Discourse in social design

and the Bahá’í community:

ways in which a religious community could become
a guiding light for the future of sustainable design
thinking.

Dissertation Title: Discourse in social design and the Bahá'í community: ways in which a religious

community could become a guiding light for the future of sustainable design thinking.

Name: Kourosh Khalilian

Matriculation number: 16037171

Year: Year 4

Course: Product Design

Supervisor: Bruce Peters

Glasgow School of Art

Word Count: 7305 (without quotes)



Contents page

- Illustrations list……………………………………………………………………………………2

- Synopsis…………………………………………………………………………………………..3

- Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………….4-8

——————————————————————————————————————————

- Chapter 1 - The Evolution of Religiosity in Society and its effects…………………………..9-13

——————————————————————————————————————————

- Chapter 2 - Social design discourse …………………………………………………………….14-15

- Design Thinking Methodologies…………………………………………………………….15-18

- Elements of design Practice …………………………………………………………………19-21

- Ideas of a Virtuous design Philosophy………………………………………………………22-23

———————————————————————————————————————————

- Chapter 3 - Participating in discourse in the Bahai Community………………………………24-25

- The Bahai Conceptual Framework…….……………………………………………………25-30

- Expansion and Consolidation………………………………………………………………..30-33

———————————————————————————————————————————

- Chapter 4 - Parallels of discourse…………………………………………………………………34-36

- Notes for future design practice……………………………………………………………..36-37

———————————————————————————————————————————-

- Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………………………38

- Bibliography………………………………………………………………………………………… 39-44

Illustration list

Fig 1: Rowe, P.: Archer Model of the Design Process, 1987, Design Thinking, Cambridge MA MIT
Press.

Fig 2: Asimow, M, ‘phases of a complete project’ in introduction to design, (Englewood Cliffs:

Prentice-Hall, 1962) 1st Edition

Fig 3: van der Linden, Júlio, João de Aguiar, and André Lacerda, ‘The Double Diamond, Design
Council UK’ The Evolution Of Design Methods (Porto: 9th International Conference of the
European Academy of Design, 2011)

Fig 4: Dorst.K, The Problem of Design Problems, URL: https://www.creativityandcognition.com/

cc_conferences/cc03Design/papers/23DorstDTRS6.pdf (Accessed 10/01/2020)

Fig 5: Michele Wong and David A Palmer, Bahá’í Model of Organic Growth, URL: http://
www.socsc.hku.hk/ExCEL3/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/Case-of-Bahai-Community.pdf

Fig 6: Manzini, E. 2015, ‘Social innovation in Design’ in Design When Everybody Designs: An
Introduction to Design for Social Innovation (Boston: Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2015)

3

Synopsis

This dissertation will examine the roles of faith and social design in contemporary design

discourse. Contemporary secularisation, as a result of enlightenment ideals, has led to its

marginalisation and lessening role in the discourses of modern western society. Although one

could argue its involvement in the inception of a moralistic centred civilisation.

Since the beginnings of social design in the 1960’s, hopes of a world transformed by design

thinking has unfortunately resulted in its conformity into existing capitalistic structures rooted in

modernity. The Bahá'í community, which was developed from a relatively recent religion and is

built on the transformative nature of humanity, focuses on the break down of old structures in the

replacement of new, enhanced ones. This can inform interesting prospect for social design to

develop new ways of practice. Chapter 1 of this dissertation will examine the origins of religious

neglect in western society and the affect it has had on contemporary design practice. Chapter 2

will analyse the ways of social design discourse, evolving design thinking methodologies,

practices and its newly developed discourse in virtuous thinking. Chapter 3 will discuss the Bahá'í

community, engage with its origins of public discourse and the conceptual framework that

facilitates a Bahá’í approach. In Chapter 4, I will attempt to reconcile both aspects of social

design and Bahá'í discourse practice into approaches which could benefit approaches to

sustainable development. This dissertation concludes with a summary of insights on current held

ideas of religion in modern western society, developments of social design methodology

discourse concerning spirituality and justice, and the need to develop new foundational habits in

design to focus our collective energies on working towards a sustainable processes. 


4
Introduction

Religiosity is seen as to have negative connotations within our modern western society. It is often

perceived fairly or unfairly to be a tool for manipulation, indoctrination and fear. Negative

perceptions may be one factor which has lead to its overall decline in the west, with a 9% rise in

people this year declaring to have no faith in the UK1*. However one has to acknowledge that

religion plays a role in the human lived experience, it has provided people with a deeper

understanding of the spiritual nature of humankind, with a means to transcend beyond materiality.

Additionally attributing to the development of strong bonds of local community, along with the

benefit of widespread social and economic prosperity. One can begin to question why modern

forms of social design haven’t often considered it as a point of inspiration. Considering the recent

developments in novel approaches to sustainable development concerning spirituality, one can

begin to see connections with a religiosity that could potentially take effect in social design and

redirect efforts to develop novel practices within the field.

In this dissertation, I will be discussing and analysing the Bahá’í Faith and its community practices

in progressing social discourse, and analyse specific methodologies in social design and its

practices of developing discourse. I will consider ways design practice could progress using the

Bahá'í community’s ways of being.

The Bahá’í Faith is a relatively new religion, founded in Iran during the 19th century by Bahá’u’lláh,

known for its principals and teachings on the unity of religions, oneness for humanity, equality of

gender, the harmony of science and religion and social justice. Bahá'ís have a mission to bring

about the realisation of the message of Bahá’u’lláh to humanity that “the earth is but one country

and mankind its citizens”2. It serves as the second most widespread religion behind Christianity,

acting a highly globalised network, spread across many different cultures and ethnicities3. At the

1Polly Toynbee, Faith in religion is dwindling, but when will British politics reflect that?, The
Guardian website https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2019/jul/11/faith-religion-politics-
british-attitudes-survey (Accessed 10/12/2019)
2 Bahá’u’lláh, Gleanings from the Writings of Bahá’u’lláh, p 250
3Worldwide Adherents of All Religions,

http://www.prolades.com/worldwide_adherents_all_religions-2010.pdf, (Accessed 5/01/2020)

5
core of Bahá'í practice is service to humanity as an element of spiritual growth and this service is

based in geographical communities around the globe. A social scientific study of spiritual capital

at The Chinese University of Hong Kong, regarding the Bahá’í community, mentions,

“In places where Bahá’í communities have reached a certain size, maturity, and capacity,
organised contribution to social and economic development has become a natural and
important outgrowth of their consultations and plans.”4

Focus is based around developing discourses through “universal participation”. Where the

collective plays an active role in contributing to a more unified society. Utilising the Bahá'í

institutional frameworks and the Bahá’í-inspired social Non-Governmental Organisations (NGO).

The Bahá'í Faith has historically been involved in social discourse, going back from the era of the

mid-nineteenth century in Iran. It was until recently that Bahá’ís began to engage with the social

and economic endeavours of society worldwide. Currently, efforts undertaken by Bahá’í-Inspired

NGO’s are spread throughout the five continents, many of which assist efforts for grassroots

initiatives. Small communities have sprung up by the will of individuals with little to no financial

assistance or expert knowledge, just the innate desire to better the community around them5 . This

being different from other transformative processes in society. Instead, Bahai’s are reliant on

Faith, inner motivation and concepts gathered from the revelation of Bahá'u'lláh to facilitate this

social transformation.

