FUELS, Lecture-1

INTRODUCTION
CLASSIFICATION OF FUELS
CALORIFIC VALUE
 INTRODUCTION
 With rapid development, Energy requirement
increasing each day.
 Heat being the main source of power.
 Burning of carbon is exothermic reaction
 Carbon compounds are mainly used as major
source of heat energy.
 What is a fuel?
⚫ Fuel is a combustible substance, which on proper
burning in the presence of oxygen gives large
amount of heat, which can be used economically for
domestic and industrial purposes.
⚫ Eg. Wood, Charcoal, Coal, Kerosene, Petrol,
Producer gas, Oil gas, LPG etc.
During the process of combustion of a fuel (like coal),
the atoms of carbon, hydrogen, etc. combine with
oxygen with the simultaneous liberation of heat at a
rapid rate.
Fuel + Oxygen ---> Products + Heat
⚫ Fuels- include stored fuels that are available in the earth’s
crust, i.e; Fossil fuels or fuels derived from fossil fuels.
⚫ Energy derived from fossil fuels is a part of stored solar
energy

Solar energy  Vegetation  Cellulose  Peat  Coal 

Chemical energy
 CLASSIFICATION OF FUELS
⚫Fuels may be classified in two ways:
A) On the basis of mode of their procurement –
PRIMARY/NATURAL and SECONADRY/MANUFACTURED
B) On the basis of PHYSICAL state in which they exist in nature
– SOLID, LIQUID, GASEOUS
Primary fuels Secondary Fuels
Fuels which occur in nature Fuels derived form primary
as such. fuels
Used either w/o processing after chemical processing.
or after little processing
which does not change the
chemical composition of fuel
Classification of Fuels
 CALORIFIC VALUE: to assess the efficiency of a fuel
 It is defined as “the total quantity of heat liberated, when a unit mass
(or volume) of the fuel undergoes complete combustion”.
 It may be expressed as:
Energy/mole of a fuel OR Energy/mass of fuel OR Energy/volume of
the fuel
 Units of Heat
(1) Calorie- amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1
gram of water through 1°C (15-16°C).
1 calorie = 4.186 J = 4.186 X 107 ergs
(2) Kilocalorie – (MKS system) may be defined as “the quantity of
heat required to raise the temperature of 1 Kg of water through
1°C.
1 kcal = 1,000 cal
(3) British Thermal Unit (BTU)- “the quantity of heat required to
raise the temperature of one pound of water through 1°F (60-
61°F). This is the English system unit.
1 BTU = 252 cal = 0.252 kcal = 1054.6 J
1 kcal = 3.968 BTU
(4) Centigrade heat unit (CHU)- “the quantity of heat required to
raise the temperature of 1 pound of water through 1°C”
1 kcal = 3.968 BTU = 2.2 CHU
 HIGHER OR GROSS CALORIFIC VALUE
(HCV/GCV):
 It is the total amount of heat produced, when unit mass/volume
of the fuel is burnt completely and the products of combustion
have been cooled to room temperature (15° C or 60° F).

 It is explained that all fuels contain some hydrogen and when the
calorific value of hydrogen containing fuel is determined
experimentally, the hydrogen is converted into steam. If the
products of combustion are condensed to the room temperature,
the latent heat of condensation of steam also gets included in the
measured heat which is then called GCV.
 LOWER OR NET CALORIFIC VALUE (LCV/NCV)
⚫It is the net heat produced, when unit mass/volume of
the fuel is burnt completely and the products of
combustion are permitted to escape.
⚫In actual practice of any fuel, the water vapour and
moisture, etc., are not condensed and escape as such
along with hot combustion gases.
Hence, a lesser amount of heat is evolved than GCV.

