FURNACES

FURNACES
What is a Furnace?
A furnace is an equipment to melt metals
• for casting or
• for heating materials or
• for change of shape (rolling, forging etc) or
for change of properties (heat treatment).
 1 Types and classification of furnaces
Based on the method of generating heat: combustion type
(using fuels) and electric type
According Open fire place furnace
to mode of
heat transfer Heated through liquid medium

Forging

Re-rolling
Furnace According Periodical (Batch / continuous
classification to mode of pusher)
charging Continuous Pot

Glass tank
melting
(regenerative /
Mode of heat Recuperative recuperative)
recovery
Regenerative
 Characteristics of an Efficient Furnace
Furnace should be designed so that in a given time, as much of
material as possible can be heated to an uniform temperature as
possible with the least possible fuel and labour, considering the
following parameters:

• Determination of the quantity of heat to be imparted to the material

or charge.
• Liberation of sufficient heat within the furnace to heat the stock and
overcome all heat losses.
• Transfer of available part of that heat from the furnace gases to the
surface of the heating stock.
• Equalisation of the temperature within the stock.
• Reduction of heat losses from the furnace to the minimum possible
extent.
 Furnace Energy Supply
• Since flue gases directly contact the stock, the type of fuel
chosen is very important.
For example, some stock will not tolerate sulphur in the fuel.
Also use of solid fuels will release particulate matter (dust),
which will interfere with the stock placed inside the furnace.
Hence, majority of the furnaces use liquid fuel, gaseous fuel or
electricity as energy input.

• Ferrous (steel, cast iron) melting furnaces such as induction

and arc furnaces use electricity
• Non-ferrous melting furnaces use oil.
 Oil Fired Furnace
• Furnace oil is the major fuel used in reheating and heat treatment
furnaces
• LDO is used in furnaces where presence of sulphur is undesirable.
• Furnaces operate with efficiencies as low as 7% as against upto
90% achievable in other combustion equipment such as boiler.
This is because of the high temperature at which the furnaces
operate to meet the required demand. For example, a furnace
heating the stock to 1200oC will have its exhaust gases leaving
atleast at 1200oC resulting in a high heat loss through the stack.
 Typical Furnace System
Forging Furnaces

 Used for preheating billets and ingots to attain a ‘forge’

temperature.
 The furnace temperature is maintained at 1200 to 1250oC.
 Forging furnaces, use an open fireplace system and most of the
heat is transmitted by radiation.
 The typical loading in a forging furnace is 5 to 6 tones with the
furnace operating for 16 to 18 hours daily.
 The total operating cycle can be divided into (i) heat-up time (ii)
soaking time and (iii) forging time.
 Specific fuel consumption depends upon the type of material and
number of ‘reheats’ required.
Forging Furnace
 Rerolling Mill Furnace
Batch type furnace:
• Used for heating up scrap, small
ingots and billets weighing 2 to 20 kg.
for batch type rerolling.
• Charging and discharging of the
‘material’ is done manually and the
final product is in the form of rods
and strips.
• Operating temperature is 1200 oC.
• Total cycle time can be categorized
into heat-up time and rerolling time.
Continuous Pusher Type:
• The process flow and operating cycles
of a continuous pusher type is the
same as that of the batch furnace.
• The material or stock recovers a part
of the heat in flue gases as it moves
down the length of the furnace.
• Operating temperature is 1250oC.
• Heat absorption by the material in
the furnace is slow, steady and
uniform throughout the cross-section
compared with batch type.
iii) Continuous Steel Reheating Furnaces
• The main function of a reheating furnace is to raise the temperature
of a piece of steel, typically to between 900 °C and 1250 oC, until it is
plastic enough to be pressed or rolled to the desired section, size or
shape with the following features
– A refractory chamber
– A hearth to support or carry the steel.
– Burners that use liquid or gaseous fuels to raise and maintain the
temperature in the chamber. Coal or electricity can be used for reheating.
– A method of removing the combustion exhaust gases from the chamber
– A method of introducing and removing the steel from the chamber.