However this doesn’t mean that Bahá’ís lack an organisational approach, within their conceptual

frameworks they formulate ideas through consultation and consensus, often using vocabulary

such as “planning”, “systematically”, “develop”, “foundation”6 etc. Commonality within the Bahá’í

4Michele Wong and David A Palmer, Generating and applying spiritual capital: The Case of the
Bahai Community, http://www.socsc.hku.hk/ExCEL3/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/Case-of-
Bahai-Community.pdf (Accessed 11/11/2019)
5 Universal House of Justice, Social action, A paper prepared by the Office of Social and
Economic Development at the Bahai World centre,URL: https://universalhouseofjustice.bahai.org/
involvement-life-society/osed-2012-social-action (Accessed 26/11/12)

6 Bahai International Community, Rethinking Prosperity: Forging alternatives to a Culture of

Consumerism, Bahai International Community website URL: https://www.bic.org/statements/
rethinking-prosperity-forging-alternatives-culture-consumerism, (Accessed 05/01/2020)
6
faith is important to mention, the act of unifying with words and actions, through refection allows

for a more sustenance based approach towards long term objectives, and although faith and

social design is not often seen as similar in their objectives, in this instance parallels can be

drawn, and if so, the question becomes what can this look like?

Themes in social design discourse are commonly framed with the notion of ‘stability’, often

engaging with ideas which attempt to redesign processes in order to heighten ‘meaning’ within

modern western society. Processes and methodologies have historically been rooted in the social

sciences which have developed greatly in an era of post-modernity. Ideals that originated in

modernity are firmly embedded in the fabric of a ‘good design’ outcome and best practice.

Therefore, resulting in design thinking becoming a tool for mass consumption, a practice that

arguably could be deemed as unsustainable.

Critically, methods of design thinking were introduced as a means of designers efficiently and

effectively understanding culture. Taking on a relatively recent role as “cultural intermediaries”7 as

defined by Guy Julier8. Additionally, with the utilisation of technology in design practice, methods

have been developed to alter consumer behaviour, to the desired effect of industry9 , engaging

with discourse on the responsibility of the designer.

In this dissertation, I will apply a breadth of research within the two main themes. Utilising

religious texts in the Bahá'í writings and a means of understanding the faith, while approaching

the relevant philosophy of Bruno Latour and Heidegger, both of which engage critically in how

religiosity is perceive in modern western society and serve as a means to further legitimise the

relevance of this topic.

This dissertation will compromise of four chapters and a conclusion. In chapter one, I will be

outlining the reasons for the decline of religiosity in modern western society. Originating from the

enlightenment era to its negative connotations of dogma and heretics which led to an ousting of

7 Guy Julier, The Culture of Design (2000), p 98

8 Professor of Design and Head of Research at the Leeds School of Art.
9 Chris Noddler, Evil By Design: interaction that led us into temptation, p 56
7
its participation in discourse. As a result I will be questioning its overall relevance within society

and the effects of systematic secularisation, as the ‘power of reason’ becomes the guiding

framework of contemporary society to progress. Considering the eventual shaping western ideals

on the concept of ‘improvement’ in postmodernity, direct influences involved with design.

Promoting the expanse of materialisation over people and the planet’s wellbeing.

In chapter two, I will analyse appropriate aspects of the evolution of methodologies and function

of design thinking as a pivotal area of design discourse, using Herbert A Simon’s definition for

social design to frame my argument. I will consider several methods that were produced

throughout the development of practice. Furthermore, I will discuss elements of design practice

and the issues that designers face with ‘wicked’10 indeterminate problems, In addition to, the

pressures evoked by industry resulting in arguably potentially problematic forms of practice.

Further analysis will lead me to consider the responsibility of the designer, utilising the book

Designer, Users and Justice by Professor of Design, Turkka Kionnen. I will highlight parts of a

'virtuous method’ mentioned in the book as a vehicle to reflect on the role morality plays in social

design.

In chapter three, I will engage with the Bahá'í Faith and its community, considering their origins of

public discourse interaction through principals and ideologies that they embody. Developing an

understanding of the foundations on which they practice social discourse, considering the Bahai

Faith through the lens of its origins, developed around the time of the modernisation of western

society and the current significance in the continued complexities of postmodernity. I will discuss

their conceptual framework, which serves to imbue their values in their discourse practice. In this

chapter, I will also consider critical elements of practice, using relevant examples and approaches

to discourse.

In chapter four, I will discuss components of social design and the Bahá’í Faith together and

examine areas in which they could consolidate. This will be a critical discussion that will attempt

10 Buchanan, Richard, ‘Wicked problems in design thinking’ p. 5

8
to improve areas of design principals and methodology by implementing Bahá’í inspired

approaches.

With this dissertation, I will conclude with a summary of insights on current held ideas of religion

in modern western society, developments of social design methodology discourse concerning

spirituality and justice, and the need to develop new foundational habits in design to focus our

collective energies on working towards a sustainable processes. Arguing that within the current

condition of design, this doesn’t present itself as a possibility, however, recognising a potential to

develop and reframe how this profession is structured to match the needs of our current

globalised society.

9
Chapter 1

‘The evolution of religiosity in modern western society and its effects on sustainability in design.’

When considering the role of religion within modern western society11, we are presented with

negative connotations, derived from the impression of its lack of legitimacy, especially within the

field of contemporary social science. However, Religion has arguably been a fundamental aspect

of society. Embedded into the foundations of prominent institutions and influencing society’s

moral framework. Embedding values into generations, drastically influencing law and social policy.

In addition to the growth of a supportive community, to guide people under shared values,

arguably for the common good.

Common themes within contemporary discourse highlight the trending decline of religiosity in a

modern era, many argue that this is attributed to the age of enlightenment, hallmarking a way

forward for science to answer to questions traditionally answered by religion, through a rapid

advancement of new philosophical frameworks, which were believed to vastly contribute to the

improvement of peoples everyday lives12 . The purpose of these frameworks being the

achievement of "intellectual progress”13 and for many “Enlightenment thinkers” this was

considered a “process of social, psychological or spiritual development”14 . Conversely, one can

argue that science had difficulty progressing under a Catholic systematic suppression of scientific

knowledge, which ultimately shaped the development of two competing ideologies.

This discourse eventually was dominated by a narrative which disregarded religiosity as an

element in modern development15, which some consider as humankind’s release from self-

11 Concerning the modern era in the Global North.

12William Bristow ‘Enlightenment’ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Website https://
plato.stanford.edu/entries/enlightenment/ (07/01/2020)
13 Ibid
14 Ibid
15 Dick Houtman and Stef Aupers. 2007. The spiritual turn and the decline of tradition: The spread
of post‐Christian spirituality in fourteen western countries (1981–2000). Journal for the Scientific
Study of Religion, pp. 305–20.
10
incurred immaturity. “Immaturity is the inability to use ones own understanding without the

guidance of another"16 This ‘release’ could be thought to have largely attributed to the decline of

religious influence in higher education during the eighteenth century. Generations of academics

sprang up with knowledge built up over time and developed them into more practical ways, thus

diluting the religious tone that was embedded in many established universities of the period. In its

place “methods of Cartesian philosophy and then of Newtonian science were applied in a wider

range of fields”17 , essentially laying the foundations for a new approach to education, that which

had seen to conflict with the previous doctrines and dogmas within Christianity.

