Late Adulthood and Elderly

Longevity
The United States is no longer a youthful society. As more individuals are living past age 65, the
proportion of individuals at different ages has become increasingly similar. Indeed, the concept of
a period called “late adulthood, “beginning in the sixties or seventies and lasting until death, is a
recent one. Before the twentieth century, most individuals died before they reached 65.

Life Span and Life Expectancy

Since the beginning of recorded history, life span, the maximum number of years an individual
can live, has remained steady at approximately 120 to 125 years of age. But since 1900
improvements in medicine, nutrition, exercise, and lifestyle have increased our life expectancy by
an average of 31 years.
Lifespan- The upper boundary of life, which is the maximum number of years of an individual. The
maximum life span of human beings is about 120 to 125 years of age.
Life expectancy- It is the number of years that will probably live by the average person born in a
particular year

Differences in Life Expectancy

In 2011, the overall life expectancy for women was 81.1 years of age, and for men it was 76.3
years of age (Hoyert & Xu, 2012).
The sex difference in longevity also is influenced by biological factors (Gems, 2014, Regan &
Partridge, 2013). In virtually all species, females outlive males. Women have more resistance to
infections and degenerative diseases (Pan & Change, 2012).

Centenarians
In the United States, there were only 15,000 centenarians in 1980, a number that has risen to
55,000 in 2008. It is projected that this number will reach more than 800,000 by 2050.
Many people expect that “the older you get, the sicker you get.” However, researchers’ findings
stated that this is not true for some centenarians (Willcox, Scapagnini & Willcox, 2014). A study
of 93 centenarians revealed that despite some physical limitations, they had a low rate of age-
associated disease and most had good mental health (Selim & others, 2005). And a recent study
of centenarians from 100 to 119 years of age found that the older the age group (100 to 119-
referred to as supercentenarians-compared with 100 to 104), the later the onset of diseases such
as cancer and cardiovascular diseases, as well as functional decline (Andersen & others, 2012).
Jeanne Loiuse Calment died at the age of 122. She said reasons for living so long included not
worrying about things you can’t do anything about, and occasion glass of Port wine, a diet rich in
olive oil, and laughter.
Biological Theories of Aging
Even if we stay remarkably healthy, we begin to age at some point. Four biological theories
provide intriguing explanations of why we age.

1. Evolutionary Theory
In the evolutionary theory of aging, natural selection has not eliminated many harmful conditions
and nonadoptive characteristics in older adults (Gems, 2014; Shokhirev,& Johnson, 2014). Why?
Because natural selection is linked to reproductive fitness. Which is present only in the earlier
part of adulthood.

2. Cellular Clock Theory

Cellular clock theory is Leonard Hayflick’s (1977) theory that cells can divide a maximum of 75 to
80 times and that as we age our cells become less capable of dividing. Hayflick found that cells
extracted from adults in their fifties to seventies divided fewer than 75 to 80 times. Based on the
ways cells divide, Hayflick places the upper limit of human life-span potential about 120 to 125
years of age.

3. Free-Radical Theory
A third theory of aging is free-radical theory, which states that people age because when cells
metabolize energy, the by products include unstable oxygen molecules known as free radicals.
The free radicals ricochet around the cells, damaging the DNA and pother cellular structures (da
Cruz & others, 2014; Tezil & Basaga, 2014)). The damage can lead to a range of disorders,
including cancer and arthritis.

4. Hormonal Stress Theory

Cellular clock and free radical theories attempt to explain aging at the cellular level. In contrast,
hormonal stress theory argues that aging the body’s hormonal system can lower resistance to
stress and increase the likelihood of disease. Normally, when people experience stressors, the
body responds by releasing certain hormones. As people age, the hormones stimulated by stress
remain at elevated levels longer than when people were younger (Simm & others, 2008).