These facilities depend on the size and type of furnace, the shape and size of
the steel being processed, and the general layout of the rolling mill.
Common systems include roller tables, conveyors, charging machines and
furnace pushers.
Continuous Steel Reheating
Furnace Feature
 Heat Transfer in Furnaces

• Radiation from the

flame, hot
combustion products
and the furnace
walls and roof
• Convection due to
the movement of hot
gases over the stock
surface. Figure 4.3 : Heat Transfer in furnace
 Types of Continuous Reheating Furnaces

Based on method by which stock moves through

the furnace
 Stocks placed side by side to form stream of material
which is moved through the furnace
 Stocks placed on hearth or supporting structure
which moves the stock
Pusher Type Furnaces
Walking Hearth Type Furnace
Rotary hearth furnace

Figure 4.7 Rotary hearth type furnace

Continuous Circulating Bogie type Furnaces
Walking Beam Furnace
 Cupola Furnace

Zones in Cupola Furnace

• Well zone
• Combustion Zone
• Reducing Zone
• Melting Zone
• Preheating Zone
Induction Furnaces
 Energy Required to Melt One Tonne of Different Metals
Type of metal Specific heat Latent heat required Total required
required kWh/Ton
1000 x 0.682 x 1620
0C ÷ 3600
272 x 1000 ÷ 3600 kWh
Mild steel @ 1650 ºC ∆T = 1650-30
Latent Heat = 272 kJ/kg 307 + 76 = 383 kWh
Melting temp. Speci heat = 0.682
= 76 kWh
kJ/kg 0C
= 307 kWh
1000 x 0.9 x 680 0C ÷
396.9 x 1000 ÷ 3600
3600 kWh
kWh
Aluminum @ 710 ºC ∆T= 710 0C-30 0C 170 kWh + 110 kWh =
Latent Heat = 396.9
Melting temp. Speci heat = 0.9 kJ/kg 280 kWh
0C kJ/kg
= 110 kWh
= 170 kWh
1000 x 0.386 x 1100
0C ÷ 3600 kWh
212 x 1000 ÷ 3600 kWh
Copper @ 1130 ºC ∆T=1130 0C-30 0C 118 kWh + 59 kWh =
Latent Heat = 212 kJ/kg
Melting temp. Speci heat = 0.386 177 kWh
= 59 kWh
kJ/kg 0C
= 118 kWh
1000 x 0.131 x
67.62 x 1000 ÷ 3600
11300C ÷ 3600 kWh
kWh
Gold @ 1130 ºC ∆T=1130 0C-30 0C 36.38 kWh + 18.78
Latent Heat = 67.62
Melting temp. Speci heat = 0.131 kWh = 56 kWh
kJ/kg
kJ/kg 0C
= 18.78 kWh
= 36.38 kWh
 Furnace Efficiency
Theoretica l total heat required for melting ( H T ), kWh
Efficiency , %  100
Actual Electricit y consumed for melting ( H A ), kWh

Total theoretical heat required for melting, HT = H1 + H2

Wm  C p  (T2  T1 )  h 
Heat required for melting metal , H 1 , kWh 
3600

1.65 Ws
Heat required for melting slag , H 2 , kWh 
3.6
Where,
Wm - Weight of the metal, kg
Ws - Weight of the slag, kg
Cp - Specific heat of metal, kJ/kg oC
T2 - Final temperature of the metal
T1 - Initial or charge temperature of the metal

Difference between Actual and theoretical values will be loss due to conduction,
radiation and other losses.
Example – Melting of M.S. Scrap
Calculate the furnace efficiency from the data given below
• Specific heat - 0.682 kJ/kg 0C
• Latent heat - 272 kJ/kg
• Melting temperature - 1650 0C
• Charge temperature - 30 0C
• Quantity of metal - 1000 kg
• Quantity of slag - 25 kg
• Electricity consumed - 625 kWh
1000  0.682  (1650  30)  272
Solution :
Heat required for melting metal , H 1 , kWh 
3600
= 382.45 kWh
1.65  25 = 11.45 kWh
Heat required for melting slag , H , kWh 
2
3.6
Total theoretical heat required for melting, HT = 382.45 + 11.45 = 394 kWh

394, kWh
Efficiency , %  100 = 63 %
625, kWh
 Distribution of losses in induction furnace

• The theoretical energy require to melt one Ton of steel is 385 to 400
kWh/Ton.

• However in actual practice, the specific energy consumption is remarkably

higher to 550 - 950 kWh/ton.
•
• Power loss in generator / panel =2-4%
• Power loss in capacitor Bank = 1.0 - 3 %
• Power loss in Crucible = 18 - 25 %
(Water cooled cables, Bus bar, and change over switches)
• Radiation loss = 7 - 9%
 Factors affecting the furnace efficiency

• Higher breakdown due to poor maintenance

• Slow melting and inefficient operation due to low supply voltage.
• Wrong lining selection increases breakdown, Furnace down time and
furnace losses, resulting in inefficient operation. Basic lining is better
conductor of heat compared to acidic lining.
• Poor coordination between melting staff & contractor
• Absence of material handling equipment
• Poor moulding efficiency, keeping furnace on hold
• Poor quality scrap, reducing lining life, takes more time to melt.
• Absence of thermal insulation between lining & coil.
 Hot Air Generator
• Used for applications like foundry sand drying, shell sand coating, core
drying rooms or ovens, drying and processing of ores and minerals, food
processing, tea drying, seed drying and paint drying. Furnace oil, HSD,
LDO, LPG or natural gas may be used as fuel.

