Sensors

Lecture (3)
Example 7:
A thermocouple is used to measure temperatures in the
range 0 °C to 400 °C according to the table. What will be
the nonlinearity error at 100 °C if a linear relationship is
assumed over the full range?

mV 0 5.628 21.846
°C 0 100 400
Solution:
For linear relationship between I/P and O/P:
At I/P = 0 °C O/P = 0 mV
At I/P = 400 °C O/P = 21.846 mV

O/P
21.846

Slope

5.628 x
5.4615

100 200 300 400

I/P
 O/P mV 21.846−0
Slope = = = 0.054615 mV/ °C
I/P°C 400−0
∴ The equation for linear measurement is:
V = 0.054615 T
At 100 °C: V linear = 0.054615 × 100 = 5.4615 mV
∴ The nonlinearity error = linear value – nonlinear value
= 5.4615 – 5.628 = -0.1665 mV

Linear value − nonlinear value

The nonlinearity error as a percentage of full scale = O/P Full scale
× 100
5.4615 – 5.628
= × 100
21.846
= -0.7621 %
Example 8:
A displacement sensor has an input range of 0.0 to 3.0 cm
and a supply voltage Vs = 0.5 V. Results from a calibration
experiment are given in the table below. Calculate the
maximum nonlinearity error as a percentage of the full
scale deflection (f.s.d.)?

Displacement x (cm) 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

Output voltage (mV) 0.0 16.5 32.0 44.0 51.5 55.5 58.0
Solution:
For linear relationship between I/P and O/P:
At I/P = 0 cm O/P = 0 mV
At I/P = 3 cm O/P = 58 mV

O/P mV 58−0
Slope = = = 19.333 mV/cm
I/P cm 3−0

∴ The equation for linear measurement is:

V = 19.33 X
Displacement X Nonlinear (table) Linear (19.333 X) Absolute error

0 0 0 0

0.5 16.5 9.667 6.833

1 32 19.333 12.667

1.5 44 29 15

2 51.5 38.667 12.833

2.5 55.5 48.333 7.167

3 58 58 0
O/P full scale = 58

Linearity error
The nonlinearity error as a percentage of full scale = O/P Full scale
× 100

15
= × 100
58

= 25.862 %
Example 9:
Plot a graph of the following readings for a pressure sensor
to determine if there’s hysteresis. If so, Calculate the
hysteresis as a percentage of the full scale deflection
(f.s.d.)?

True pressure (Kpa) 0 20 40 60 80 100 80 60 40 20 0

Gauge pressure (Kpa) 0 15 32 49.5 69 92 87 62 44 24 3

100
92
90 87

80
69
70
62
60
49.5
50 44

40
32
30 24

20 15

10
3
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
To get maximum hysteresis:

I/P Hysteresis error Result

0 3-0 3

20 24 – 15 9

40 44 – 32 12

60 62 – 49.5 12.5

80 87 – 69 18

100 92 – 92 0
Maximum hysteresis = 18 Kpa

O/P full scale = 92

maximum hysteresis
The hysteresis as a percentage of full scale = O/P Full scale
× 100

18
= × 100
92

= 19.565 %
2 - Dynamic characteristics
➢ Types of input signals:
Step I/P – Ramp I/P – Impulse I/P – Sinusoidal I/P.

➢ Steady state characteristics:

An O/P is said to be periodic in steady state if its magnitude has a
definite repeating time cycle.

➢ Transient characteristics:
The characteristics when the O/P is still changing and hasn’t yet
reached the steady state.
 Transient characteristics
1. Speed of response:
How fast the sensor reacts to changes in the input variable.

2. Maximum overshoot:
The maximum difference between the O/P of the sensor and the
steady state value.

3. Peak time:
The time it takes the O/P to reach the maximum overshoot.
4. Rise time:
The time it takes the O/P to rise from 10% to 90% of the steady
state value.

5. Settling time:
The time it takes the O/P to settle within some percentage.

6. Time constant:
The time for the output to change by 63.2% of its maximum
possible change.