Sensors

Lecture (4)
Displacement sensors
 Displacement sensors
➢ Sensors used to measure distances and convert it to other
physical quantity or electrical signals.

➢ Two groups:

Contact sensors Non-Contact sensors

• The measured object is in • There’s no physical contact

mechanical contact with the between the measured object
sensor. and the sensor.
• Factors to be considered while selecting displacement sensors are:
1) Accuracy.
2) Resolution.
3) Size of the displacement.
4) Displacement type (linear or angular).
5) Cost.

• Types of displacement sensors:

1) Potentiometer.
2) Resistance strain gauge.
3) Linear variable differential transformer.
4) Push-Pull displacement sensor.
 1- Potentiometer
Linear Rotary
𝑉𝑜 𝑅2 𝑅2
= =
𝑉𝑖 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑅
 Advantages of Potentiometer
1. Simple.
2. Inexpensive.
3. Useful for measurements of large displacement.
4. Electrical efficiency is high.
5. Easy to use.
➢ Loading error:

The error resulting from the resistance of the voltmeter used to

measure the output voltage of the potentiometer.

Loading error = Vno load − Vload

Loading error
Percentage Loading error = × 100 %
Vno load
Example 1:

A potentiometer has a total winding resistance of 8 KΩ and a

maximum displacement range of 5 cm. The power dissipation
at maximum displacement doesn’t exceed 50 mW. Determine
the O/P voltage of the potentiometer when the I/P
displacement is 2 cm ?
Solution: ‫هنا غير معطي مقاومة بل معطي مسافة فنعوض بها‬
.‫بدال من المقاومة‬
𝑅p = 8 KΩ
Xi 2
max displacement = 5 cm ∴ 𝑉𝑜 = × 𝑉𝑖 = × 𝑉𝑖
XT 5

P = 50 mW
I/P = 2 cm To get 𝑉𝑖 :
V2
P=VI=
𝑉𝑜 𝑅x R
∵ = ∴ 𝑉𝑖 = P∗R= 50 ∗ 10−3 ∗ 8 ∗ 103
𝑉𝑖 𝑅p
𝑅x = 400 = 20 volt.
∴ 𝑉𝑜 = × 𝑉𝑖
𝑅p
2
∴ 𝑉𝑜 = × 20 = 8 volt.
5
 2- Resistance strain gauge
➢ The ratio of change in length to the original length is
called strain.
➢ Wheatstone bridge:
• Four resistances connected
as shown in the figure.
• The bridge is stable (𝑉𝑜 = 0) if:
R1 R3
=
R2 R4
• Replace one of the four resistances by the strain gauge
resistance (unknown).
• Assume this resistance changes by ΔR g .
• Define Strain: the fractional change in length.
ΔL Stress σ
Strain = 𝜀 = = =
L Young′ s modulus E

• Define Stress: the force applied on unit area to produce change

in the shape, volume or length of a body.
F
∴σ=
A
• Define Gauge factor: the ratio of fractional change in electrical
resistance to the fractional change in length (strain).
ΔRg ΤRg ΔRg ΤRg
∴ GF = =
ΔLΤL 𝜀
• The Gauge Factor for metallic strain gauges is typically around 2.
ΔRg ΤRg ΔL
∴ GF = =2 ΔR g = 2 Rg
𝜀 L
• From calculations, the output voltage is:

Vi ΔR g Vi ΔL
𝑉𝑜 = ∗ = ∗ GF ∗
4 Rg 4 L
Example 2:
Calculate the change in a nominal wire resistance of 150 Ω
that results from strain of 5.2 ∗ 10−4 ?

Solution:
ΔL
𝜀= = 5.2 ∗ 10−4
L
R g = 150 Ω
ΔL
ΔR g = 2 Rg = 2 ∗ 150 ∗ 5.2 ∗ 10−4 = 0.156 Ω
L
Example 3:

A resistance wire strain gauge with GF = 2.5 is bonded

to a steel structural member subjected to a stress of
120 MN/m2 . The modulus of elasticity is 250 GPa. Find
the percentage change in the value of the gauge
resistance?
Solution:
GF = 2.5
σ = 120 ∗ 106 N/m2
E = 250 ∗ 109 Pa
ΔR g ΤR g
GF =
𝜀
ΔL σ 120∗106
𝜀= = = = 4.8 ∗ 10−4
L E 250∗109

ΔR g
∴ = GF ∗ ε = 2.5 ∗ 4.8 ∗ 10−4 = 0.12 %
Rg
Example 4:

A strain gauge is bonded to a beam of 150 mm long having

a cross sectional area of 5 cm2. The young’s modulus for
steel is 200 GPa. The strain gauge has an unstrained
resistance of 220 Ω and a GF of 2. When a load is applied,
the resistance of the gauge changes by 0.015 Ω. Find the
change in length of the steel beam and the amount of force
applied to the beam ?
Solution:
L = 150 ∗ 10−3 m
A = 5 ∗ 10−4 m
E = 200 ∗ 109 Pa
R g = 220 Ω
GF = 2
ΔR g = 0.015 Ω
ΔL = ??
F = ??
 ΔR g ΤR g ΔR g ΔL ΔR g L
GF = = ÷ = ×
ΔLΤL Rg L R g ΔL

ΔR g ∗ L 0.015 ∗ 150 ∗ 10−3

ΔL = = = 5.114 ∗ 10−6 m 1
GF ∗ R g 2 ∗ 220

F = σA

ΔL 5.114∗10−6
σ=𝜀E = ∗E= ∗ 200 ∗ 109 = 6.82 ∗ 106 N/m2
L 150∗10−3

F = σA = 6.82 ∗ 106 ∗ 5 ∗ 10−4 = 3410 N 2