In effect, the contemporary debate is often arguing the “privatisation of religion”, materialising it

into a tool that has become a “moral resource”18 for society and as a result it has increasingly

been pushed to the fringes of society, increasing in insignificance to the public domain. This

argument has also been contested by other authors such as Ted Jelen, a professor of political

science at the University of Nevada, Las Vegas, demonstrating in his book, Patterns of Religious

Socialization, arguing that religion has become more publicly relevant in various other countries

since the 1980’s 19 . However, in effect, there has often been varying degrees of truth to this

argument within the expansion of philosophy, in higher education and the demotion of theology as

arguably the last surviving evidence of religious influence in education.20

The decline of religious influence persisted as the common theme among universities, giving rise

to Romanticism during the 18th century in Germany, where a culture had formed as a reaction to

and rejection of ‘Enlightenment’ thinking. Which also as a result “tended to erode the doctrinal

16William Bristow ‘Enlightenment’ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Website https://

plato.stanford.edu/entries/enlightenment/ (07/01/2020)
17David W. Bebbington, Christian Higher Education in Europe: A Historical Overview, Christian
Higher Education, p 8.
18Thomas Luckman, The invisible religion: The problem of religion in modern society, p 54

19 Ted G. Jelen, Review of Religious Research, Vol. 37, No. 2 (Dec. 1996), pp. 175-176

20David W. Bebbington. Christian Higher Education in Europe: A Historical Overview, Christian

Higher Education, p 12.
11
content of the historic faith”21. This came through reimagining ideas of God and developing

aestheticised imagery to tangibly revive religious sensibilities. This poetic movement eventually

led to the destination of a “false religion”22, a heightened version to permeate one's mind.

Framing religiosity in an aestheticised manner engaged people through its powerful imagery and

beauty, although, as a result, further amplified its separation from the everyday person in society.

The convergence of religious and enlightenment ideology only formed in modernity during the

early twentieth century, as a means of necessary development prior to the Great Depression23.

‘Modernity’ was coined to capture these changes in progress, by contrasting the “modern" with

the “traditional”24 ,which grew to become a central idea of the progress and development of a

modern world. That which formulated the principals of modern capitalism defined by its

involvement in “The centralisation and coordination of the production, distribution, and

consumption of goods”25 , a system that satisfied people's belief in the idea of societal growth.

With modernity came a loss of identity, the individual could no longer rely on previous institutions

to carry their identity and therefore began the search for community values and belonging. Social

movements were pivotal in modernity as they "provided the basis for new social and political

identities for the recently uprooted individual”26 , the individual was ‘liberated’ and free to choose

their political expression and how they orient themselves in society. Karl Marx considered this as

“Men make their own history”… “but not under conditions of [their] own choosing.”27 Under the

conditions of modernity. Marx was aware of the dichotomies of a liberal narrative that were set by

capitalistic agendas. However for Liberalists during the late 19 century, the rationalisation

formulating in society were deemed to be ways of developing new structures of belief aside from

21 Ibid
22 Maniquis, M. R. (2009)Transfiguring God: Revolution, Religion, Romanticism, p. 30
23 A time of growing distrust in scientific knowledge.
24 Haferkamp, Hans, and Neil J. Smelser, editors Social Change and Modernity, pp 35-37
25 ibid
26 ibid
27Karl
Marx, The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte, Marxism Website Article https://
www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1852/18th-brumaire/ch01.htm (Accessed 12/12/2019)
12
the traditional. The Liberal ideology is rooted in the defence against the forces of alienation and

symptoms of modernity that developed through to Postmodernity.

Liberalist movements arrived in mass during the mid to late twentieth century with their ideologies

centred on “individual freedom”28 and “the right over the good”29 . Inadvertently, this led to to a

mass influx of movements with different ideologies and belief structures that catered to specific

individuals who resonated with messages of hope, resulting in the diaspora of power, of social

movements, and a weakening opposition to capitalistic ideals. The result and focus, shifted

towards the dominance of the idea of material progress throughout the modernity and

postmodernity.

Another relevant example of this progress, is the effect that mass production and the industrial

revolution has had on our ecosystem and its correlation with climate change. Developments of

rationalism and enlightenment alongside technological advances have led us to exploitation of

natural resources but also towards the expansion of ideas and widening theories around

sustainable development. The impact of mass produced design has also harnessed mass

awareness of the problematic nature of plastics and energy production to the environment within

a relatively short period of time, therefore consensus dictates that a reduction of environmental

harm is imperative in modern western society. However this idea of lesser consumption conflicts

with the modern ideals of consumer driven demand for goods. Incentives within the mass

manufacturing industry is to push ideas which allow both ideologies to co-exist. Hence they rely

on the marketing of recycling or reuse of materials as the answer to sustainability. With the

production of campaigns such as “I want to be recycled”30, arguably serve more as lip-service31

towards reduction of negative impact on the environment32 . In this sense, the lack of

28 Andrew Heywood, Political Ideologies: an introduction, p 59

29Ahlberg, J. The priority of the right over the good. In J. Mandle & D. Reidy (Eds.), The
Cambridge Rawls Lexicon pp. 648-650
30A Campaign set up by the Ad Council and Keep America Beautiful, painting a vivid picture of
the reconstitution of old materials for new products.
31An insincere expression of support.
32Matt Wilkins, ‘More Recycling Won't Solve Plastic Pollution', Scientific American Website, URL:
https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/observations/more-recycling-wont-solve-plastic-pollution/
(Accessed 11/01/2020)
13
consideration towards the potential adverse impact of changing materials used, demonstrates a

gap in discourse and scientific study, action and critical reflection on the matter.

Stewart Walker, a professor in environmental design at the University of Calgary, addresses these

issues as the result of “religion’s demise in public discourse”33 and the lack of meaning within

design form. Ideas that the issues of sustainability are related to the lack of “spirituality”34 within

design, presenting it as the fourth bottom-line of sustainability. As the rejection of materialism is

growing, this ever-pressing critical study and discourse is demanding for new innovative ways of

approaching sustainable development, widening discussion to include religious values and

broadening the moral question to include designers. Harnessing the power of meaning and

virtues in practice might be necessary so as to develop alternative solutions to the failures of a

modern materialistic and market-driven society.

33 Stewart Walker, Sustainable by Design, pg 27

34 ibid
14

Chapter 2

‘Social Design Discourse’

Laying the foundations for social design contemporary theory, Herbert Simon35 who was a

controversial theorist at the time, proposed a concept of design that no longer revolved around

form, rather proposing that design’s primary function, is the act of “human decision making”36 .

Defining the process of science and how it functions, as “how things are”37, contrastingly he

stated that design is “how things ought to be”38 .

Simon’s theory critically explained that design is no longer an action which is merely reserved for

the educated and privileged few within the creative process, he rather proposed that it is a human

activity. “Everyone designs who devises courses of action aimed at changing existing situations

into preferred ones”39 , setting the foundations of a term currently known as ‘Design Thinking’. A

phrase that has informed a new era of design approach and allowed for design to widen its reach

across different sectors in the industry, often considered as the root to social innovation .

Social innovation through design involves a deeper understanding of principals and practices,

which itself is hard to explicate. In 2007, Hasso Plattner40 attempted to advance design education

practice, founding the D-School at Stanford. With an aim to establish its legitimacy, he decided to

start the ‘Design Thinking Research: Making Distinctions: Collaboration versus Cooperation’

research program “to understand why and how the Design Thinking method works on a scientific

35A notable American economist, political scientist, and cognitive psychologist, whose primary
research interest was decision-making.
36Campitelli, Guillermo & Gobet, Fernand. (2010). Herbert Simon’s Decision-Making Approach:
Investigation of Cognitive Processes in Experts. Review of General Psychology. 14. 354-364.
37 Herbert A.Simon, The Sciences of the Artificial, pp 4-5
38 ibid
39 ibid
40A German Businessman who became one of the first pioneers of design thinking education
practice.

15
basis”41 This program involved methodologies that were first introduced by Christopher

Alexander42. It was through this, design thinking became utilised for innovation, took on newly

developed meanings and became focused on method.