The Aging Brain

The Shrinking, Slowing Brain
On average, the brain loses 5 to 10 percent of its weight between the ages of 20 and 90. Brain
volume also decrease (Fjell & Walhovd, 2010). A recent study found a decrease in total brain
volume and volume in key brain structures such as the frontal lobes and hippocampus from 22 to
88 years of age (Sherwood & others, 2011). A recent analysis concluded that in healthy aging the
decrease in brain volume is due mainly to shrinkage of neurons, lower numbers of synapses, and
reduced length of axons but only to a minor extent by neuron loss (Fjell & Walhovd, 2010).
The prefrontal cortex is one area that shrinks, and recent research has linked this shrinkage with
a decrease in working memory and other cognitive activities in older adults (Jellinger & Attems,
2013). The sensory regions of the brain (primary visual cortex, primary motro cortex, and
somatosensory cortex) are less vulnerable to the aging process (Rosano & others, 2012). Both
physical coordination and intellectual performance are affected. For example, after age 70 many
adults no longer show a knee-jerk reflex, and by age 90 most reflexes are much slower (Spence,
1989). Slowing of the brain can impair the performance of older adults on intelligence tests,
especially time tests (Lu & others, 2011).
Aging also has been linked to a decline in the production of some neurotransmitters. Reduction
in acetylcholine iis linked to memory loss, especially with people with Alzheimer disease (Merad
& others, 2013). Sever reductions in dopamine involved in a reduction in motor control in
Parkinson disease (Park & others, 2014).

Physical Development
Physical decline is inevitable if we manage to live to an old age, but the timing of physical
problems related to aging is not uniform.

Physical Appearance and Movement

• Wrinkles and age spots are the most noticeable changes

• Weight usually drops after we reach 60 years of age (sagging look). A recent study found
that long-term aerobic exercise was linked with greater muscle strength in 65 to 86 years
olds (Crane, Macneil & Tarnopsolsky, 2013)
• Obesity was linked to mobility limitation in older adults

Sensory Development
Decline in
1. Vision

Diseases:

• Cataract- involves a thickening of the lens of the eye that causes vision to become cloudy
and distorted
• Glaucoma- involves damage to the optic nerve because of the pressure created by buildup
in the eye
• Macular degeneration- a disease that involves deterioration of the macula of the retina,
which corresponds to the focal center of the visual field.
2. Hearing
3. Smell and Taste
4. Touch and Pain
The Circulatory System and Lungs
Cardiovascular disorders increase in late adulthood (Enery, Anderson, & Goodwin, 2013).
Consistent blood pressure above 120/80 should be treated to reduce the risk of heart attack,
stroke, or kidney disease.

Sleep
Approximately 50 percent of older adults complain of having difficulty of sleeping (Farajinia &
others, 2014). One study revealed that regular exercise improves sleep profile of older adults (Lira
& others, 2011).

Sexuality
Aging does induce some changes in human sexual performance, more so in the male than in the
female (Gray & Garcia, 2012). Orgasm becomes less frequent in males with age, occurring in
every second to third attempt rather than every time. More direct stimulation is needed to produce
erection.
One study revealed that many older adults are sexually active as long as they are healthy (Lindau
& others, 2007).

Health
Causes of death
1. Arthritis- an inflammation of the joints accompanied by pain, stiffness, and movement
problems.
2. Osteoporosis- involves an extensive loss of bone tissue become severe and is the main
reason many older adults walk with a marked stoop (Rothman & others, 2014). Women are
especially vulnerable to osteoporosis, which is the leading cause of broken bones I n women
(Davis & others, 2013).
3. Accidents- Fall are the lasing cause of injury deaths among adults who are age 65 and older
(national Center for Health Statistics, 2014).

