Review

Ohm’s law states that the voltage v across a resistor is directly proportional to the current i
flowing through the resistor.
We should note two things
1. The power dissipated in a resistor is a nonlinear function of either current or voltage.
2. Since R and G are positive quantities, the power dissipated in a resistor is always positive.
Thus, a resistor always absorbs power from the circuit. This confirms the idea that a resistor is
a passive element, incapable of generating energy.
A branch represents a single element such as a voltage source or a resistor.
A node is the point of connection between two or more branches.
A loop is any closed path in a circuit.
A network with b branches, n nodes, and l independent loops will satisfy the fundamental
theorem of network topology:
b=l+n–1
Two or more elements are in series if they exclusively share a single node and consequently
carry the same current.
Two or more elements are in parallel if they are connected to the same two nodes and
consequently have the same voltage across them.

Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) states that the algebraic sum of currents entering a node (or a
closed boundary) is zero.
Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL): The algebraic sum of the currents into a node at any instant is
zero.
Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) states that the algebraic sum of all voltages around a closed path
(or loop) is zero.
Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL): The algebraic sum of the voltages around any loop in a circuit is
identically zero for all time.
When a circuit is short circuited two things should be kept in mind:
1. The equivalent resistance is zero.
2. The entire current flows through the short circuit.
Delta to Wye Conversion and vise-versa

Nodal and Mesh Analysis

1. Resistors and independent current sources.
2. Resistors and independent current and voltage sources.
 3. Resistors and independent and dependent voltage and current sources.
We start by briefly listing the major steps of nodal analysis as follows.
1. Ground selection: We select a reference node with zero voltage. Any node can be
selected, but it usually better to choose one with more connections than the others. The
node selected is called the ground of the circuit. All voltages at other nodes are defined
with respect to the ground.
2. Constructing equations: We use only KCL at nodes, except the ground, to derive all
equations. KVL is not preferred in nodal analysis unless necessary. We write all equations
in terms of node voltages.
3. Solution: Next, we solve the equations to find the node voltages.
4. Analysis: Finally, by using the node voltages, we find the desired voltage, current, and/or
power values.
Once again, we emphasize that a formal voltage definition requires two points. On the other
hand, if there is a node where the voltage is defined as zero, it becomes practical to define
node voltages as if they are independent values.

Node Voltage Analysis of Circuits with Current Sources

To write a set of node equations, we do two things:
1. Express element currents as functions of the node voltages.
2. Apply Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) at each of the nodes of the circuit except for the
reference node.
Nodal Voltage Analysis of Circuits with Current and Voltage Sources
A super node consists of two nodes connected by an independent or a dependent voltage
source.
Applying KCL to the super node is a shortcut for doings three things:
1. Labeling the voltage source current as i.
2. Applying KCL at both nodes of the voltage source.
3. Eliminating i from the KCL equations.
Node Voltage Analysis with Dependent Sources
When a circuit contains a dependent source the controlling current or voltage of that
dependent source must be expressed as a function of the node voltages.

Nodal Analysis
Steps to Determine Node Voltages:
 1. Select a node as the reference node. Assign voltages v 1, v2,----, v(n-1) to the remaining (n-1)
nodes. The voltages are referenced with respect to the reference node.
2. Apply KCL to each of the non-reference (n-1) nodes. Use Ohm’s law to express the branch
currents in terms of node voltages.
3. Solve the resulting simultaneous equations to obtain the unknown node voltages.
The number of non-reference nodes is equal to the number of independent equations that we
will derive.
Current flows from a higher potential to a lower potential in a resistor.
Nodal Analysis with Voltage Sources
CASE 1. If a voltage source is connected between the reference node and a non-reference
node, we simply set the voltage at the non-reference node equal to the voltage of the voltage
source.
CASE 2. If the voltage source (dependent or independent) is connected between two non-
reference nodes, the two non-reference nodes form a generalized node or super node; we
apply both KCL and KVL to determine the node voltages.
A super node is formed by enclosing a (dependent or independent) voltage source connected
between two non-reference nodes and any elements connected in parallel with it.
Note the following properties of a super node:
1. The voltage source inside the super node provides a constraint equation needed to solve for
the node voltages.
2. A super node has no voltage of its own.
3. A super node requires the application of both KCL and KVL.

When a circuit has voltage sources as well as current sources, we can still use the node voltage
method by using the concept of a super node. A super node is a large node that includes two
nodes connected by a known voltage source. If the voltage source is directly connected
between a node q and the reference node, we may set v q = vs and write the KCL equations at
the remaining nodes.
If the circuit contains a dependent source, we first express the controlling voltage or current of
the dependent source as a function of the node voltages. Next, we express the controlled
voltage or current as a function of the node voltages. Finally, we apply KCL to nodes and super
nodes.