Design Thinking Methodologies

Although Design methods have developed rapidly in the past fifty years, Herbert Simon’s43 writing

on problem-solving and the nature of disintegrative structures is an ever prominent piece of work

that looms over the sphere of current design methodology. Taking cues from Christopher

Alexander, a pioneer of the design methodology movement. Synthesising design and science in

his book Synthesis of Form. Both attempting to approach design through a rationalised

philosophy in an attempt to develop closer ties with academic study. Design since, has somewhat

lost its prominence and legitimacy, politically and within the academic community. Furthermore

Simon’s views on evolution, as humans will become obsolete, so designers role has been

questioned, as the process relies less and less on the designer's input. This currently places risks

in design losing its character and homogenising it as a formulaic process. Although one can argue

that this was its intention from the beginning, forming ties with science allows for a process that

one can rely on to produce a logical and convincing outcome. A challenge by theorists, that

expanded into their attempt at developing a method that is capable of coping with uncertainties

and the growing complexity of prevalent western issues, in addition to aligning with the aims of

modernity.

41Hasslo Plattener and Chris Mienel and Larry Leifer, Design Thinking Research: Making
Distinctions: Collaboration versus Cooperation, p 14
42 a widely influential British-American architect and design theorist whom developed theories of a
human centred approach in design, which contributed across several industries including but not
limited to architecture, urban design and sociology.
43DJ Huppatz, Revisiting Herbert Simon’s “Science of Design” Design Issues, Volume 31,
Number 2, spring 2015, p 29

16
This question rose to prominence in the design community during the mid-twentieth century,

Design Methods by John Christopher Jones44 presents a good indication of the design theoretical

framework of the time. He reveals a set of tools that aid in the design process, presenting precise

steps to follow though-out, “analysis, synthesis, and evaluation”45 , which roots lie in the Cartesian

method of understanding the problem before simplifying it.

Fig 1- Peter G Rowe, Archer’s model of the design process in design thinking, p 50

Leonard Bruce Archer, a Professor of Design Research at the Royal College of Art, expanded on

this process and formed a model (Fig 1) to attempt to establish a design precedent and a

grounding that which design could be interwoven with science to legitimise the practice. The use

of an algorithmic style was intentional to cement its place in scientific academia.

44 A Welsh designer known for his book Design methods, a major text in design.
45John Christopher Jones , Design Methods, p 63
17
Through this other models began to emerge from different theorists and design

groups trying to differentiate themselves. Morris Asimow46 proposed a model that began with

understanding the user's needs. This model placed the act of designing and its feasibility in the

forefront. Essentially quite a rigid structure, it presented two clear stages, and a highly linear

process (Fig 2). This was met with criticism by Jones, discrediting it as a reductionist method.

Fig 2 - Morris Asimow, ‘Phases of a complete project’ in Introduction to design, p 12

Linearity became the foundation for design methods, often generated with the idea of utilising

scientific ‘rationalised’ thinking. This highly scientific approach was organised by the design

methods movement, a collective of design researchers. However, this enterprise fails to gain the

support of people. In addition, the methods were developed separate from practice, therefore

they lacked the grounding necessary for it to be implemented.

Common design processes have moved on into something similar to the double diamond

approach (Fig 3) , which was introduced by the Design Council, UK. This was popularised among

the design community and still dominates today due to its malleability. Using imagery of

convergent and divergent thinking as a means to resemble creativity techniques pioneered by

psychologists J.P Guilford and D. Lordahl. The Double Diamond approach (Fig 3) was praised for

46 An American Educator who taught the discipline of engineering design

18
Fig 3 - Júlio C Linden, André P Lacerda, and João P Aguiar,

The Double Diamond, Design Council, 2007, in The Evolution of Design Methods

its

ability to expand, focus and be applied to the vast array of design tasks that designers are

currently faced in the complexity of this post-modern era.

These methods seemed to come hand in hand with ideology of the ‘intent’ of the designer. We

can argue that the intent of the design movement was noble,

“applying the totality of human knowledge and skill to the increasingly important question
of planning and designing a man-made future “47

With the aim of transforming the world into something more human, and developing people’s

knowledge on how to develop the discourse which directly impacts what the future could look

like. Contrastingly the act of developing methods to suit practices, allowed design to become

more employable, more marketable and business-orientated. This however split design

researcher from design practice and as a result neglects its original intended function. “The

change of existing conditions to preferable ones”, it instead becomes a conforming identity to

meet the desires of business, in the process becoming squeezed to compete with a rapidly

changing society.

47John Christopher Jones, designing methods seeds of human futures, p xiii

19

Elements of design practice

Normative specific ways of practice have been developed as a reaction to the challenging open

framework of design. This is important to understand as design thinking is currently know to have

universal processes. It is within these processes that designers have engaged with the value of

their field and have chosen to develop professionalised ways of working to develop a sense of

quantitative value for their stakeholders. It is within these ways of working, that allow it to maintain

its relevancy.

Design Thinking produces results and it's often through utilising a set of controlled pre-ordained

steps that have regularly been tested and tried to produce innovative outcomes. It is within the

designer to trust these processes in order to produce desirable results, this presents a dichotomy

of control and a reliance based system, Ahmed Ansari a doctoral candidate and lecturer in Design

Studies at Carnegie Mellon University, explains;

“You must believe in it and the values it espouses (which, incidentally are the very values
that social innovation prizes: a results-focused attitude, collaboration, action-oriented,
pro-development etc.), its techniques and its rules. In sum, design thinking, in an oddly
Latourian turn, turns back on itself and becomes oddly scientistic: like scientism, it
requires an almost absolute faith in its own universality and authority.”48

Ansari makes references to Bruno Latour, a philosopher who explains the way religions speak in

transformative ways through its delivery, as a contrast to science which speaks to deliver

information. Arguing that religious discourse is very much similar to design discourse as it delivers

to transform the individual.

Design thinking becomes an easily transferable process, its a ‘cognitive style’ that has been

packaged and processed to deliver to people in other fields, Lucy Kimbell, Professor of

Contemporary Design Practices at University of the Arts London, sees it as ways to stimulate

innovation across multiple sectors. Kimbell further goes on to say that;

48Ahmed Ansari, Politics and Method, Modes of criticism 2 -Critique of Method (2016) Website
http://modesofcriticism.org/politics-method/ (accessed 8/01/2020)
20
“dualism that makes a distinction between “thinking” and “doing” and between designers
and the worlds they do design in”49

This dualism is a necessary aspect of design thinking, as it formulates an imperative parallel

relationship between designing and feedback.

However, current relationships with design practice are influenced by demands of industry, with

instances of the process of feedback and deeper understanding being ignored therefore risking

the public trust regarding the intentions of the designer. One must somewhat be a part of the

culture of “attending to the diversities of designers practice”50 to avoid false claims of ‘user-

centredness’. This has been a growing concern within the design community, as several recent

studies indicate that an increasing number of designers are not utilising the available design

research within their practice.51

Although this can be problematic as it distances design practice from design research and

knowledge. It brings light to discourse on the importance of the responsibility of the designer, this

includes, but is not limited to the gathering of knowledge and the transparency in action and

intent. Kees Dorst, a Professor of Design Innovation at the University of Toronto, highlights the

reason which this is necessary;

“Part of the design problem can be considered undetermined, in the sense that the
designer is to a large extent free to design according to his taste, style, and abilities. (It is
of course not the case that the designer would never have to defend these aspects of the
design to others, but in these areas, the designer is dominant in the sense that he also
provides the criteria on which this aspect or part of the design is to be judged).”52

Dorst is therefore, pertaining to the designer's control and discretion as a key element that greatly

influences the outcome.

