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by
Dr Anil Kumar
Frontal Displacement Theory
(1)
(2)
Frontal Displacement Theory
Fractional Flow Equation
(3)
(4)
Frontal Displacement Theory
Fractional Flow Equation
From the definition of the capillary pressure pc:
Pc = p o- p w
Differentiating the above expression with respect to the
distance x
(5)
(6)
where Δ ρ = ρw – ρo.
From the water cut equation, i.e., Equation-1:
qw = f w q t and q o = (1− fw )q t (7)
Frontal Displacement Theory
Frontal Displacement Theory
Fractional Flow Equation
:
(8)
(9)
(10)
(11)
Frontal Displacement Theory
Fractional Flow Equation
From the definition of water cut, i.e., fw = qw/(qw + qo), we
can see that the limits of the water cut are 0 and 100%.
At the irreducible (connate) water saturation, the water
flow rate qw is zero and, therefore, the water cut is 0%.
At the residual oil saturation point, Sor, the oil flow rate is
zero and the water cut reaches its upper limit of 100%.
The shape of the water cut versus water saturation curve
is characteristically S-shaped, as shown in Figure.
The implications of the above discussion are also applied
to defining the relationship that exists between fg and gas
saturation, as shown in Figure.
Frontal Displacement Theory
fo + f w = 1 or f o = 1− f w
(13)
Frontal Displacement Theory
Effect of Dip Angle and Injection Rate
where the variables X and Y are a collection of different
terms that are all considered positives and given by:
Frontal Displacement Theory
Effect of Dip Angle and Injection Rate
Updip flow, i.e., sin(α) is positive. Figure shows that when
the water displaces oil updip (i.e., injection well is located
downdip), a more efficient performance is obtained.
This improvement is due to the fact that the term X sin(α)/
iw will always remain positive, which leads to a decrease
(downward shift) in the fw curve.
Equation -13 also reveals that a lower water-injection rate
iw is desirable since the numerator 1 – [X sin(α)/iw] of
Equation -13 will decrease with a lower injection rate iw,
resulting in an overall downward shift in the fw curve.
Frontal Displacement Theory
(14)
Frontal Displacement Theory
Example 1
Use the relative permeability as shown in Figure to plot the
fractional flow curve for a linear reservoir system with the
following properties:
Dip angle = 0, Absolute permeability = 50 md
Bo = 1.20 bbl/STB, Bw = 1.05 bbl/STB
ρo = 45 lb/ft3, ρ w = 64.0 lb/ft3
μw = 0.5 cp Cross-sectional area A = 25,000 ft2
Perform the calculations for the following values of oil
viscosity: = 0.5, 1.0, 5, and 10 cp.
Solution
For a horizontal system, Equation-14 can be used to
calculate fw as a function of saturation.
Frontal Displacement Theory
Calculate the fractional flow curve for the reservoir dip angles
of 5,10, 15, 20, 25 and 30°, assuming
(a) updip displacement and
(b) downdip displacement.
Frontal Displacement Theory
Example-2
Step 1. Calculate the density difference (ρw – ρo) in g/cm3:
(ρw – ρo) = (64 – 45) / 62.4 = 0.304 g/cm 3
Step 2. Simplify Equation 11 by using the given fixed data:.
Frontal Displacement Theory
Example-2
For updip displacement, sin(α) is positive, therefore:
Ʋ
Frontal Advance Equation
(2)
Frontal Advance Equation
(3)
(4)
(5)
Frontal Advance Equation
where
WiBT = cumulative water injected at breakthrough, bbl
ɸAL/5.615 = total flood pattern pore volume, bbl
It is convenient to express the cumulative water injected in
terms of pore volumes injected, i.e., dividing Winj by the
reservoir total pore volume.
Frontal Advance Equation
Conventionally, Qi refers to the total pore volumes of
water injected. From Equation, Qi at breakthrough is:
where
QiBT = cumulative pore volumes of water injected at
breakthrough
PV = total flood pattern pore volume, bbl
Frontal Advance Equation
Example
The following data are available for a linear-reservoir
system:
Oil formation volume factor Bo = 1.25 bbl/STB
Water formation volume factor Bw = 1.02 bbl/STB
Formation thickness h = 20 ft
Cross-sectional area A = 26,400 ft Porosity = 25%
Injection rate iw = 900 bbl/day
Distance between producer and injector = 660 ft
Oil viscosity µ o = 2.0 cp Water viscosity µ w = 1.0 cp
Dip angle = 0° Connate water saturation Swc = 20%
Initial water saturation Swi = 20%
Residual oil saturation Sor = 20%, = 1.973
• Time to breakthrough
• Cumulative water injected at breakthrough
• Total pore volumes of water injected at breakthrough
Frontal Advance Equation
Solution
Step 1. Calculate the reservoir pore volume:
The bubble map can be used to identify areas that are not
flooded.
Monitoring of water flooding
Water flood surveillance
Hall Plot
Hall presented a methodology for analyzing injection well data
that is based on a plot of cumulative pressure versus
cumulative injection.
The required data include:
• Average monthly bottom-hole injection pressures Pinj,
• Average reservoir pressure, p–
• Monthly injection volumes
• Injection days for the month
Monitoring of water flooding
Water flood surveillance
Hall Plot
The methodology assumes that the steady-state injection rate
is preserved such that the injection rate can be expressed by
Darcy’s equation derived in case of pseudosteady state flow
for slightly compressible fluid:
Where
pinj = monthly average inj pressure,
P = monthly average reservoir pressure, psi
Winj = cumulative volume water injected at time t, bbl
Monitoring of water flooding
Water flood surveillance
Hall Plot
This Equation suggests that a plot of the integral term versus
the cumulative water injected, Winj, on a Cartesian scale would
produce a straight line with a slope of 1/A.
This graph is called a Hall Plot.
If the parameters k, h, re, rw, μ, and s are constants, then the
value of A is also constant and yields a straight line with a
constant slope of 1/A.
However, if these parameters change, A will also change and
thus the slope of the Hall Plot will change.
These changes in the slope can provide a wealth of information
regarding the characteristic of an injection well.
Monitoring of water flooding
Water flood surveillance
Hall Plot
Changes in injection conditions may be
noted from the Hall Plot.
For example, if wellbore plugging or other
restrictions to injection are gradually
occurring, the net effect is a gradual increase
in the skin factor, S.
As S increases, A decreases; thus, the slope
of the Hall Plot increases.
Conversely, if S decreases (as would be the
case if injecting pressure exceeds fracture
pressure, causing fracture growth), then A
increases and the slope of the Hall Plot
decreases.
Figure shows various injection well
conditions and their Hall Plot signatures.
Thank You
Frontal Advance Equation