity contribution to the vapor velocity is
practically ignored in both of these correlations,
The most precise method for calculating the void
fraction relies on the drift-flux model. The most
convenient description of this model is provided in
Refs. 1 through 3, A recent compilation of the drift-
JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY
 100

A
t t--. 10
BUBBLE
0
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°'0 0 IV······
:". ~ ~
: ...
ANNULAR
00 0 0
Doo 0 0 a
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00
•....-c:::::: .1 10 100 1000
t t t
Churn
U~
Bubbl. Slug Annular
flow tlow flow rtow (ft /sec)

Fig. 3-Flow regimes distinguished by Taitel and Dukler for a Fig. 4-Flow-regime map for air and water in a vertical upflow
vertical upflow pipe. 2,11 at 75°F and 1 atm [24°C and 101.3 MPa] (adapted
from Refs. 2 and 11). The coordinates are the super-
ficial velocity of each phase.

flux model constants for various flow regimes 14 has a
huge data base. Properly used, the drift-flux model
generally gives the best predictions of void fraction
because it explicitly recognizes the two most important
factors that cause slip: combined velocity-density
distributions in the channel and the direction of the
gravity vector. This model also is unique because it
properly predicts a liquid level for sufficiently small
velocity levels. Thus, it can be used to help size
devices such as separators or to tell whether some
heated tubes will be wet when there is only a limited
amount of liquid present. It also is unique because it
can predict void in counterflow and gives an
indeterminate form during a downflow when the void
is sometimes indeterminate.
Whenever one has several methods of calculating a
given quantity, guidance is needed in choosing which
method to use. In general, homogeneous void can be
used only when the contribution of gravity to the total
pressure drop is unimportant. Slip models are most
convenient for engineering calculations but give poor
answers when the system operates outside of annular,
dispersed, or bubbly flow regimes. In any regime
where gravity is a dominant force, a slip model will
fail to represent an important part of the physics, so a
drift-flux model should be used.
Pressure-Drop Correlations
Pressure drop is probably the quantity that one deals
with most often in two-phase flow. In spite of this,
our ability to predict it in truly new situations is not
very good. Differences are primarily a result of the
variety of flow regimes that one tries to bridge with a
single correlation scheme. Another problem is the
large number of dimensionless variables that are
MARCH 1984
demonstrably important, at least at some conditions.
For example, for a single-phase, fully developed
flow in a pipe, the friction factor is a function of a
single dimensionless group, the Reynolds number.
However, for a two-phase flow, the pressure drop
(which can be calculated with a friction factor) is a
function of at least six variables. For exampk, one
such set of variables identifies the friction factor as a
function of a Froude number, the Weber number, the
Reynolds number, the density ratio, the viscosity ratio,
and the flow-rate ratio. If we try to correlate data and
leave out some dimensionless groups, we cannot
expect a good result.
The same three alternatives exist for computing the
pressure drop as exist for the void fraction: the
homogeneous model, the slip model, and the drift-flux
model. A number of comparisons between these
models have been made in the literature. For example,
Ref. 2 makes recommendations for calculating
pressure drop in both horizontal and vertical pipes.
When one looks at a large amount of two-phase
pressure-drop data, the important differences tum out
to be caused by the different data bases underlying the
correlations. When the application for a correlation is
known, the best general advice is to use a correlation
with a data base similar to the application. If there are
a number of differences between the data base and the
proposed application, one has a problem deciding what
constitutes the most similar. I would rank order the
similarities from most to least important: (1) quality
and velocity level, (2) density ratio, (3) geometry (up,
down, or inclined), (4) diameter, and (5) other
properties such as viscosity and surface tension.
Turning now to specific models, the homogeneous
model is the simplest to use. Only one parameter is
363
needed to predict pressure drop: the friction factor. I
recommend that the friction factor be chosen by use of
the well-known Moody curves, assuming that only
liquid is flowing at the mixture mass velocity. Use the
liquid density and viscosity to calculate the Reynolds
number and the Moody curves to determine the
friction factor. This procedure gives a smooth
transition to the two-phase pressure drop in the low-
quality region and a step at 100% quality.