• Hot air generators supply air heated to elevated temperature by mixing it

with products of combustion from a burner. The hot air generator
consists of an inner refractory chamber, venturi section where hot
products of combustion mix with dilution air, and outlet section.

• The combustion chamber is lined with firebrick, while the mixing

chamber and the outlet section are lined with insulation brick. Air and oil
pipelines required for combustion are included. The combustion
equipment comprises of burner with burner block, mounting plate,
isolating valve, and oil pumping and heating unit.
4.2 Performance Evaluation of a Typical
Furnace

Figure 4.10 Heat losses in industrial heating Furnaces

 What are the furnace losses ?
Material handling loss
Cooling media losses

Wall Loss:
Radiation (opening) loss

Wall losses:

Figure 4.12. Radiation loss

Stack loss (Waste-gas loss)

Air infiltration
Stored Heat Loss:
Figure 4.11 wall losses

Figure 4.13. Air infiltration from furnace opening.

 Furnace Efficiency (Direct Method)

Furnace Efficiency (Direct Method)

Fuel input = 400 litres / hr

= 368 kg/hr
Heat Input =368x10,000=3680000 kCal
Heat output = m x Cp x ΔT
= 6000 kg x 0.12 x (1340 – 40)
= 936000 kCal
Efficiency = Output x 100
Input
Efficiency = 936000 x 100
3680000
= 25.43 % = 25% (app)
Losses = 75% (app)
 Thermal Efficiencies For Common Industrial Furnaces
Furnace Type Typical thermal efficiencies (%)
1) Low Temperature furnaces
a. 540 – 980 oC (Batch type) 20-30
b. 540 – 980 oC (Continous type) 15-25
c. Coil Anneal () radiant type 5-7
d. Strip Anneal Muffle 7-12
2) High temperature furnaces
a. Pusher, Rotary 7-15
b. Batch forge 5-10
3) Continuous Kiln
a. Hoffman 25-90
b. Tunnel 20-80
4) Ovens
a. Indirect fired ovens (20oC- 35-40
370oC)
b. Direct fired ovens (20oC-370oC) 35-40
 Furnace Instrumentation
Sl. Parameters Location of Instrument Required
No. to be measured Measurement Required Value
1. Furnace soaking Soaking zone Pt/Pt-Rh 1200-1300oC
zone temperature side wall thermocouple with
(reheating indicator and
furnaces) recorder
2. Flue gas Flue gas exit Chromel Alummel 700oC
from furnace Thermocouple max.
and entry to re- with indicator
cuperator
3. Flue gas After Hg in steel 300oC (max)
recuperator thermometer
4. Furnace hearth Near charging Low pressure ring +0.1 mm. of Wg
pressure in the end side wall gauge
heating zone over hearth level
5. Flue gas analyser Near charging Fuel efficiency O2 % = 5
end side wall monitor for t = 700oC
end side oxygen & (max)
temperature.
6. Billet temperature Portable Infrared ----
Pyrometer or
optical pyrometer
4.3 General Fuel Economy Measures in Furnaces

1) Complete combustion with minimum excess air

2) Correct heat distribution
3) Operating at the desired temperature
4) Reducing heat losses from furnace openings
5) Maintaining correct amount of furnace draught
6) Optimum capacity utilization
7) Waste heat recovery from the flue gases
8) Minimum refractory losses
9) Use of Ceramic Coatings
 1) Complete Combustion with Minimum Excess Air

The amount of heat lost in the flue gases depends upon

amount of excess air. In the case of a furnace carrying
away flue gases at 900oC, % heat lost is shown in table :

Table Heat Loss in Flue Gas Based on Excess Air Level

Excess Air % of total heat in the fuel carried away

by waste gases (flue gas temp. 900oC)
25 48

50 55

75 63

100 71
 2) Correct Heat Distribution

Prevent flame
impingement.
To avoid high flame
temperature,damage
of refractory and for
better atomization
Heat distribution in furnace

Align burner
properly to avoid
touching the
material
To reduce scale
loss

Alignment of burners in furnace

 3) Operating at Desired Temperature

Temperature for Different Furnaces

CORRECT
TEMPERATURE
Slab Reheating furnaces 1200oC ENSURES GOOD
QUALITY
Rolling Mill furnaces 1200oC PRODUCTS.
Bar furnace for Sheet Mill 800oC TEMPERATURE
HIGHER THAN
Bogey type annealing furnaces- 650oC -750oC REQUIRED
WOULD ONLY
USE UP MORE
FUEL

For maintaining temperature, do not leave it

to operator judgment, Use ON/OFF
controls
 4) Reducing Heat Loss from Furnace Openings

Heat loss through openings consists of direct radiation and

combustion gas that leaks through openings.