Summary of Basic Nodal Analysis Procedure

1. Count the number of nodes (N).
2. Designate a reference node. The number of terms in your nodal equations can be minimized
by selecting the node with the greatest number of branches connected to it.
3. Label the nodal voltages (there are N − 1 of them).
4. Write a KCL equation for each of the non-reference nodes. Sum the currents flowing into a
node from sources on one side of the equation. On the other side, sum the currents flowing
out of the node through resistors. Pay close attention to “−” signs.
5. Express any additional unknowns such as currents or voltages other than nodal voltages in
terms of appropriate nodal voltages. This situation can occur if voltage sources or dependent
sources appear in our circuit.
6. Organize the equations. Group terms according to nodal voltages.
7. Solve the system of equations for the nodal voltages (there will be N − 1 of them).

Summary of Super node Analysis Procedure

1. Count the number of nodes (N).
2. Designate a reference node. The number of terms in your nodal equations can be minimized
by selecting the node with the greatest number of branches connected to it.
3. Label the nodal voltages (there are N − 1 of them).
4. If the circuit contains voltage sources, form a super node about each one. This is done by
enclosing the source, its two terminals, and any other elements connected between the two
terminals within a broken-line enclosure.
5. Write a KCL equation for each non-reference node and for each super node that does not
contain the reference node. Sum the currents flowing into a node/super node from current
sources on one side of the equation. On the other side, sum the currents flowing out of the
node/super node through resistors. Pay close attention to “−” signs.
6. Relate the voltage across each voltage source to nodal voltages. This is accomplished by
simple application of KVL; one such equation is needed for each super node defined.
7. Express any additional unknowns (i.e., currents or voltages other than nodal voltages) in
terms of appropriate nodal voltages. This situation can occur if dependent sources appear in
our circuit.
8. Organize the equations. Group terms according to nodal voltages.
9. Solve the system of equations for the nodal voltages (there will be N − 1 of them).

Mesh Analysis
One of the most common mistakes in mesh analysis is to assume zero voltage for a current
source. This happens particularly when trying to apply KVL in a mesh containing a current
source.
A mesh is a loop which does not contain any other loops within it.
Steps to Determine Mesh Currents:
1. Assign mesh currents i1, i1,---, in to the n meshes
2. Apply KVL to each of the n meshes. Use Ohm’s law to express the voltages in terms of the
mesh currents.
3. Solve the resulting n simultaneous equations to get the mesh currents.
Mesh Analysis with Current Sources
A super mesh results when two meshes have a (dependent or independent) current source in
common.
A super mesh is one larger mesh created from two meshes that have an independent or
dependent current source in common.
Note the following properties of a super mesh:
1. The current source in the super mesh provides the constraint equation necessary to solve
for the mesh currents.
2. A super mesh has no current of its own.
3. A super mesh requires the application of both KVL and KCL.
When a circuit contains a dependent source, the controlling current or voltage of that
dependent source must be expressed as a function of the mesh currents.

If a current source is common to two adjoining meshes, we define the interior of the two
meshes as a super mesh. We then write the mesh current equation around the periphery of
the super mesh. If a current source appears at the periphery of only one mesh, we may define
that mesh current as equal to the current of the source, accounting for the direction of the
current source.

If the circuit contains a dependent source, we first express the controlling voltage or current of
the dependent source as a function of the mesh currents. Next, we express the controlled
voltage or current as a function of the mesh currents. Finally, we apply KVL to meshes and
super meshes.

Summary of Basic Mesh Analysis Procedure

1. Determine if the circuit is a planar circuit. If not, perform nodal analysis instead.
2. Count the number of meshes (M). Redraw the circuit if necessary.
3. Label each of the M mesh currents. Generally, defining all mesh currents to flow clockwise
results in a simpler analysis.
4. Write a KVL equation around each mesh. Begin with a convenient node and proceed in the
direction of the mesh current. Pay close attention to “−” signs. If a current source lies on the
periphery of a mesh, no KVL equation is needed and the mesh current is determined by
inspection.
5. Express any additional unknowns such as voltages or currents other than mesh currents in
terms of appropriate mesh currents. This situation can occur if current sources or dependent
sources appear in our circuit.
6. Organize the equations. Group terms according to mesh currents.
7. Solve the system of equations for the mesh currents (there will be M of them).