49Lucy Kimbell, ‘Rethinking Design Thinking: part 1’ in Design and Culture November 2011, pp
289-290
50 ibid
51 ibid
52Kees Dorst, The Problem of Design Problems https://www.creativityandcognition.com/
cc_conferences/cc03Design/papers/23DorstDTRS6.pdf
21
However one can argue that design is intended for influencing behaviour, designers are in need to

control the outcome, deceive and restrict for the betterment of design. Designers often base their

practice on predetermined normative models which produce methods and techniques (Fig 4).

These models determine motives, Intent and process, resulting in a certain design philosophy,

Fig 4- Kees Dorst, The Three Dimensions of Design activities in The Problem of Design
Problems, URL: https://www.creativityandcognition.com/cc_conferences/cc03Design/
papers/23DorstDTRS6.pdf

which functions as the core to the designers personal influence. These elements are central to the

discourse in design practice and therefore require necessary attention.

Influences of design form a major role in a designer ability to distinguish right from wrong when

problem solving, in the book Evil by Design, Chris Noddler53 unfolds recently developed practices

within design through the use of technology. Highlighting the notion of deceit in design that

develops as design becomes a tool to change peoples behaviour, tapping into the instinctual

nature of human psychological programming. Noddler identifies how uses of “sins”54 as design

techniques can be utilised to make your design more effective at creating emotional ties with the

user55. Whilst mentioning that the power of deceit could also be used for good and evil, citing the

53 Chris Noddler is a user researcher and interaction design specialist

54 Chris Noddler Evil by design Interaction design to lead us into temptation p 11
55 ibid
22
children in ‘Sayfan and Lagattuta’s monster studies'56 as an example to make a case. Noddler

also states that the act of persuasion is not necessarily a bad thing if it leads to a positive

outcomes. However, lacking clarity in the definition of a positive outcome, raises new questions

on what is “a positive outcome”? Moving forward and thinking of longevity, one should question if

these results lend themselves to a more sustainable process.

Ideas of a Virtuous Design Philosophy

This then begins to question the responsibility of the designer, especially in the age where design

is thoroughly influencing the services that we use regularly in everyday life. Designers begin to

harness more responsibility for the redesigning of unsustainable processes. Turkka Keinonen, a

Professor of Design at Aalto University, Finland, in Designers, Users and Justice talks about the

role of responsible use of method through competence in design, “Competence with Method, I

think, cannot be separated from the competence with the substance of the work itself, thus,

competence with methods is a core aspect of designers’ virtue”57 , this reframing places emphasis

on the designers’ personal philosophy or ‘virtue’. Kionnen therefore approaches this discourse

and considers ways in which a virtuous method could influence and improve design outcome.

Keinonen’s dialogue with a practitioner deepens on virtuous design methodology in his book,

They bring to light the various biases and inferences that the design method is continuously in

conflict with, “choosing a method is a choice we have, even when we can’t decide about the

other aspects of our work”58 arguing that there is currently a inherent separation between the

designers “mindsets” and “practices”59 . In that both elements are interlinked and largely influence

outcome.

56Study in child psychology By Liat Sayfan, demonstrating a method of exposing children to

imaginary fear-inducing scenarios, that resulted in reduce fear and dealing with it better through
improving coping mechanisms in the brain.
57 Keinonen, Turkka , Designers, Users and Justice, p 24
58 ibid
59 Jan Schmiedgen, what is “design thinking”?, This is Design Thinking website https://
thisisdesignthinking.net/on-design-thinking/discourse/ (accessed 2/1/2020)
23
This is important to understand as it provides a path to placing design and designers under

greater scrutiny. With this, we can see design practice taking a more “consequentialist stand”60

and regard the wider implications of the user and the overall perspective on the act of designing ,

lending itself to a “criterion of justice”. Keinonen acknowledges that this is irrespective of the

chosen method, and is embedded in what the “contribution to the method is.”61. These ideas

translate to the individual and touch upon the roots of “practice rather than method”62 .

Developing the discourse to a focus that involves the norms within the design community and a

further stipulation on the current ways of the designer.

60 Keinonen, Turkka , Designers, Users and Justice, p 20

61 ibid
62 ibid
24

Chapter 3

‘Participating in discourse in the Bahá'í Community.’

The establishment of the Bahá'ís involvement in discourse began with Bahá’u’lláh, he wrote

“Be anxiously concerned with the needs of the age ye live in, and center your deliberations
on its exigencies and requirements.”63

This perpetuated a systematic reframing of thought amongst Bahá’ís; one's engagement with the

concern of our current “needs”, is met with the need to facilitate a process of understanding and

interacting with societal discourse. Bahá’u’lláh's engagement with the growing dialogue of

certain themes of the time are evidenced by his letters to Queen Victoria, in which he addresses

themes such as the societal governance reform, an advocation of peace and the burden of taxes

on the poorest in society64

However seminal to the Bahá'í approach to societal discourse, was the book entitled The

Secret of the Divine Revelation, written in 1875 by ʻAbdu’l-Bahá, the son of Bahá'u'lláh who was

appointment as the successor prior to His passing. Bahá’u'lláh “addressed to the king, people,

clergy, officials, and secular intellectuals of Irán” as to express his concern about the current ways

Iran was progressing as a nation. The book communicates a stance that aims at highlighting the

injustices of modern society, “poor education, bad governance, ignorances of scientific advances,

rejection of innovation and the atrophy of the life of the mind”65 Discussing this alongside the role

religion within modernisation. A message which he actively disseminated through his travels to

the west, giving talks and seminars, engaging charismatically in relevant forms of discourse on

the Faith and its potential.

63 Bahá’u’lláh, Gleanings from the Writings of Bahá’u’lláh, p 231

64Bahá’u’lláh, Tablet to Queen Victoria, URL:http://bahai-library.com/bahaullah_lawh_malikih#fn8
(accessed 11/12/2019)
65Geoffrey Cameron and Benjamin Schewel, Bahai Participation in Public Discourse, in Religion
and public discourse in an age of transition: Reflections on Bahá'í practice and thought (2018), p
165
25
In 1921, ʻAbdu’l-Bahá passed away, and in his will and testament appointed his grandson, Shogie

Effendi66 as Guardian of the Faith. He had the task of organising the faith and solidifying its

institutional structure, formulating relations with current believers in an era of post-ʻAbdu’l-Bahá.

Most importantly the Bahá'í Administration does not contain any forms of clergy, therefore the

direction of the community is based solely on nineteen democratically elected individuals within

certain clusters of Bahá’í’s. During the 1930’s there were only nine local assemblies67 of Bahá’ís,

therefore it was Shogie Effendi’s duties to encourage individuals to pioneer to different parts of

the world, to allow for the growth and expansion of the Bahá’í Faith.68

The Bahá'í Conceptual Framework

The Bahá'í Faith was founded with the foretold ideas of the breakdown of current normative

institutions and structures that are unsustainable. Their conceptual framework for developing

discourse is based on the ideas of a ‘New World Order’ revealed by the writings of Bahá’u’lláh.