Keeping the doors unnecessarily open leads to wastage of fuel

Inspection doors should not kept open during operation
Broken and damaged doors should be repaired
The heat loss from an opening can be calculated using the formula:
Q=4.88 x T 4 x a x A x H … k.Cal/hr
100
T: absolute temperature (K),
a: factor for total radiation
A: area of opening,
H: time (Hr)
 5)Maintaining correct amount of furnace draught

Negative pressures : air infiltration- affecting air-fuel ratio control,

problems of cold metal and non-uniform metal temperatures,
Positive Pressure: Ex-filtration -Problems of leaping out of flames,
overheating of refractories,burning out of ducts etc.
 6) Optimum capacity utilization

There is a particular loading at which the furnace will operate at

maximum thermal efficiency.
Best method of loading is generally obtained by trial-noting the weight
of material put in at each charge, the time it takes to reach temperature
and the amount of fuel used.

Mismatching of furnace dimension with respect to charge and production

schedule.

Coordination between the furnace operator, production and planning

personnel is needed.
 7) Waste heat recovery from the flue gases

• Stock preheating

• Combustion air preheating

• Using waste heat for other process

 8. Minimizing Wall Losses

About 30% of the fuel input to the furnace generally goes to

make up for heat losses in intermittent or continuous furnaces.
The appropriate choice of refractory and insulation materials is
needed for high fuel savings in industrial furnaces.

The extent of wall losses depend on:

Emissivity of wall
Thermal conductivity of refractories
Wall thickness
Whether furnace is operated continuously or
intermittently
 Radiation Heat Loss from Surface of Furnace

The quantity (Q) of heat release from a reheating furnace is

calculated with the following formula:

  t  273 
4
 t  273 
4

Q  a x (t1  t2 )  4.88 E x  
5/4 1
  2
 
  100   100  
 
where
a : factor regarding direction of the surface of natural convection
ceiling = 2.8, side walls = 2.2, hearth = 1.5
tl : temperature of external wall surface of the furnace (°C)
t2 : temperature of air around the furnace (°C)
E: emissivity of external wall surface of the furnace
 9.Use of Ceramic Coatings

The benefits of applying a high-emissivity

ceramic coating:-

 Rapid heat-up
 Increased heat transfer at steady state
 Improved temperature uniformity
 Increased refractory life
 Elimination of refractory dust.
Fish Bone Diagram for Energy Conservation
Analysis in Furnaces
FURNACES

Solved Example:
An oil fired reheating furnace has an operating temperature of around 1000oC. Average
furnace oil consumption is 440 litres/hour. The flue gas exit temperature after the air
preheater is 300oC. Combustion air is preheated from ambient temperature of 35oC to
200oC through the air preheater. The other data are as given below.
Specific gravity of oil = 0.92
Calorific value of oil = 10,200 kcal/kg
Average O2 percentage in flue gas = 14%
Theoretical air required = 14 kg of air per kg of oil
Specific heat of air = 0.24 kcal/kgoC
Specific heat of flue gas = 0.23 kcal/kgoC
Find out the sensible heat carried away by the exhaust gases and heat recovered by
the combustion air in kcal/hr as a percentage of the energy input.
Ans:
Energy input = 440 litres/hr
= 440 x 0.92 kg/hr
= 404.80 kg/hr
= 404.80 x 10,200
= 41,28,960 kcal/hr

Excess air = (%O2 ) x 100

(21-O2%)
= 14 x 100
(21-14)
= 200%

Theoretical air required = 14 kg of air to burn 1 kg of oil

Actual mass of air required = 14 x (1 + 200/100) kg/kg of oil
= 42 kg/kg of oil
Sensible heat loss in the flue gas = m x Cp x ΔT
m = mass of flue gas
= 42 + 1
= 43 kg/kg of oil
Cp = Specific heat of flue gas
= 0.23
 ΔT = Temperature of flue gas – Ambient Temperature
= 300oC – 35oC
= 265 oC
Heat loss = 43 x 0.23 x (300-35)
= 43 x 0.23 x 265
= 2620.85 kcal/kg of oil
= 2620.85 x 404.80 kcal/hr
= 10,60,920 kcal/hr

Sensible heat loss in the flue gas as % heat loss to input energy
= 10,60,920 x 100
41,28,960
= 25.7 %
Heat gained by combustion air = 42 x 0.24 x (200-35)
= 1663.2 kcal/kg of oil
= 1663.2 x 404.80 kcal/hr
= 673263.36 kcal/hr

Heat gained by combustion air as % of input energy

= 673263.36 x 100
41,28,960
= 16.3 %