QUESTION 1

NUMERICAL DISPERSION PHENOMENON

According to Bell and Shubin (1985), the major challenge in the simulation for the
process of enhanced oil recovery is the control of numerical dispersion, inherent of
unnecessary quantity of numerical dispersion in simulation techniques may generate
the quantitatively results but in certain scenarios to be incorrect qualitative results.
Furthermore, numerical dispersion effects are exhibited in different two phenomena
but related closely, in the first phenomena fronts related to rapid spatial variation
spread through grid blocks results in inaccurate forecasts of breakthrough times and
can scatter fluid banks to the point that miscibility effects are predicted incorrectly.
Through numerical dispersion and smearing fronts, shapes can be severely distorted,
this phenomenon is termed to as the grid orientation effect. The spreading of fronts is
associated with numerical dispersion’s absolute magnitude, and front distortion is
related to grid-dependent anisotropies in the dispersion. Front distortion is also linked
to the dispersive errors inherent in the scheme.
Bell and Shubin (2015) further added, that problems associated with numerical
dispersion is of significant concern in the reservoir simulation society, the bulk
literature on numerical dispersion’s control focused only on one characteristic of the
problem, overlooking its dual nature, none of the schemes that decreases grid
orientation effectively reduces front smearing, the efforts on reducing front smearing
has concentrated on different mobility-weighting approaches that tries to reduce the
amount of dispersion. 
According to Taflove & Hagness (2005), several methods were proposed to minimize
numerical dispersion and to obtain more precise results without increasing
computational costs, one simple but suboptimal option is the use of fine enough grid in
the finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) simulations by minimizing numerical
dispersion through different FDTD accuracy is enhanced without the reduction of mesh
size. Taflove & Hagness (2005), further added that smaller time steps not necessarily
reduces the numerical dispersion but may lead to greater errors, for the analytical and
numerical study of various time steps there are two methods are used which are FDTD
(2,2) and FDTD (2,4) methods. Arti Agarwal (2013) added that, the source of
numerical dispersion is that .in numerical methods the fields like electric & magnetic
are determined in similar manner which doesn’t affect the actual field, although by
reducing spacing among mesh points to zero. the interpolation error is not eliminated
completely. Arti Agarwal (2013) further added that many numerical methods need
some grid or mesh discretization to characterize the physical domain and is defined in
this mesh which has both a finite physical extent and finite number of mesh points the
location of mesh points can be changed, through a fine or coarse mesh. If mesh is not
isotropic, it adds to the dispersion, therefore through arrangement of the mesh control
the dispersion can be achieved.
(2) Numerical Modelling In a Two Phase Immiscible Displacement
By Buckley Leverett Method
According to Craft and Hawkins (1991), the most popular and simple method to
estimate fluid displacement. in an immiscible displacement is by Buckley Leverett
theory, this theory approximates the injected water rate which travels by a porous
medium and works on following rules,

 In an oil reservoir water is injected.

 Flow is linear and horizontal.
 Oil and water are. both incompressible and immiscible.
 Effects are negligible for gravity and capillary pressure.
 Viscosities are constant for oil and water.
 Discontinuous water-oil displacement front (no capillary transition zone).
 Water saturation is a function for fractional flow of water.

Amooie (2016) further added that, Buckley-Leverett equation is a used for analytical
solution for the displacement front in 2-phase flow, and used to determine the rate of
injected water which travels through porous medium and works on the fractional flow
theory. Bryan and Kantzas (2014), added that there is a transition zone among water
and oil in various rocks, in the true water zone there is 100 percent water saturation
whereas, connate water is usually present in the oil zone, in the transition zone water
and oil is produced and at each point the fraction of flowrate will depend on water
and oil saturations, flows over small volume element with length and cross sectional
area is expressed through total.flow rate.qt as,

qt = qo + qw
qw = qt x fw
qo = qt x fo
qo = qt x (1 - fw)

where q represents volumetric flow rate, at reservoir conditions, and fw.and.fo are
fractional flow. to water .and oil. respectively.

qw = krw KA dp
µw dx
qo = kro KA dp
µo dx
fw = __qw_____
q o + qw
fw = ______(krw/ µw)____
(Kro / µo) + (Krw / µw)
fw = 1 2
1 + ( Kro µw / Krw µo)

fw is function of only saturation given constant viscosities and relative permeabilities

that are also functions of only saturations.