Summary of Super mesh Analysis Procedure

1. Determine if the circuit is a planar circuit. If not, perform nodal analysis instead.
2. Count the number of meshes (M). Redraw the circuit if necessary.
3. Label each of the M mesh currents. Generally, defining all mesh currents to flow clockwise
results in a simpler analysis.
4. If the circuit contains current sources shared by two meshes, form a super mesh to enclose
both meshes. A highlighted enclosure helps when writing KVL equations.
5. Write a KVL equation around each mesh/super mesh. Begin with a convenient node and
proceed in the direction of the mesh current. Pay close attention to “−” signs. If a current
source lies on the periphery of a mesh, no KVL equation is needed and the mesh current is
determined by inspection.
6. Relate the current flowing from each current source to mesh currents. This is accomplished
by simple application of KCL; one such equation is needed for each super mesh defined.
7. Express any additional unknowns such as voltages or currents other than mesh currents in
terms of appropriate mesh currents. This situation can occur if dependent sources appear in
our circuit.
8. Organize the equations. Group terms according to nodal voltages.
9. Solve the system of equations for the mesh currents (there will be M of them).

The shortcut way will not apply if one mesh current is assumed clockwise and the other
assumed counterclockwise, although this is permissible.
Nodal Versus Mesh Analysis
The first factor is the nature of the particular network. Networks that contain many series-
connected elements, voltage sources, or super meshes are more suitable for mesh analysis,
whereas networks with parallel-connected elements, current sources, or super nodes are
more suitable for nodal analysis. Also, a circuit with fewer nodes than meshes is better
analyzed using nodal analysis, while a circuit with fewer meshes than nodes is better analyzed
using mesh analysis. The key is to select the method that results in the smaller number of
equations.
The second factor is the information required. If node voltages are required, it may be
expedient to apply nodal analysis. If branch or mesh currents are required, it may be better to
use mesh analysis. It is helpful to be familiar with both methods of analysis, for at least two
reasons. First, one method can be used to check the results from the other method, if
possible. Second, since each method has its limitations, only one method may be suitable for a
particular problem.
For example, mesh analysis is the only method to use in analyzing transistor circuits.
But mesh analysis cannot easily be used to solve an op amp circuit because there is no direct
way to obtain the voltage across the op amp itself. For non-planar networks, nodal analysis is
the only option, because mesh analysis only applies to planar networks.
Nodal and Mesh Analysis by Inspection
Superposition
The idea of superposition rests on the linearity property.
The superposition principle states that the voltage across (or current through) an element in a
linear circuit is the algebraic sum of the voltages across (or currents through) that element due
to each independent source acting alone.
1. We consider one independent source at a time while all other independent sources are
turned off. This implies that we replace every voltage source by 0 V (or a short circuit), and
every current source by 0 A (or an open circuit). This way we obtain a simpler and more
manageable circuit.
2. Dependent sources are left intact because they are controlled by circuit variables.
Steps to Apply Superposition Principle:

With these in mind, we apply the superposition principle in three steps:

1. Turn off all independent sources except one source.
2. Repeat step 1 for each of the other independent sources.
3. Find the total contribution by adding algebraically all the contributions due to the
independent sources.

Summary of Basic Superposition Procedure

1. Select one of the independent sources. Set all other independent sources to zero. This
means voltage sources are replaced with short circuits and current sources are replaced with
open circuits. Leave dependent sources in the circuit.
2. Re-label voltages and currents using suitable notation (e.g., v 1” ). Be sure to re-label
controlling variables of dependent sources to avoid confusion.
3. Analyze the simplified circuit to find the desired currents and/or voltages.
4. Repeat steps 1 through 3 until each independent source has been considered.
5. Add the partial currents and/or voltages obtained from the separate analyses. Pay careful
attention to voltage signs and current directions when summing.
6. Do not add power quantities. If power quantities are required, calculate only after partial
voltages and/or currents have been summed.

1. A source transformation allows us to replace a voltage source and series resistor by a

current source and parallel resistor. Doing so does not change the element current or voltage
of any other element of the circuit.
2. Superposition says that the response of a linear circuit to several inputs working together is
equal to the sum of the responses to each of the inputs working separately.
3. Thevenin’s theorem allows us to replace part of a circuit by a voltage source and series
resistor. Doing so does not change the element current or voltage of any element in the rest
of the circuit.
4. Norton’s theorem allows us to replace part of a circuit by a current source and parallel
resistor. Doing so does not change the element current or voltage of any element in the rest
of the circuit.
5. The maximum power transfer theorem describes the condition under which one circuit
transfers as much power as possible to another circuit.