Cognitive Functioning

Attention
1. Selective attention, which consists of focusing on a specific aspect of experience that is
relevant while ignoring others that are irrelevant, generally decreases in older adults (Ben-
David & others, 2013).
2. Sustained attention is the ability to focus attention on a selected stimulus for a prolonged
period of time.
Memory
1. Explicit memory is a memory facts and experiences that individuals consciously know and
can state. This is also called as declarative memory. (Examples: recounting the plot of the
movie you have seen or being at a grocery store and remembering why you wanted to buy.
2. Implicit memory is memory without conscious recollection; it involves skills and routine
procedures. Implicit memory is less likely to adversely affected by aging than explicit memory
is (Norman, Holmin, & Bartholomew, 2011).
3. Episodic memory is the retention of information about the where and when of life’s happening.
Younger adults have better episodic memory than older adults have (Friedman, 2013).
Researchers have found out that the older the memory is, the less accurate it is in older adults
(Smith, 1996).
4. Semantic memory is a person’s knowledge about the world. It includes a person’s filed of
expertise, general academic knowledge of the sort learned in school. And everyday
knowledge” about the meanings of the words, important places, and common things. For the
most part, episodic memory declines more than semantic memory in older adults (Kuo &
others, 2014; Ofen & Shing, 2013).

Wisdom
Wisdom is expert knowledge about the practical aspects of life that permits excellent judgment
about important matters. This practical knowledge involves exceptional insight into human
development and interactions, good judgment, and an understanding of how to cope with difficult
problems. Thus, wisdom, more than standard conceptions of intelligence, focuses on life’s
pragmatic concerns and human conditions (Ferrari & Weststrate, 2013).

Work
So far in the twenty-first century, the percentage of men over age 65 who are continuing to work
full-time is less than it was at the beginning of the twentieth century.
Mental Health
1. Dementia- is a global term for any neurological disorder in which the primary symptoms
involve a deterioration of mental functioning. Individuals with dementia often lose the ability to
care for themselves and may become unable to recognize familiar surroundings, and people-
including family members (McMillan & others, 2014, Valkanova & Ebmeier, 2014; Ziso &
Larner, 2013). It is estimated that 23% of women and 17% of men 85 years and older are at
risk for developing dementia.
2. Alzheimer Disease- a progressive, irreversible brain disorder that is characterized by a
gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and eventually, physical function.
Alzheimer disease involves a deficiency in the brain messenger chemical acetylcholine, which
plays an important role in memory.

Socioemotional Development in Late Adulthood

Activity Theory
Activity theory states that the more active and involved older adults are, the more likely they are
to be satisfied with their lives. The more older adults are active, energetic, and productive, they
age more successfully and are happier than they are if they disengage from society.

Socioemotional Selectivity Theory

It states that older adults become more selective about their social networks. Because they place
a high value on emotional satisfaction, older adults spend more time with familiar individuals with
whom they have had rewarding relationships.

Selective Optimization with Compensation Theory

It states that successful aging is linked with three main factors: selection, optimization, and
compensation (SOC). This theory describes how people can produce new resources and allocate
them effectively to the tasks they want to master (Baltes, Lindenberger, & Staudinger, 2006).
Selection is based on the concept that older adults have a reduced capacity and loss of
functioning, which require a reduction in performance in most of life domains. Optimization
suggests that it is possible to maintain performance in some areas through continued practice
and the use of new technologies. Compensation becomes relevant when life tasks require a level
of capacity beyond the current level of the older adult’s performance potential.

Degree of Personal Life Investment at Different Points in Life

25 to 34 Years 35 to 54 Years 55 to 65 Years 70 to 84 Years 85 to 105 Years

• Work • Family • Family • Family • Health
• Friends • Work • Health • Health • Family
• Family • Friends • Friends • Cognitive • Thinking
• Independence • Cognitive • Cognitive fitness about life
fitness fitness • Friends • Cognitive
fitness

Ethnicity, Gender, and Culture

• Aging minorities in the United States face the double burden of ageism and racism
• There is stringer evidence that men become more feminine (nurturant, sensitive) ass older
adults that there is that women become more masculine (assertive)
Successful Aging

• Increasingly, researchers are studying the positive aspects of late adulthood. Factors that are
linked to successful aging include an active lifestyle, positive coping skills, good social
relationships and support, and the absence of disease.