1. Between 1815 and 1848, new ideologies began to emerge, which still exist today.

y. For the most part, the

"isms" were reactions or products of Enlightenment thinking, though they all went in a variety of
different directions, but it was only in this period that the ideas acquired a formal and coherent
structure.

 Classical liberalism: Starting in Spain and France amid the 1820s, liberalism before long spread
to England. Comprising of businessmen and experts, the liberals needed advanced, proficient
self-government, in spite of the fact that they were not continuously for widespread male
suffrage. They needed flexibility of the press and opportunity of the gathering. They wanted
freedom of the press and freedom of the assembly. They wanted constitutions, and Laissez
Faire economic policies, such as free trade and low tariffs. They were by and large against
unions.
 Conservatism: Another important "ism" of the period was Conservatism, a reactionary
philosophy supporting monarchy and the old ways. Championed by Edmund Burke, who had
been horrified by the French Revolution, Conservatism argued for prudent and gradual change
to be made as slowly as possible.
 Socialism: Socialism sought economic equality for all and was against the ideal of liberalism.
The socialists felt that with the rich benefiting so much, the poor should get some of the
benefits, as the peoples' work supported the whole system. The Socialists wanted to
nationalize parts of the economy, such as the industrial and financial sectors, by turning these
areas of the economy over to government control. With the aim of distributing the capital
more equitably among the different members of society. Socialism helped give rise to one of
the most powerful ideological forces of the 20th century. Some German exiles in France,
notably Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, combined the socialist ideas of Owen, Fourier and
Saint-Simon with republicanism in the 1840s to give rise to "communism", an ideology directed
against the power of the bourgeoisie.
 Radicalism and Republicanism: Radicalism appeared in the 1820s in England as the
"Philosophical Radicals". This principled and unconventional group, consisting partially of
workers and partially of industrialists, had its greatest leader in the colorful Jeremy Bentham.
The Radicals were anti-church and anti-monarchy, and generally opposed the old ways. They
were a force unto themselves until 1832, after which they merged with the British Liberals. The
European counterpart to Radicalism was usually referred to as Republicanism, which grew out
of the French Revolutionary tradition. Republicanism sought complete political equality in the
form of universal suffrage. Republicanism opposed monarchy and the Catholic Church.
 Nationalism: Nationalism was the most powerful of all the "isms" in this period. France and
Great Britain's strong nation-states had inspired jealousy throughout the rest of Europe; other
nations, disorganized as they were, wanted to unify. Soon, just about every European language
group wanted to have their own nation. Quickly outlawed by reactionary forces, nationalist
groups formed secret societies such as the Italian Carbonari and German Buschenschaft. These
societies distributed propaganda leaflets and plotted rebellions. Often, nationalism combined
with other ideological issues, from liberalism to socialism.
A particularly potent nationalist force known as Pan-Slavism began to circulate among various
Slavs in Russia, Poland, and Austria. All of these Eastern European groups began a renewed
interest in their own cultures.
Only the advent of the ideology of nationalism led to the creation of "national identities" and a
"desire for self-government." Today, it is easy to think that people everywhere have always
wanted their own countries for their own ethnic groups. In fact, this modern conception of
nationalism developed in large part between 1815 and 1848.
2. Characteristics of Romantic literature:
The basic idea in Romanticism is that reason cannot explain everything. In reaction to the cult of
rationality that was the Enlightenment, Romantics searched for deeper, often subconscious appeals.
Romanticism holds that pure logic is insufficient to answer all questions. Despite a founding French
influence, Romanticism was most widespread in Germany and England, largely as a reaction to the
French Enlightenment.
 Beauty of the Supernatural: British Romantics believed something existed beyond the physical
world. The Spirit world, according to Romantics, had unleashed its power and inspiration to
overthrow tyranny in government and in literature. Unlike the American Romantics who wrote
of ghosts, demonic cats, and rope-gnawing rats, British Romanticism's treatment of the
supernatural excluded horror and the macabre and focused on supernatural energy and
beauty. Ghosts, fairies, witches, demons. The shadows of the mind, dreams and madness. The
romantics rejected materialism in pursuit of spiritual self-awareness. They yearned for the
unknown and the unknowable.
 Championing of the Individual: Revolution in Europe brought to light the importance of the
individual. Ordinary people now became the subject of lofty language. British Romanticism
attempted to free itself from traditional forms and subjects. Individuals have unique, endless
potential. Self-realization comes through art. Artists are the true philosophers.
 The engaged and enraged artist: The artist apart from society, as social critic and
revolutionary. The artist as a genius.
 The Glorification of Nature: The poet is only at peace when in nature; moreover, while in
nature, the poet intervened with the great Universal Mind. Romantic poets made frequent use
of personification with nature, ascribing human traits to daffodils, fields, streams, and lakes.
Nature, in essence, became emotionally expressive.
 The power and fury of Nature: Peaceful, restorative qualities [an escape from industrialization
and the dehumanization it creates]. Awesome, powerful, horrifying aspects of nature.
Indifferent to the fate of humans.
 The Dangers of Technology: A natural consequence of celebrating nature was a disdain for
technology and industrialism.
 Exoticism: Interest in exotic foreign lands. The sexy “other”, a sense of escape from reality.
 Nationalism: Romanticism could reinforce the greatest themes of political liberalism or
political conservatism. Romanticism contributed to growing nationalist movements. The
uniqueness of cultures was emphasized.

In Viena the holly aliance when Prussia, russia, Austria concervative when
Napoleon died, concervative ideas
no prefoom of spech, press, policies to benefit landouners
conected nacionalism rom. power own nation
romantisim vs enlightment