Surprisingly, the step at high quality has some
experimental justification. In any case, the
homogeneous methods that rely on a weighted
viscosity have practically no experimental justification
and make no physical sense. At best they provide a
smooth transition from a single- to a two-phase flow
of both ends of the quality range.
The slip models generally have a larger data base
than the homogeneous models. Thom, Martinelli, and
Baroczy all are included in this category. The
empirical friction pressure-drop multipliers they
propose are easy to use and give sensible answers to
overall pressure drop. Average errors with these
techniques are small, but errors possible for a single
calculation sometimes are huge-as much as 60 %. In a
complex system where heat addition may cause a
quality change, and where there are fittings and
perhaps several sources for the flow, the overall errors
are much less because they tend to average out.
There is no suitable friction pressure-drop
calculation procedure, which is needed to accompany
the drift-flux model (used for density). Generally if the
drift-flux model is appropriate, the friction contribution
to the pressure drop is very small. Under the
circumstances, I recommend that the homogeneous
model be used to calculate the friction pressure drop.
Several pressure-drop models for vertical upflow,
including those mentioned in this section, are
compared and evaluated in Refs. 32 and 33.
Recommendations for calculation are included.
Fittings often are important components in piping
systems, though little information exists that can be
used to calculate two-phase pressure drop in fittings.
Ref. 3, in any case, has a section on pressure drop in
fittings.
Inclined pipes are a special case. Naturally the data
base for any particular angle inclination is skimpy, so
more extrapolation is necessary. The important factor
to keep in mind with inclined pipes is that there is
often a flow-regime change as the pipe changes
orientation from upflow to downflow. One often
changes from slug flow in the upflowing portions to
stratified or annular flow in the downflowing portions.
There is little or no pressure recovery in downflow in
stratified or annular flow, so the effect of replacing a
section of horizontal pipe with an inclined pipe of the
same overall length and net elevation changes is to
increase the overall pressure drop substantially. To
calculate this pressure drop properly, the void fraction
in the upflowing portions must be calculated by use of
the drift-flux model. For the stratified downflowing
regions a theory presented in Ref. 12 is most
appropriate. The most extensive study of inclined-pipe
pressure drop is Ref. 15.
364
Critical Flow
Two-phase critical flow is an important problem in
several areas. Overpressure relief valves for devices
such as boilers and cryogenic storage tanks need to be
sized so the tank is protected from bursting against all
transients. Subsurface safety valves contain choked
flow and also must be sized. Break flows must be
calculated for pipelines that contain two phases.
Over the past decade much work has been done on
break flow since this is an important factor in how a
nuclear reactor system behaves after a break occurs.
This section explains the results of nuclear work to
other parts of the technical community.
In this context, what we call a critical flow is
defined by the following experiment. A pipe
connecting a fluid reservoir close to saturation
conditions is allowed to discharge into a reservoir at a
lower pressure. As the pressure in the lower-pressure
reservoir is dropped, the flow continues to increase to
a certain point and then holds constant even though the
discharge pressure is decreased. This asymptotic flow
is the critical flow and its velocity is called the critical
velocity. Unlike gases, there is no simple relationship
between this velocity and the velocity of a pressure
wave in the mixture. Both the frequency of the
pressure wave and the flow regime change the
measured pressure-wave velocity.
The homogeneous model and separated flow models
both can be used to calculate choked flow for two-
phase mixtures. At low quality and pressure the
homogeneous-equilibrium model has been shown to
underestimate the break flow greatly. Slip models for
choked flow were developed to remedy some of these
defects, but other factors, primarily the departure from
thermal equilibrium, also apply. Because of these
complications, the most successful critical flow models
have an extensive data base and rely only minimally
on theory.
The most convenient source of information on
choked flow of steam/water mixtures is contained in
Ref. 5. The results of calculations using the
homogeneous equilibrium model and the best slip
model are included in a form that is uncommonly
convenient for calculation. Both models (as presented
in this reference) are only for water, but the analytical
details included allow calculations for fluids other than
steam and water to be performed.
Recently several useful reviews have been published
in this area. Ref. 16 discusses what goes out the break
when there is a hole in a pipe with a stratified flow.