Ideas that acknowledge the two elements to the nature of man; the spiritual and the material. And

by which they both function in tandem, therefore stating that for us to progress and develop as

individuals, and a society we need both. Within this idea ,was the understanding by The Universal

66Related to both the Báb and Bahá’u’lláh, Shoghi Effendi was born in ‘Akká while his
Grandfather, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, was still a prisoner. From his earliest years, a staunchness of faith
coupled with a deep devotion to his Grandfather motivated Shoghi Effendi’s every action. He
wished to master the English language so that he could serve as a secretary and translator for
‘Abdu’l-Bahá, and so, in the spring of 1920, he left for Oxford University where he further
developed his impressive command of English.
67Voting is anonymous and campaigning for positions in the Bahá'í Faith is prohibited. Therefore
individuals must try to vote on the guidance that Shogie Effendi set out “their openmindedness,
their high sense of justice and duty, their candor, their modesty, their entire devotion to the welfare
and interests of the friends, the Cause, and humanity”. Local and National Assemblies are voted
for every year, while Universal House of Justices members are voted for every five years. All which
involve the election of nine individuals from the Bahá'í community.

Shoghi Effendi and Baha'i History: "The Dawn Breakers" | Moojan Moment, Youtube Video
68

URL: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NcmE7w46owM, (accessed 11/01/2020)

26
House of Justice 69 that we are in an “age of transition” in which humanity is currently forgoing a

period by which they are forced to abandon processes that suited the needs of previous epochs.

The idea states that we must begin forming new patterns that will lay the basis for a new peaceful

and prosperous society.70

Concerning this message, Bahá’ís believe that being involved with “public discourse is not a

peripheral activity”71 , it involves positioning oneself as an active member of society. The centrality

within the Bahá’í Faith is within the contexts of their wider community, one that can not solely be

practiced by adhering to “particular doctrines”72 but requires the process of action to take effect.

Methods of which, involve formalised conversation that requires reason, to navigate themes

consistent with the ideas of an advancing civilisation. Therefore for one to understand the Bahá’í

approach to discourse, it is important to analyse “the overarching conceptual framework”73 from

which they adhere to principals aligned with the faith while engaging in conversations that are

relevant to the wider public discourse.

Critical to the elements of Bahá’í practice, is the realisation of ‘The Oneness of Humanity’, this

forms the fundamental component that adheres society to their beliefs. Regarding this, Bahá’í

Religion holds belief in the progressive nature of mankind’s involvement of more than just the

Bahá’ís, it requires universal participation in the process of decision making. This method ensures

69The Universal House of Justice is the international governing council of the Bahá’í Faith.
Bahá’u’lláh ordained the creation of this institution in His book of laws, the Kitáb-i-Aqdas.

The Universal House of Justice is a nine-member body, elected every five years by the entire
membership of all national Bahá’í assemblies. Bahá’u’lláh conferred divine authority upon the
Universal House of Justice to exert a positive influence on the welfare of humankind, promote
education, peace and global prosperity, and safeguard human honour and the position of religion.
It is charged with applying the Bahá’í teachings to the requirements of an ever-evolving society
and is thus empowered to legislate on matters not explicitly covered in the Faith’s Sacred Texts.
70 Universal House of Justice, Universal House of Justice to the Conference of the Continental
Board of Counsellors, December 28, 2010, bahai.org website, URL: https://www.bahai.org/
library/authoritative-texts/the-universal-house-of-justice/messages/20101228_001/1#242741298
(Accessed 12/12/2019)
71Shahriar Razavi, Bahai Participation in Public Discourse, in Religion and public discourse in an
age of transition: Reflections on Bahá'í practice and thought (2018), p 168
72 ibid
73 ibid
27
that the discourse remains relevant to its locality, therefore it is within their practice that they

choose to extend involvement as much as possible. Additionally, this encourages a diaspora

within the community, as their widening effect becomes greater than the current numbers of

proclaimed Bahá’ís.

This method, however, poses a deep challenge with Bahá'ís, as often people desire to involve

themselves with others who have similar understandings of the world and beliefs. This is a

growing concern as the globalised internet influences our perception, especially with ideas of

morality74. To allow spaces for localised discourse to occur, Bahá'ís have adopted methods of

consultation. Consultation is an approach of reconciliation and a search for interpersonal ‘truth’.

This is referring to ‘interpretative truth’, a quasi-scientific approach to discourse, that interprets

meanings to underlying social concepts, similar process of distillation have been explored in

Heidegger’s philosophy75 . Sean McGrath76 explains Heidegger’s ideas as:,

“The abyss of uncertainty which the two- tier theory of truth opens up in our philosophical
discourse does not necessarily catapult philosophy into relativism. But it does indicate the
finitude of understanding.” 77

Therefore subverting differing ideas of truth in into an understanding through discourse.

The element of a “finitude of understanding” McGrath talks about is crucial the Bahai Faith as a

means to attain “higher levels of unity”78 and bring about ideas of transcending the material

differences that exist between people. The process of creating consensus between people is seen

as a prerequisite for the aims of all Bahá’í objectives, The Universal House of Justice sees this as

74 Pew Research Center, Internet Seen as Positive Influence on Education but Negative on
Morality in Emerging and Developing Nations, https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2015/03/19/
internet-seen-as-positive-influence-on-education-but-negative-influence-on-morality-in-
emerging-and-developing-nations/ (Accessed 4/01/2020)
75 S. J. McGrath, The Interpretive Structure of Truth in Heidegger, p 53,54
76Sean Joseph McGrath is a Canadian philosopher and Professor of Philosophy at Memorial
University of Newfoundland. He is known for his works on Friedrich Schelling and Heidegger's
philosophy.
77 ibid
78Shahriar Razavi, Bahai Participation in Public Discourse, in Religion and public discourse in an
age of transition: Reflections on Bahá'í practice and thought (2018), p 171
28
“the alpha and omega of all objectives”79 , whilst this is often in conflict with current standards of

discourse. Common societal frameworks of discourses involve opposing conflicting opinions, that

have the negative implications of falling into the objective of persuasion, especially evident in civil

political discourse80. As a result, the Bahá’í community has had to work in attempting to subvert

the current normative societal discourse.

Importantly, the Bahá’í framework exists to find a pathway to action through discussion, gathering

vast amounts of perspectives and scientific knowledge to formulate refined collective

understanding in order to be formally presented. Touching on this, it is fundamental not to

overlook the sources of knowledge, and understand the implications of the growing complexities

of discussions with the Bahá’í approach. The common enlightenment understanding of religion is

often centred around the separation of reason and rationality, in replace of a pure divine ideology.

Conversely, the Bahá’ís methodology is based on the harmony of science and religion, ʻAbdu’l-

Bahá adamantly stated “Religion must be reasonable. If it does not square with reason it is

superstition and without foundation”81 , concurrent with John King-Farlow’s82 philosophical views

of a “reasonable believer”83, stating that;

“He cannot be ignorant of objections to religious belief, or unready to discuss them and
admit their force. He may not lack a supply of what he sincerely considers to be good
reasons for faith; he must not be unacquainted with the standards of logic and clarity his
contemporaries favour. He should acknowledge the likelihood that some equally honest
enquirers will conclude that the best reasons support very different views”84

79Universal House of Justice to the National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of the United
States, May 19, 1994, https://www.bahai.org/library/authoritative-texts/the-universal-house-of-
justice/messages/19940519_001/1#598654069 (Accessed 11/01/2020)
80David W. Johnston and Roger T. Johnston, Civil Political Discourse in a Democracy: The
Contribution of Psychology, pp. 291-317
81ʻAbdu’l-Bahá, The Promulgation of Universal Peace, Talks delivered by ʻAbdu’l-Bahá during His
Visit the United States and Canada in 1912, rev.ed, p 63
82John King Farlow was a Poet and a Professor in the Philosophy Department at the University of
Alberta located in Edmonton, Alberta, Canada, publishing his paper in the Philosophical quarterly
during the period of late modernity. His views are relevant due to the time period he expressed
them at, when normative modern processes have been long firmly established in modern western
society.
83John King-Farlow, Discussions: Justifications of Religious Belief, The Philosophical Quarterly
(1950-), Vol. 12, No. 48 (Jul., 1962), pp. 261-263
84 ibid
29
However, this can only be reasoned to an extent, limited by an individual understanding of human

nature, “What more could reasonably be asked of a man in this kind of world? What more could

be asked in the name of rationality for his manner of entertaining a Weltanschauung? What more,

that is, except more of this same sort of thing”85

ʻAbdu’l-Bahá made it clear that the advancement of science and technology is not the only

means of development that must occur in humanity. Iterating that with it must cultivate moral and

spiritual principals and that we must expand our knowledge on both to progress common

discourses.

