Sensors

Lecture (1)
 Course Outline
➢ This course introduces the different types and characteristics of sensors.

➢ Main Topics:
• Introduction to sensors.
• Characteristics of sensors.
• Types of sensors.
• Operational amplifier.
 Grading
➢ The degrees of this course are divided as:

No. Evaluation Method Degrees

1 Final Term Examination (mcq) 50
2 Mid Term Examination (mcq) 20
3 Final term Project 15
4 Reports and Quizzes 15
Total 100
 Closed loop control system
Comparator or Error detector

Reference I/P Actual O/P

Controller Actuator Plant
Set point (SP) -

Feedback
element
1. Comparator:

Compares the desired value with the actual measured value of the system,
and generates an error signal.
Ex: operational amplifier.

2. Controller:

Uses the error signal detected by the comparator to determine what

action to be taken.
Ex: Microprocessor.
3. Actuator:

Convert the signals from the controller into an action (movement).

Ex: Piston.

4. Plant:

The process to be controlled.

Ex: Air conditioning system.
5. Feedback element:

• A measurement system that’s used to read the value of the actual

output and converts it to a form that can be compared with the
reference input.

• Consists of 3 elements:

1) Sensor:

It’s used to measure the physical quantities such as position, distance,

temperature, force, and acceleration; and convert these readings into
signal.
Ex: Thermocouple, Accelerometer.
2) Signal conditioning element:

Takes the output of the sensing element and converts it into a form
suitable for further processing (usually DC voltage, DC current, or
frequency signal).

Ex:
- Deflection bridge: converts change in resistance into change in
voltage.
- Amplifier: amplifies the sensor’s signal.
- Oscillator: converts change in resistance into change in frequency.
3) Signal processing element:

Takes the output of the conditioning element and converts it into a form
suitable for further presentation.

Ex: Analog to digital converter (ADC), Digital to analog converter (DAC).

Display

True value
Signal Signal Record
Sensor
conditioner processor

Transmit
Difference between sensors and transducers

Sensor Transducer
• Converts physical quantity • Converts energy from one form
(temperature, pressure, position, (physical variable) to another
…) to electrical signal (voltage, form (another physical variable).
current, frequency.
 Classification of sensors - 1
Active sensors Passive sensors
• Require an external power source to • Generate an output energy in
operate, which is called an excitation response to the input signal without
signal. the need of an additional energy
source.
• Ex: Thermistor.
• Ex: Inductive sensor.
 Classification of sensors - 2

Analog sensors Digital sensors

• Converts a physical value to a • Converts a physical value to a digital
continuous signal. value.
 Classification of sensors - 3
Primary sensors
• The output is produced at one step.
• The Bourdon’s tube (pressure sensor)
detects the pressure and converts it
into a displacement from its free end.
• The Bourdon’s Tube is the primary
sensor.
Secondary sensors
• Are deployed in cascade with primary
sensors.
• The displacement of the free ends in
the Bourdon’s tube moves the core of
the L.V.D.T. This movement induces
the output voltage which is directly
proportional to the displacement of
the tube free end.
• The L.V.D.T here is the secondary
sensor.
 Classification of sensors - 4
Deflection sensors Null sensors
• The quantity to be measured • The quantity to be measured
produces an effect either in the form produces an effect that is compared
of a voltage or a current. with an already calibrated effect of
• The resulting value is displayed in another system.
terms of the amount of the • Advantages:
movement of a pointer. More accurate than deflection type.
• Advantages: • Disadvantages:
1. Simple structure. 1. Expensive.
2. Inexpensive. 2. Complex structure.
3. Shortest time.
• Disadvantages: Not accurate.
 Characteristics of sensors

Static characteristics Dynamic characteristics

Depends on the properties of the

Depends on operational conditions.
sensor.
 1 - Static characteristics
1. Range:
The minimum and maximum values of a quantity to be measured.
Ex: A load is in the range from 10 KN to 100 KN.

2. Span:
The difference between upper and lower range values.
Span = max value of the I/P – min value of the I/P
Ex: For the same load, span = 100 – 10 = 90 KN.
3. Error:
The difference between the actual true value and the value
measured by the instrument.
Error = measured value – true value
Ex: A temperature sensor has its measured value as 34 °C and the
true value is 33 °C.
Error = 34 – 33 = 1 °C
4. Accuracy:
• The ability of an instrument to respond to a true value of a measured variable.
• Can be calculated in 3 ways:
1) Accuracy as a percentage of full scale reading:
measured value – true value
Accuracy as a percentage of full scale reading =
maximum scale value
Ex: If the accuracy of an instrument having full scale reading of 50 units is ±0.1% of full scale
reading. Calculate the error value.
Ans: accuracy = ± 0.1% max scale value = 50
measured value – true value error
Accuracy = =
maximum scale value maximum scale value
error
± 0.1*10−2 =
50
∴ error = ± 0.1*10−2 *50 = ± 0.05 units
2) Accuracy as a percentage of true value: (Best way to calculate the accuracy)
measured value – true value
Accuracy as a percentage of true value =
true value

Ex: If a pressure gauge has an error of ± 1% of true value. What is the measured value of the
pressure 100 KN/m² ?
Ans: accuracy = ± 1% true value = 100 KN/m²
measured value – true value
Accuracy =
true value
measured value – 100
± 1*10−2 =
100
∴ measured value – 100 = ± 1*10−2 *100 = ± 1
measured value = ± 1 + 100
∴ The measured value could be read from 99 KN/m² to 101 KN/m²
3) Accuracy as a percentage of span:
measured value – true value
Accuracy as a percentage of span =
span

Ex: If an instrument has a range from 10 to 150 units and its accuracy is specified as ± 0.1% of
the span. Calculate the error of the instrument?
Ans: accuracy = ± 0.1%
measured value – true value
Accuracy =
span
Span = max value – min value = 150 – 10 = 140
−2 error
± 0.1*10 =
140
∴ error = ± 0.1*10−2 *140 = ± 0.14 units
5. Precision:
➢ The repeatability or consistency of measurements when the
measurements are carried out under identical conditions at short
interval of time.
➢ The ability of the instrument to reproduce a group of
measurements of the same measured quantity under the same
conditions.
➢ Reading are taken at very small time intervals.
 Difference between precision and accuracy
➢ Precision:
When the values of the readings are very close to each other.

➢Accuracy:
When the average values of the readings are very close to true
values (The error between the average of the measured values and
the true values is very small).
 Average
x x

x x
Error True

The values are close to each other but the error is very large.
precise but not accurate
 x
Average
x Error
x True
x

x
x
x

The values are away from each other but the error is very small.
accurate but not precise
 Average
Error
x x
True
x x
x x x

The values are close to each other and the error is very small.
accurate and precise