This is important because proportions of the two
phases that go out the break are not necessarily the
same as those in the pipe or those flowing. The break
quality and flow rate depend on the location of the
break and its size, among other factors. Ref. 17 is a
thoughtful review of the current theories on choked
flow and compares data with a variety of theories.
Ref. 18 examines data from a variety of sources and
recommends calculations for the large pipes found in
reactor systems.
Though break flow is still not entirely understood,
we know enough to make serviceable estimates of the
JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY
flow and the resulting set impact forces and critical
pressure ratios.
Other Topics
The items touched on so far might be described as
conventional two-phase flow topics. Many areas are
affected by what we have learned about two-phase
flow that are not usually regarded as two-phase flow
concerns, even though two-phase flow is an important
factor. It is worthwhile to spend some time on these
topics because it is unlikely that the more conventional
fields will be the real problems in the future. The first
of these topics is gas/liquid separation.
Separators. Most separators are built and tested by
manufacturers with very little information provided to
the purchasers about their operation or design.
Scattered throughout the literature are papers and
chapters in books that allow one to design separators
and estimate their performance. This section attempts
to draw this information together.
Both gravity and centrifugal separators are described
in Ref. 9. Gravity separators, in essence, are tanks in
which the velocity level is low enough to allow phase
separation. They usually have demisters at the top to
remove additional small drops that might be carried
over. Ref. 9 gives a design procedure for separators of
this kind. Properties like gas and liquid density are
considered explicitly. Cyclone separators are also men-
tioned, though less information is given about their
design.
Ref. 7 describes demisters of various kinds such as
screens, knitted wire mesh, and corrugated plate
separators. Information on separator efficiency is
presented for all these kinds of separators in a form
that is useful for design. Flooding limits also are
presented so that one can predict at what vapor
velocity level the separated liquid will have difficulty
flowing back against the wind.
Additional information on separators is provided in
Ref. 2. A wider range of separators is considered,
though some useful design information is lacking.
Perhaps the simplest separator is a vertical
downflowing pipe in which the deposited liquid is
allowed simply to run out. This kind of separator can
be designed with the information contained in Ref. 19.
Stability. Two-phase systems often behave in an
unstable manner. "Instability" in this context involves
two separate manifestations: excursive instability (first
described by Ledinegg) and oscillating instabilities.
Both kinds of instabilities are found in two-phase
piping systems. Ref. 2 is practically the only
compilation of the information available for describing
two-phase flow instabilities in general.
Unheated two-phase systems are prone to excursive
instabilities if, for any reason, there are (1) parallel
passages connecting common headers or plenums, or
(2) a negative-sloping pressure-droplflow-rate curve in
one or more of the passages connecting the two
headers. The most common cause of a negative-
sloping pressure-droplflow-rate curve is gravity. The
slower the flow, the more liquid is held up and the
greater the pressure drop. To determine whether a
MARCH 1984
system is prone to this kind of instability, it is
necessary to calculate the pressure-droplflow-rate
curve and see whether there is a negative-sloping
region in the operating range.
In principle, all the information needed to do this is
in the pressure-drop correlations mentioned earlier. In
fact, how one should do this calculation is still
somewhat in doubt. The calculation should be done
where the proportion of the two phases distributed to
the various parallel passages connecting the headers
are allowed to vary as they will. One cannot assume,
for example, constant quality or equal flow split unless
the system is designed to ensure such a flow split. The
root of the difficulty is that we don't have a method of
calculating how two phases split when they come to a
junction. This deficiency must be regarded as one of
the outstanding, unsolved problems in two-phase flow.
Making a piping network predictable may well be a
design requirement. If so, and if one has to distribute
two phases, perhaps the best way is to design the
system to ensure symmetry. There are at least two
ways to do this. One can arrange any number of outlet
pipes in a circle around a plenum. This practically
guarantees that the flow out will have the same quality
in each pipe. Another procedure is to split and resplit
the flow in tee's in the horizontal plane. For equal
pressures in both branches, the quality flowing in the
two branches is the same.
The following are examples of specific excursive
instabilities that have led to difficulties in various two-
phase systems.
1. Small, highly heated tube. The friction term was
found to be destabilizing when boiling began.