Bahá’ís believe the role of science in the faith is profound, the need for both science and religion

to be in harmony is that of critical importance as a means of developing a holistic understanding

of humanity. As previously mentioned, the coexistence of religion and science is a contentious

topic that has often been rejected 86 , therefore the function of religion in modern society becomes

a central discourse that Bahá’ís find necessary to address. The Bahá'í view is that Religion acts

as an “intellectual safeguard”87 , in that it prevents science from becoming “mere instruments of

materialism”88, furthermore, the utilisation of scientific knowledge in the faith prevents it from

being becoming products of “superstition and fanaticism”,

ʻAbdu’l-Bahá states:

"When religion is upheld by science and reason we can believe with assurance and act
with conviction, for this rational faculty is the greatest power in the world”89

This expands the framework of understanding and develops assurance in the processes and

methods carried out by the Bahá’í community.

85 ibid
86 Richard Dawkins, God delusion (2006), p 5
87Shahriar Razavi, Bahai Participation in Public Discourse, in Religion and public discourse in an
age of transition: Reflections on Bahá'í practice and thought (2018), p 172
88 ibid

ʻAbdu’l-Bahá, ʻAbdu’l-Bahá on Divine Philosophy, compiled by Elizabeth Fraser Chamberlain

89

URL: https://bahai-library.com/abdulbaha_divine_philosophy&chapter=2 (accessed 11/01/2020)

30
Recognising this, a Bahá’í approach consists of two faculties, the spiritual and intellectual growth

of the individual to collectively transform society. The phrase ‘twofold moral purpose’ coined by

the Bahá'ís as a process of interpersonal growth, dualisms of the spiritual and intellectual form a

“dynamic process” of “reciprocity”90 . The Bahá’í International Community’s91 statement to the UN

commission addressing the status of women in 2011,

“The transformation of human society requires both the transformation of the individual
and the deliberate creation of new societal structures. Individuals must be educated and
empowered, but attention must be given to the cultural, scientific and technological,
educational, economic and social conditions that shape them" 92 .

This ensures that individuals are not neglecting the need for personal growth to focus

wholeheartedly on service to others, they both are required to benefit each other. This process is

necessary as it allows for balance and creates preventative measures in the wider process,

“The continuous interaction between the development of the individual and the
establishment of new social structures provides a path of social change and avoids both
complacency and violence.” 93

With the understanding of these methods within the conceptual framework that Bahá'ís adhere to,

this allows us to engage with the reasoning of these methods. Providing meaning and shape to

the conceptual framework. These processes are bonded together through the Bahá’í conception

of human nature, and the potentialities of mankind. Ideas which place the spiritual nature of the

nobility of man at the forefront.

Expansion and Consolidation.

The belief in the nobility of man is essential in order to progress the efforts in the Bahá'í

Community, it works in facilitating the thought behind ideas, which in turn leads to actions made

by individuals, Bahá'u'lláh Wrote:

90Jena K Khodadad, The Dynamics of Growth: Scientific Principals at Work in the Worldwide
Advancement of the Bahá'í Faith, p 43
91 An International non-governmental organisation representing the members of the Bahá’í Faith
92Bahá'í International Community, Education and training for the Betterment of Society, 22
February 2011, URL: https://www.bahai.org/documents/bic/education-training-betterment-
society (accessed 11/01/2020)
93 Bahai International Community. ‘Education and Training for the Betterment of Society’ Bahai
International Community’s Contribution to the 55th Session of the UN Commission on the Status
of Women 22 February 2011 http://www.bic.org/statements/education-and-training-betterment-
society (Accessed 10/12/2019)
31
“O Son of Spirit! Noble have I created thee, yet thou hast abased thyself. Rise then unto
that for which thou wast created”94

Meaning, through this nobility, one must “Rise” and begin to place words into actions and serve.

Service in the Bahá'í Faith is known to function as a twofold method, with one being the action of

ones faith enhancing personal moral and spiritual development, while committing to growing

strong local community, actively taking part in “societal-building process”95. More importantly the

act of service that is intentional and meaningful.

Service in the Bahá’í Faith as a process of community growth, is a divergent and convergent

method which requires a holistic alignment with the collective goals of the Bahá’í Institutions. All

which serve a purpose of guiding and strengthening the direction of service efforts in the

community96 , Jena Khodadad97 writes;

“That essential alignment- that relationship of genuine and sustained cooperation and
mutual confidence and trust between individual believers and the institutions that guide
and govern their activities- is the cause for harmonious and effective functioning in the
work of the Bahá'í community.” 98

Use of language such as “effective”, suggests an organised and methodical approach, which can

be measured. However the term “harmonious”, suggests a quantitative element, which requires

consistent reflection and readjustment.

The framework in which this takes place is underlined in the Bahá'í approach to “sustainable

patterns of expansion and consolidation”99, manifesting in a scalable expansion that which could

94 Bahá’u’lláh, Hidden Words, Arabic no. 22

95Jena K Khodadad, The Dynamics of Growth: Scientific Principals at Work in the Worldwide
Advancement of the Bahá'í Faith, p 43
96Bahá'u'lláh, Abdu'l-Bahá, Shoghi Effendi, and Universal House of Justice, Lights of Guidance:

A Bahá'í Reference File, p 2

97Jena is a professor of Cell Biology and Anatomy. Her research was focused on the molecular
organisation of biological membranes. She is also an active member of the Bahá'í Faith
98Jena K Khodadad, The Dynamics of Growth: Scientific Principals at Work in the Worldwide
Advancement of the Bahá'í Faith, p 54
99 ibid
32
go about establishing a “new state of mind”100 a “new culture”. Strategies began to evolve though

the ‘Ridván Message’101 by the Universal House of Justice. The development of core activities

formed the framework of action, a system for collectives to form small grassroots initiatives

through, focused on specifically defined activities such as ‘study circles’, ‘Junior Youth classes’,

‘deepenings’102 and ‘Children’s classes’. These activities would often often try to engage with

varying amounts of people within the immediate community to harness capacity for change. Often

stressed within the bahai faith is its non-involvement in Religious conversion - as this is seen as

an individual choice, separate to the collective endeavours of unity.

Underlying rationality in this process are akin Bruno Latour’s ideas of constructivism, where he

attempts to explain that collective action can lead to a “Negotiations toward a viable and peaceful

common world”103 , an idea which he considered could be our “only defence against

fundamentalism”.

This method that the Bahá’ís have adopted, is an attempt to formulate structure though organic

open processes that require the necessary will of the people within the community to participate.

Through the process of trial and error individuals begin to further understand their local

environment and develop relations with neighbours. The development of formal structures aim to

be aligned with the needs of immediate community (Fig 5).

