Heat Treatment Furnaces and

Atmospheres

INTRODUCTION
The success of heat treatment depends on proper choice of heat treating
furnace and the type of atmosphere maintained in this furnace. Heat treat-
ment cycles are effective and result in reproducible properties only when
other factors like rate of heating and cooling and uniformity of tempera-
ture are ensured according to the requirements.

HEAT TREATMENT FURNACES

Heat treatment furnaces are essentially heating chambers.
Furnace chamber is an enclosure, a refractory vessel,
contains the charge and retains heat. It is heated with some
source of heat which should be such that
supply of heat to the furnace chamber can be controlled easily. Such a
control is essential since maintaining constant temperature for desired time
and raising the temperature at the desired rate are two important steps
involved in almost all heat treatment operations.

CLASSIFICATION O F HEAT TREATMENT FURNACES

Commonly used heat treatment furnaces may be classified according to
use, source of heat, type of work and working environment.
 Depending on the use, heat treatment furnaces can be further classified
into various heads, such as annealing furnaces, hardening furnaces, temper-
ing furnaces and carburizing furnaces.
According to the source of heat, heat treatment furnaces can be broadly
divided into two classes: fuel-fired furnaces, and electrically heated furnaces.

Fuel-fired furnaces can be further classified depending on the type of fuel,

solid fuel, liquid fuel and gaseous fuel.
Commonly used liquid fuel is fuel oil. Gaso-line and, kerosene can be used
successfully, but they are not being used due to their high cost.
Oil-fired furnace can attain temperatures as high as 1200°C or more.
In fact, oil-fired furnaces are economical only at high temperatures,
in the vicinity of 1000 DEG C

One important limitation of such furnaces is that temperature is

not uniform throughout the chamber and so the use of heat circulation
arrangement is essential. Gas-fired furnaces have specific advantages over
oil-fired furnaces. They are more economical, possess better control of
temperature, have simpler design, and can be used up to 1500°C.
Electric furnaces are most common now-a-days and are being used
extensively. Electrically heated furnaces offer certain advantages, such as
uniformity of temperature in the furnace chamber, close control of tempe-
rature, freedom from pollution, neat and clean workingconditions, efficient
use of heat energy loss of heat energy), minimum require-
ment of accessories, and ease of starting and closing down.

Electric arc is capable of producing very high temperatures, say 3000-C

or more. However, there are practical difficulties in controlling the tempe-
rature so produced. For this reason, electric arc furnaces are mainly used
for melting metals and alloys, and not for heat treating purposes.
Table 11.1 Resistors Used in Electrical Resistance Furnaces

Maximum working
Composition
temperature

Constantan Cu, 40% Ni

Nichrome I Ni, 20% Cr 1100
Nichrome Ni, 24% Fe; 16% Cr 950
3% Mn; 2% 1% 200
Ni. 10% Cr 1200
C Ni, 23% Fe; 15% 2% Mn 900
Kanthal Fe, Cr; 3% Co 1400
Tungsten 2400
Molybdenum 1800
Tantalum 2200
Platinum 1500
Pt-Rh alloy, Pt, 10% Rh 1700
2400
Graphite

According to the type of operation, heat treatment furnaces can be

classified into two broad groups, batch furnace and continuous furnace.
In batch furnaces, in general, loading and unloading of the charge is done
manually. These furnaces find wide applicability as these are suitable for
varying sizes of work-pieces to be heat treated. Also, with their help, diffe-
rent heat treatment operations can be performed. There is flexibility of
operation. These furnaces are ideal for a plant based on job orders and
having limited furnaces. The name batch furnace denotes that heat treat-
ment of work-pieces is carried out and completed in various batches. If
required, heat treatment process can be varied after each batch.

In continuous furnaces, the charge is introduced from one end of the furnace.
It is forced to move to another end from which it is discharged. The complete
process is adjusted in such a way that discharged component is heat treated
to the desired specifications. Such type of furnaces are very well suited for
mass production units where parts are subjected to well established heat
treatment processes.
 According to the work environment, heat treatment furnaces can be
divided into two classes, namely, air convection furnaces and controlled
atmosphere furnaces. Most of the heat treatment furnaces are of air con-
vection type. Controlled atmosphere furnaces are used only under specific
conditions and for limited metals and alloys.