Source Transformation
A source transformation is the process of replacing a voltage source v s in series with a resistor
R by a current source is in parallel with a resistor R, or vice versa.
When applicable, source transformation is a powerful tool that allows circuit manipulations to
ease circuit analysis. However, we should keep the following points in mind when dealing with
source transformation.
1. The arrow of the current source is directed toward the positive terminal of the voltage
source.
2. Source transformation is not possible when R=0, which is the case with an ideal voltage
source. However, for a practical, non-ideal voltage source.
Summary of Source Transformation
1. A common goal in source transformation is to end up with either all current sources or all
voltage sources in the circuit. This is especially true if it makes nodal or mesh analysis easier.
2. Repeated source transformations can be used to simplify a circuit by allowing resistors and
sources to eventually be combined.
3. The resistor value does not change during a source transformation, but it is not the same
resistor. This means that currents or voltages associated with the original resistor are
irretrievably lost when we perform a source transformation.
4. If the voltage or current associated with a particular resistor is used as a controlling variable
for a dependent source, it should not be included in any source transformation. The original
resistor must be retained in the final circuit, untouched.
5. If the voltage or current associated with a particular element is of interest, that element
should not be included in any source transformation. The original element must be retained in
the final circuit, untouched.
6. In a source transformation, the head of the current source arrow corresponds to the “+”
terminal of the voltage source.
7. A source transformation on a current source and resistor requires that the two elements be
in parallel.
8. A source transformation on a voltage source and resistor requires that the two elements be
in series.

Thevenin’s Theorem
Thevenin’s theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an equivalent
circuit consisting of a voltage source V Th in series with a resistor RTh, where VTh is the open-
circuit voltage at the terminals and R Th is the input or equivalent resistance at the terminals
when the independent sources are turned off.
To apply this idea in finding the Thevenin resistance RTh , we need to consider two cases.
CASE 1. If the network has no dependent sources, we turn off all independent sources. R Th is
the input resistance of the network looking between terminals a and b.
CASE 2. If the network has dependent sources, we turn off all independent sources. As with
superposition, dependent sources are not to be turned off because they are controlled by
circuit variables. We apply a voltage source v 0 at terminals a and b and determine the resulting
current
I0. Then RTh=v0/i0.
It often occurs that RTh takes a negative value. In this case, the negative resistance ( v=-iR )
implies that the circuit is supplying power. This is possible in a circuit with dependent sources.
Thevenin’s theorem is very important in circuit analysis. It helps simplify a circuit. A large
circuit may be replaced by a single independent voltage source and a single resistor. This
replacement technique is a powerful tool in circuit design.

A Statement of Thévenin’s Theorem

1. Given any linear circuit, rearrange it in the form of two networks, A and B, connected by
two wires. Network A is the network to be simplified; B will be left untouched.
2. Disconnect network B. Define a voltage voc as the voltage now appearing across the
terminals of network A.
3. Turn off or “zero out” every independent source in network A to form an inactive network.
Leave dependent sources unchanged.
4. Connect an independent voltage source with value v oc in series with the inactive network.
Do not complete the circuit; leave the two terminals disconnected.
5. Connect network B to the terminals of the new network A. All currents and voltages in B will
remain unchanged.

Norton’s Theorem
Norton’s theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an equivalent
circuit consisting of a current source IN in parallel with a resistor RN, where IN is the short-circuit
current through the terminals and RN is the input or equivalent resistance at the terminals
when the independent sources are turned off.

This is essentially source transformation. For this reason, source transformation is often called
Thevenin-Norton transformation.
To determine the Thevenin or Norton equivalent circuit requires that we find:
• The open-circuit voltage voc across terminals a and b.
• The short-circuit current Isc at terminals a and b.
• The equivalent or input resistance R in at terminals a and b when all independent sources are
turned off.

A Statement of Norton’s Theorem

1. Given any linear circuit, rearrange it in the form of two networks, A and B, connected by
two wires. Network A is the network to be simplified; B will be left untouched. As before, if
either network contains a dependent source, its controlling variable must be in the same
network.
2. Disconnect network B, and short the terminals of A. Define a current isc as the current now
flowing through the shorted terminals of network A.
3. Turn off or “zero out” every independent source in network A to form an inactive network.
Leave dependent sources unchanged.
4. Connect an independent current source with value isc in parallel with the inactive network.
Do not complete the circuit; leave the two terminals disconnected.
5. Connect network B to the terminals of the new network A. All currents and voltages in B will
remain unchanged.

Maximum Power Transfer

Maximum power is transferred to the load when the load resistance equals the Thevenin
resistance as seen from the load (RL = RTh).