2. N-shaped three-pass vertical boiler tube. The
gravity term has been found destabilizing. 20
3. Heated, inverted V-tubes (in a pendant super-
heater). The gravity term was destabilizing. 21
4. Yankee dryer condensate drain (a "vertical"
upt10w pipe sucking condensate from the inside
surface of a rotating drum and is discharging it into a
horizontal axle).22 The gravity term was destabilizing.
Many other examples in the literature duplicate the
failures that already have been discovered. In general
the following systems are particularly prone to two-
phase flow pressure-droplflow-rate instabilities. All
these instabilities appear when the pipe in question is
part of a multiple-tube array connecting common
headers.
I. Vpflowing two-phase pipes at low velocity (where
gravity is dominant). Gravity destabilizes.
2. Downflowing heated tubes. Gravity destabilizes.
3. Vpflowing chilled tubes. Gravity and momentum
are both destabilizing.
4. Heated tubes of any orientation with vigorous
surface boiling. Friction is destabilizing.
In general one stabilizes a system by putting
sufficient orificing in the lines to ensure a positive
pressure-drop vs. flow-rate curve over the entire
operating region.
These instabilities also can lead to oscillating flow
rates. The most likely such instability, described in
Ref. 23, is where a flow delivered to a heated pipe
oscillates because of compressibility in the fluid
365
delivery system. Any soft delivery system can lead to
an oscillating flow.
A more common cause of an oscillating flow is a
density wave instability. Ref. 2 summarizes most of
what is known about them. They are found in systems
of any orientation in which heat addition causes a
density change. When the oscillations occur, their
period is about twice the transit time in the heated
section.
For these oscillations to occur, a large proportion of
the pressure drop must be concentrated in the exit
section of the tube. If the flow is above the stable
limit for the existing heat flux, a reduction in flow, for
example, will cause a reduction in the exit pressure
drop. This will tend to increase the flow. However, it
takes time for the resulting increase in density to
propagate to the exit section. When it gets there, the
exit pressure drop increases (because of the increase in
pV2, where p=density and V=velocity) and the inlet
flow decreases. This causes the flow to decrease and
the pV 2 to decrease, but only after a delay. The cycle
of increase and decrease occurs at a period equal to
twice the transit time in the test section. In principle,
the methods for calculating the pressure drop in heated
sections mentioned earlier are adequate for predicting
this instability. In fact. however, these correlations are
generally too imprecise for this purpose. since pressure
derivatives as well as pressure-drop values are
important and the correlations are not that good.
Again, these oscillations usually are eliminated by
throttling at the inlet to the heated section. These
oscillations can occur in any flow regime.
Corrosion-Erosion. One of the more peculiar two-
phase flow problems concerns corrosion-erosion in wet
steam-extraction lines. Carbon-steel pipes passing wet
steam from extraction points on the turbine to the feed
water heaters have suffered from wastage rates so
large that pipes have to be replaced. 24 -26 The location
of the wastage is entirely a result of the peculiarities of
the two-phase flow passing through these lines. The
metal loss peaks at a temperature of 300°F [149°C]
and typically is found in pipes and fittings with
flowing steam of 80 to 95 % quality. The flow regime
is annular-dispersed.
The most peculiar facet of this wear is that it is
sometimes found on the outside of the pipe bend and
sometimes on the inside. This is because two separate
mechanisms are responsible for the removal of
material. In any case, metal removal begins by the
steel corroding to magnetite. Fe 3 0 4 , On the outside
of the bend the secondary flow and centrifugal
acceleration throw the drops out onto the magnetite,
fatiguing it and causing it to erode away. This exposes
new metal to the steam and accelerates the wastage.
On the inside, the shear stress caused by secondary
flow in the bend draws the annular film from the
bottom or sides of the pipe to the inside, where an
inward-flowing stagnation point occurs. This
stagnation point has a very high mass-transfer
coefficient and the oxide is dissolved away as a result.
To calculate the metal-removal rate, one needs to
366
know what the mass-transfer coefficient is around the
bend.