11.3 BATCH FURNACES

One of the simplest batch furnaces is the box type batch furnace (see
Fig. 11.1). Like box, it has opening (door) at one face only. From the door

Door

Fig. 11.1 Box-type batch furnace.

or gate, work-pieces to be heat treated are introduced and taken out from
the same door after completion of the heat treatment operation. The loading
and unloading are done manually. For heavy and bulky components,
mechanical means are adopted for introduction and discharging. The pro-
blem associated with movement of heavy and bulky components has been
solved toa great extent by designing box type batch furnace in such a way
that the bottom is movable, the bottom can be out and
after loading it can be fitted back. The bottom should be fitted in closely,
and proper sealing should be ensured prior to use. Box type batch furnaces
have the advantage of flexibility. These can be used over a wide range of
operating conditions. In order to have the advantage out of these
furnaces, the furnace capacity should be used to the maximum possible
extent. These furnaces can be heated up electrically or by any fuel.
Muffle furnaces (see Fig. 11.2) are very common in use. The

special refractory material. Any fuel or electrical energy can be used to heat
muffle. Electrically heated muffle furnaces are more popular and are
extensively used for the heat treatment of small parts. Here the muffle is
surrounded by heating element such as nichrome and kanthal wire.
fired muffle furnace can be of two types, namely, indirect and direct
fired muffle furnaces. Indirect fuel-fired muffle furnace has advantages over

Metallic shell Muffle Insulation

Door

Fig. 11.2 Schematic diagram of furnace.

direct fuel-fired muffle furnace for obvious reasons. Less scaling, reduced
contaminations, possibility of controlling atmosphere within the muffle,and
better uniformity of temperature distribution are some of the advantages.

Fig. Pit f u m e .
Pit type batch furnace (Fig. 11.3) is mainly used for heavy and large
parts. This furnace is generally heated up electrically, and is essentially a
cylindrical refractory chamber. It is calledpitjumace because most of its
 portion lies below the ground level. In this furnace, loading is done
mechanically from the top which has an opening.
Bogie hearth batch furnace (Fig. 11.4) can be considered as improved
(modified) box type batch furnace. The furnace is specifically suitable for
heat treating bulky and heavy components although it can also be used for
heat treatment of small components. The furnace consists of a refractory
topped run-out bogie acting as a hearth, and carries the parts to be heat
treated. The bogie should be well within the furnace chamber. Atmosphere
within the furnace chamber can be controlled by employing proper sealing.

Refractory

. .
..

..
.. I
I
Work- piece
..

Fig. 11.4 Bogie hearth batch furnace.

Lift-off cover furnace (Fig. also referred to as bell type furnace,

is a fixed base furnace and consists of two containers. The base is generally
made of heat resisting alloy steel. The work-pieces to be heat treated are put
on this base. After loading, one container, called inner container, is placed
on the base. Another bell shaped container, known as outer container,
is placed over the inner one and the furnace is heated up electrically. The
inner container is made of heat resisting alloy steel, whereas the outer one
is a metal encased refractory. This furnace is widely used in wire industries
for annealing coils of steal wire, steel strips and non-ferrous metals under
controlled atmosphere to prevent decarburization or oxidation.

11.4 CONTINUOUS FURNACES

Rotary furnaces (Fig. 11.6) fall into the group ofcontinuous type
furnaces. As the name suggests, these furnaces consist of a rotating hearth.
The hearth rotates along its vertical axis. The components to be heat treated
are charged an opening. After completion of the heat treatment
cycle, heat treated components are taken out from the same opening or
one adjacent to it. The speed of rotation is adjusted in such a manner that
heat treatment cycle is completed by the time the hearth undergoes one
complete rotation.

Fig. 11.5 Lift-off cover furnace.

Fig. 11.6 Rotary hearth furnace.

Conveyor furnace (Fig. 11.7) consists of an endless conveyor belt which

moves at a very slow rate. The components to be heat treated are placed on
the belt. The component on the belt enters the furnace from one end and
comes out from the other. During this movement, the heating cycle is
 Refractory
Heating Chamber
Work-piece

Fig. 11.7 Conveyor furnace.

completed. Since the belt is moving continuously, components are either

collected in a box or dropped into the quenching tank. These furnaces are
generally for hardening and tempering treatment.
Tunnel furnace (Fig. 11.8) is commonly used for annealing. In such a
furnace, the charge is loaded on a number of cars. The cars are pushed

Fig. 11.8 Layout of a tunnel furnace.

slowly into the furnace, and pass through the furnace with the help of some
mechanical means and finally come back to the starting point as a result of
the circular path followed. Thus, a continuous process of movement of cars
results in the removal of one car and introduction of next charged car
simultaneously.
 Rotary furnace (Fig. 11.9) is used for heat treating small parts for harden-
ing, tempering, gas carburizing, and so on. It consists of a steel drum with
refractory lining, and rotates at a slow speed around its horizontal axis. In
general, the horizontal axis of the steel drum is inclined.

Fig. 11.9 Schematic diagram of a rotary furnace.