100 The Universal House of Justice, Ridvan 135, bahai.org website, URL: https://www.bahai.org/
library/authoritative-texts/the-universal-house-of-justice/messages/19960421_001/1#045175659
(Accessed 03/12/2019)
101 Annually, during Ridván, the Universal House of Justice sends a 'Ridván message' to the
worldwide Baháʼí community, which generally gives looks back on the previous year, and provides
further guidance for the coming year.
102Deepening is a general term for any activity which is designed to achieve a deeper
understanding of the Baha'i Faith. This involves a group of people gathering in order to further
understand the topics of the faith and attempting to develop collective understanding through the
writings of the faith.
103Bruno Latour, The promises of constructivism, in Chasing Technology : Matrix of Materiality,
Indiana Series for the Philosophy of Science, p 28
33

Fig 5: Michele Wong and David A Palmer, Bahá’í model of organic growth URL:
http://www.socsc.hku.hk/ExCEL3/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/Case-of-Bahai-
Community.pdf
34

Chapter 4

‘Parallels of discourse’

With the understanding that the framework of social design discourse is shifting towards a more

virtuous-based approach from our common understanding of its scientific roots. One could begin

to gage the increasing number of parallels of discourse between The Bahá'í community and social

design.

In relation to the Bahá’í community and social design, an inherent commonality is the desire to

transform society. Discourse formulated within social design is predicated on the general idea of

social stability and the universal desire to be connected and formulate communities. As we

search for new meanings in a world suffering from a lack of social cohesion, we should move

towards a process of “compensatory reenchantment”104, which is concerned with the search for

new meaning systems that have been “overthrown by modernity”105 .

This could suggest that social design is a popularised idea that has been developed “to

compensate for the ‘holistic’ organisation that religion once provided”106 . This is further

emphasised with the development of discourse from the method to the individual responsibility,

the consequence of design becoming ever more open and its growing desire to engage with

society and its discourses. This aligned with Bahá’í’s novel approach of participating in

discourses to develop community-based on ideas of a “twofold moral purpose”107 . Understanding

both, we can see two different approaches to community transformation. Designers centre their

focus around the method, whereas Bahá'ís are much more concerned with social involvement.

However, these are not exclusive to each, both engaging with growing complexities as discourse

develops.

104Isaac A. Reed, Julia Adams. Culture in the transitions to modernity: seven pillars of a new
research agenda, p 250
105 ibid
106 ibid
107 Fazel Naghdy, Knowing My Inner Self: Applied Spirituality for Teenagers (2014), p 267
35

These two different processes are highlighted in Ezio Manzini’s108 book, Design When Everyone

Designs, in which he reveals the kind of “design modes”109 . Through this model, we can consider

The Bahai Community as a “grassroots organisation” focusing on the area of “diffuse design”110

and “problem solving”, areas which manifest through consultation and developing awareness on

complex issues in society. Considering social design as a “design and technological agency”111

in which the practice of professionalised ways of working is channeled to complex problems in

Fig 6: Ezio Manzini, Social Innovation in design, p 50, 2015

society. Manzini explains that these modes of design could form a coalition as a way to intensify

efforts in a “coherent” manner as a strategic means of “evolution”112 (Fig 6).

108Ezio Manzini is an Italian design academic and author known for his work for social innovation
and sustainability.
109 Ezio Manzini, Design, when everybody designs (2015), pp 40-50
110Diffuse design is design which comes about through non-formal training, through the practice
of critical thinking, creativity, and practical knowledge.

111 ibid
112 ibid
36

Although I’d be pressed for considering religion as a type of “grassroots organisation”113 114, and

rather the Bahá’í community functions as an inclusive entity on its own and inherits all the

makings of one.

Understanding this framework eludes to the question of how these coalitions could manifest into

the development of the discourse on sustainable development in social design (Fig 6) . The idea

of which is currently very abstract and looms in intangibility. I feel it is important to specify the

inferences that which the ways of the Bahá’í community could benefit design practice and

channel the energies of designers into actively participating in the discourses around sustainable

development.

Notes for future design practice

As a result of my analysis, I will summarise by bringing together two elements of Bahá'í practice

that could benefit sustainable social design.

1. Twofold Moral Purpose, the question of morality is a topic that is intrinsically connected with

the ideas of “justice” and “competence” within design mentioned by Turkka Kionnen.

Additionally, this speaks to the designer's values and to what extent it will affect their

outcome. We are aware that the outcome is not separate from the designer’s volition although

processes such as “participatory design” have often tried to avoid questions on the designer's

intention and redirected it towards a Human-Centered approach. The connection between the

outcome and the designer therefor brings into the idea of developing the designers personal

113 Peter Gundelach, Professor of Sociology, Department of Sociology at the University of

Copenhagen, defines Grassroots Organisations as ‘local political organisations which seek to
influence conditions not related to the working situation the participants and which have the
activity of the participants as their primary source’
114 Peter Gundelach, Grass Roots Organisations, in acta Sociologica, p 188
37
habits and philosophy towards sustainability. Nathan Stegall115considers this as “intentional

design”116 on which he considers design as arguments on ways other people should live. With

this in respect to twofold moral purpose in the Bahá’í Faith, it is clear that the separation of

“ways other people should live”117 and the ways the designer often present dichotomies that

can often inhibit sustainable design outcomes.

2. Unified Values Framework, The ways of the designer are often left to the individual through an

open design approach. However, this is often argued to be at the detriment to a design

standard that which makes designers valuable to society and industry118 . Conversely, the

Bahá’í community operates on principals set out by their founder, Bahá’u’lláh, that which

operate as a guiding force around the discourse. Similar frameworks could be applied to

social design to develop focus and a unified vision based on certain aims and values.

Additionally channeling our efforts into ensuring that our practices are focused around

morality, would generate an understanding, benefiting the efficiency and effectiveness of

solving complex discourses in social design.

115is a Senior Design Engineer who wrote an article in Design Issues, a peer-reviewed journal, on
designing for sustainability: a philosophy for ecological intentional design
116Nathan Stegall. Design for sustainability: a philosophy for ecological intentional design, Design
Issues, Vol. 22, No. 2 (spring 2006), p 57

117 ibid
118Richard Buchanan, Wicked problems in design thinking, Design Issues, Vol. 8, No. 2, (Spring,
1992), pp. 5-21

38

Conclusion

Sustainable development is a continuously expanding discourse within society, it is seen as a vast

and complex topic that is ever demanding our attention in society. Commonly it is understood

that the ways of modern western society are currently are not sustainable. Suppression of

scientific knowledge through previous normative forms of dogmatic religious oppression, have

opened positive pathways for scientific and technological development to occur in the west.

However, one can argue, the once crucial elements of society such as community, spirituality, and

morality has suffered as a result of the neglect of religiosity from western societal discourse.

Inadvertently, social design has taken on the role which is an attempt to stabilise society’s social

crisis, transcending its initial modes of science to develop meaning and connection. Resulting in

the desire for a restructuring to meet with the growing discourses in sustainability. moral and

spiritual enhancing of the design processes are now being considered as viable options by

current design practitioners and theorists. However, approaches are still very much undefined

within the social design community. Ideas from the Bahá'í community put themselves forward to

offer practical opportunities to develop new potentials for developing focus within social design

and formulate coherent bonds within localised design communities.

Moving forward, it is clear new habits need to be formed for designers to harness the potential to

both change society and themselves, and both are necessary for the transformation of society to

occur. The looming recognition that design is inevitably only part of the industry and is only a

product of its ideals is ultimately a damaging notion. The rethinking of processes of design

thinking is important if we are serious about sustainable development. Ethics are no longer

enough to manifest change, Considering an approach which the material nature of design is

harmonious with the spiritual nature of humanity, provides a path to further understanding of the

role of social design in society.

39
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