Ref. 26 reports an ingenious experiment in which
pure water and air are used to simulate the
steam/water system of interest. The "pipe" is cast in
two pieces of plaster of Paris. The system is run for a
while using air and water and the erosion pattern is
observed. This shows more clearly than any other
method how the peculiar wear pattern observed in
steam-extraction lines comes about.
Wear. Oil and gas pipelines and wellstrings,
particularly in the vicinity of fittings, can exhibit wear
from the impact of entrained sand. This has been
studied in a recent work and an unpublished
thesis. 27.28
The wear theory of Finnie 29 can be adapted to the
case of sand entrained in a liquid rather than a solid.
When this is done, reasonable wear rates are
predicted. The secondary flows in the bends are
important in determining how much of the sand hits
the bend, while the effects of flow regime are much
smaller than anticipated. For bubbly and slug flow, the
sand is probably in the liquid but the velocities are low
enough so that the resulting wear is not very
important. In annular flow the film is apparently thin
enough that the sand sticks out of the film and may be
largely entrained. The wear pattern indicates that this
is probably the case.
The homogeneous model appears adequate for
predicting the sand velocity and distribution in the
pipe.
Vibration Caused by Two-Phase Flow. Very little
information is available that can be used to predict the
vibration amplitudes caused by fluctuations in a two-
phase flow. The mechanism of these fluctuations (as
described in Ref. 30) follows.
In two-phase flow, especially slug flow, plugs of
t1uid proceed down the pipe with the density
fluctuating between that of almost pure liquid and that
of almost pure gas. When these fluctuations hit a
bend, for example, a fluctuating force resulting from
the momentum change in the plug or bubble as it
proceeds around the bend is exerted on the bend. This
force can cause the pipe to vibrate if the fluctuations
are near a natural frequency for the system. These
vibrations are best described as random since there
usually is not a single well-defined frequency that
characterizes the flow. The maximum amplitude of the
fluctuating force can be estimated conservatively from
the maximum density difference between the phases
and the mixture velocity. The frequencies can be
estimated from the information presented in Ref. 30
or 31.
The exciting frequencies are typically from 1 to 20
cycles/sec [1 to 20 Hz] while the natural frequencies
of the piping systems typically range from 5 to 40
cycles/sec [5 to 40 Hz]. This means that a pipe
excited by a two-phase flow will vibrate at its natural
frequency with a variable amplitude. The same kind of
vibration would occur if a pipe were struck
occasionally and allowed to vibrate between blows.
JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY
 Flow regime is of governing importance for this
problem. The maximum amplitude of the exciting
force occurs at the slug-annular boundary. Bubbly flow
is very smooth, whereas annular flow becomes
increasingly smooth as the velocity and quality
increase. Slug flow, however, is very rough.
Conclusion
Methods for calculating many of the quantities of
interest in two-phase flows exist but are scattered in
the literature. This article cites references where the
information can be found, stressing the handbooks,
which are the most generally available sources for this
kind of information.
References
1. Wallis. G.B.: One-Dimensional Two-Phase Flow. McGraw-Hill
Book Co. Inc., New York City (1969).
2. Hestroni, G.: Handbook of Multiphase Systems. Hemisphere
Publishing Corp .. Washington, DC (1982).
3. Collier, 1.G.: CO/J\'ectil'(! BoilinK and Condensation. McGraw-
Hill Book Co. Inc., New York City (1981).
4. Hewitt, G.F. and Hall-Taylor, N.S.: Annular Two-Phase Flow,
Pergamon Press, New York City (1970).
5. Lahey, R.T. and Moody, F.J.: The Thermal-Hvdraulics ofa Boil-
inK Water Nuclear Reactor. American Nuclear Soc., La Grange
Park, IL (1977).
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SI Metric Conversion Factors
atm x 1.013 250* E+05 Pa
OF (OF-32)/l.8
°C
ft x 3.048* E-Ol m
m. X 2.540* E+OO cm
* Conversion factor is exact JPT
Distinguished Author Series articles are general, descriptive presentations that sum-
marize the state of the art in an area of technology by describing recent developments
for readers who are not specialists in the topics discussed. Written by individuals
recognized as experts In the areas, these articles provide key references to more
definitive work and present specific details only to illustrate the technology. Purpose:
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