11.5 SALT BATH FURNACES

Molten salt bath furnaces (Fig. 11 .lo) essentially consist of a container
made of ceramic or metal. This container hol'ds molten salt in which work-

Fig. 11.10 Salt bath furnace.

pieces are immersed. Molten salt bath furnaces can be used within a wide
range of temperature (150-1300°C). The commonly used salts are nitrates,
chlorides, carbonates, cyanides and caustic soda. The mode of heat transfer
to the work-piece is by convection through the liquid bath. As the molten
baths possess high heat capacity and heat is transferred by convection, the
work-piece is heated up very quickly as compared to conventional furnaces
(rate of heating is about five times higher in these furnaces). These furnaces
can be heated by fuel or electricity. Electrically heated salt bath furnaces are
much more common in use. These can be classified into three types, namely,
externally heated, immersion heating element, and immersed electrode type
salt bath furnaces.
Salt bath furnaces are used for various heat treatment operations such
as cyaniding, liquid carburizing, liquid nitriding, austempering, martemper-
ing, hardening and tempering.
These furnaces offer certain advantages over other furnaces. For example,
all work-piecesare at uniform temperature and have identical surroundings.
Such a condition results in better surface conditions and consistent anc
reproducible results. Since work-piece is in direct contact with the moltell
bath, there is no danger of oxidation and/or decarburization. Selective heat
treatment of the work'piece can be performed by immersiug only the desired
portion of the work-piece. The time consumed in the process is very little.
Also, complicated shapes or objects with variable section thicknesses can
be heated along with simply shaped objects. Similarly, light and heavy
objects can be handled in the same bath.

11.6 CONTROLLED ATMOSPHERES

A controlled atmosphere is defined as a furnace atmosphere that protects
the metal from oxidation and maintains the desired properties at the surface
of the metal during heat treatment. The composition and distribution of
the atmosphere are deliberately controlled to produce specific surface
characteristics.
Broadly speaking, controlled atmospheres are either protective or chemi-
cally active atmospheres. The aim of protective atmosphere is to prevent
oxidation, decarburization or other unwanted cheinical changes on the
surface of metal, which may otherwise occur during heat treatment.
Bright annealing, normalizing of ferrous and non-ferrous metals and
alloys, and atmosphere annealing of black heart malleable cast iron are
examples where protective atmosphere is used. In the case of chemically
active atmospheres, the aim is to bring change in the chemistry of metal and
alloys at the surface or throughout its cross-section. Examples of such type
include carburizing and carbonitriding of steel components, decarburization,
annealing of white heart malleable cast iron, nitriding, chromizing and gas
descaling of hot-rolled steels.
 12.6 TEMPERATURE CONTROL
In many heat treatment processes, it is necessary to control the tempe-
ratures within definite limits for certain periods of time.
In certain cases, complete heat treatment cycle is recorded
and studied. The purposeof such a study may be to correlate microstruc-
ture with mechanical properties of heat treated metal and to modify heat
treatment cycle.

In heat treatment furnaces, temperature can be controlled either manu-

ally or automatically. The temperature in an electric resistance furnace can
be controlled manually with the help of a simple rheostat. By varying resis-
tance, the power supply to the furnace can be controlled, which in turn
will control the furnace temperature. In fuel-fired furnaces, the rate of
fuel-air supply can be controlled manually, and hence temperature can be
regulated. However, in'most of the cases, it is essential to measure and con-
trol the temperature simultaneously, and for this purpose, automatic tempe-
rature controllers are preferred.
The on-off type automatic temperature controller is very popular. The
on-off control mechanism (Fig. 12.7) ensures automatic shut-off of power
supply to furnace as soon as the desired constant temperature is reached.
Power Supply
8
I

Furnace .

Red Pointer

On-off Type Temperature

Controller Panel

Zone of Constant
Temperature
,
Thermocouple
Fig. 12.7 Circuit diagram of on-off automatic temperature controller.

The supply is switched on as soon as the temperature of the furnace comes

down below the desired set value. The operation is carried out with the help
of an electrical relay. On the temperature panel of on-off type temperature
controller, two pointers are used. One pointer is usually painted black while
the other red. The red pointer is moved along the temperature scale of the
controller and set at a temperature on the scale which has to be maintained
in the furnace. As the power supply is switched on to the furnace, tempera-
ture of the furnace rises and so the black pointer moves along the tempera-
ture scale showing the temperature of the furnace at any moment. When
two pointers touch each other the desired temperatureis reached in the
furnace), an electrical relay operates, resulting in cutting off of the power
supply to the furnace. Under such a condition, temperature of the furnace
will go down with time and, consequently, the black pointer will start
moving in the reverse direction. Thus, after some time, the black pointer
will not be in contact with the red pointer any more, and the power supply
to the furnace will again be restored automatically. In this way, furnace
temperature can' be controlled within limits for desired periods. The same
principle can be employed for gas and oil-fired furnaces. Here, electrical
relay will automatically actuate the fuel-air supply value instead of power