Since,
Kro = ae-bsw
Krw
So,
fw = 1 2
1 + ( µw / µo) x ae-bsw

Where q is the volumetric flow rate, ƒw and ƒo.are fractional flow.to water and oil.
ko / kw is a function of saturation. ƒw is a function of saturation.

The water rate which enters the medium element from LHS is,
qt x fw = water flow rate enter to the element ________________Equation (1)

The water rate which leaves element from RHS is,

qt x (fw + ∆fw ) = water flow rate leaving the element. ________________Equation (2)

So, equating both equations,

Change in water flowrate = water entering – water leaving

= (qt x fw ) – (qt x (fw + ∆fw ))
= - qt x ∆fw

Change in water flowrate is equal to change in element of water content per time.

Water content per unit time= ∆Sw x A x Φ x ∆x

∆t
Where, Sw is the water saturation at time t, if oil is displaced from the element from
(t + ∆t) and the water saturation will be ( Sw + ∆SW) and Φ is the porosity. Equating
above both equations.

∆Sw x A x Φ x ∆x = - qt x ∆fw
∆t

∆Sw = - qt x ∆fw a ____________ (Equation 3)

∆t A x Φ x ∆x

By putting the limits, we get

dSw = - (qt) dfw
dt (A x Φ) dx

Figure 1: Horizontal Bed containing oil and water (perminc 2018)

As shown in figure 1, the fractional flow of water f w is the function of water saturation
Sw assuming oil & water viscosities as constant, the water saturation is function of
both time and position express in terms of fw = F(Sw)

dSw = (dSw / dt)x dt + (dSw / dx)t dx ____________________ (Equation 4)

(dSw / dt ) = (dSw / dt)x + (dSw / dx)t (dx/ dt) ________________ (Equation 5)

where Sw is constant and dSw = 0. Therefore we have

(dx/ dt) = (∂Sw/ ∂t)x / (∂Sw/ ∂x)t ___________________________ (Equation 6)

Substituting equation 3 and 5 into equation 6 in order to achieve Buckley-Leverett

frontal advance equation.

(dx / dt)Sw = - (qt / A Φ) (dfw / dSw)Sw

Derivative (dfw / dSw)Sw is fractional flow curve slope of and derivative (dx / dt) Sw is the
moving plane of velocity with water saturation Sw, in this there are constant factors
like flow rate, porosity and area and the derivative (df w / dSw)Sw is constants which
means thesdistance of a planesof constant saturation Sw is proportionalato time and
the value of the saturation derivative, integration in times provides the illustration for
the position of fluid front.

xSw = - (qt / A Φ) (dfw / dSw)Sw

Where,
xSw is the distance travelled by a particular Sw contour.
REFERENCES:
 Amooie, Amin. (2016). Analysis of the Buckley-Leverett Solution and
Comparison with Numerical Simulation. 10.13140/RG.2.2.20226.07368.

 “Applied Petroleum Reservoir /engineering”, B.C. Craft, M. Hawkins, 1991

 Taflove, S. C. Hagness. Computational Electrodynamics: The Finite-

Difference Time-Domain Method. Norwood, MA: Artech House, 2005

 Bell, J. B., & Shubin, G. R. (1985, January 1). Higher-Order Godunov

Methods for Reducing Numerical Dispersion in Reservoir Simulation. Society
of Petroleum Engineers. doi:10.2118/13514-MS

 “Fundamentals of Reservoir Engineering”, L.P. Lake, 1978.

 “Principle of applied reservoir simulation”, John R. Fanchi

 Artiagarwal (2013) the list of References illustrated [online] available from

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