LCV= HCV – Latent heat of vapours formed

 H2 + ½ O2  H2O
2 g/mol 18 g/mol
1 part by wt. of H2 9 parts by wt. of H2O

LCV = HCV – weight of H2 x 9 X latent heat of steam

Latent heat of steam = 587 cal/g

LCV = HCV – weight of H2 X 9 X 587 cal/g

 Importance of Calorific Value
⚫ knowledge of the calorific value of fuel to helps
us carry out our day-to-day activities.
⚫ helps us to determine the amount of energy we
transport.
⚫The gas shippers and suppliers require this
information to bill gas consumers. It also helps to
determine transportation charges of gas shippers
and suppliers.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD FUEL:
 High calorific value
 Moderate ignition temperature
 Low moisture content
 Low non-combustible matter content
 Moderate velocity of combustion
 Products of combustion should not be harmful
 Low cost
 Easy to transport
 Combustion should be easily controllable
 Should not undergo spontaneous combustion
 Storage cost in bulk should be low
 Should burn in air with efficiency without much smoke
 In case of solid fuel, the size should be uniform so that
combustion is regular.
 FUELS, Lecture-2

DETERMINATION OF CALORIFIC
VALUE
USING
BOMB CALORIMETER
 DETERMINATION OF CALORIFIC VALUE USING BOMB
CALORIMETER
 Used for solid and non-volatile liquid fuels
 Principle : A known amount of the fuel is burnt in excess oxygen
and the heat liberated is transferred to a known amount of
water. The calorific value of the fuel is then determined by
applying the Principle of Calorimetery

 i.e; HEAT GAINED = HEAT LOST

CONSTRUCTION:
Bomb Calorimeter consists of following parts:

Steel Bomb-
 where the fuel sample is burnt.
 Consists of a strong cylindrical container of stainless –steel
which is capable of withstanding pressure of atleast 50 atm.
 Also has a gas tight screw cap or lid which in turn has two
holes for electrodes and oxygen inlet valve.
 A small ring is attached to one of the electrodes. In this ring,
a nickel or stainless steel crucible is placed.
COPPER CALORIMETER
• The bomb is placed in a copper calorimeter containing a known
weight of water sample. The copper calorimeter is provided
with a Beckmann’s thermometer (capable of recording 1/100th
of a degree) and electrical stirrer for stirring water.
• The copper calorimeter is covered by an AIR JACKET and WATER
JACKET tp prevent any heat loss due to radiation.

CRUCIBLE
 Made up of silica or nickel which contains the fuel.
 Placed inside the ring attached to one of the electrodes.
 Functioning:
1. A known weight of the fuel sample is taken into the crucible supported
over the ring.
2. A piece of fine Mg wire is tightly stretched across the electrodes
touching the fuel sample
3. The lid of the bomb is tightly closed with the help of screw and is filled
with oxygen at 25 atm.
4. The bomb is now placed in a copper calorimeter which containing
known weight of water. After thorough stirring, Initial temperature of
the water in the calorimeter is noted (t1°C) using Beckmann’s
thermometer.
5. The electrodes are connected to a battery (6V) and the circuit is
completed. The current is now supplied to the fuel sample which
undergoes burning with the evolution of heat.
6. The heat liberated by burning of fuel is transferred to water which is
stirred throughout.
7. The maximum temperature of the water during experiment is finally
noted (t2°C). From the temperature difference, calorific value of the fuel
can be calculated.
 Calculations:
 Weight of the fuel sample taken in the crucible = x g
 Weight of water taken in the calorimeter = W g
 Weight of calorimeter and stirrer in terms of Water
Equivalent = w g
 Initial temperature of water in the calorimeter = t1°C
 Final temperature of water in the calorimeter = t2°C
 Heat absorbed by the water = W (t2-t1) cal ----(1)
 Heat absorbed the calorimeter = w(t2-t1) cal ----(2)
 HCV = c cal/g
 Total heat absorbed by the water = W(t2-t1) + w(t2-t1) cal =
(W+w) (t2-t1) cal --(3)
The relationship between heat liberated by the fuel and HCV is
as follows:
 Heat liberated by the fuel = x C cal ----(4)
 Calculation of Higher Calorific Value (HCV):

⚫Applying the Principle of Calorimetery

Heat lost = Heat gained
Heat liberated by the fuel = Heat absorbed by the
water and calorimeter

Compare equation (3) and (4), we get

x C = (W + w) (t2-t1)
GCV or HCV; C = (W+w) (t2-t1)
/x cal/g
 Calculation of Lower Calorific Value (LCV/NCV):
 Let the percentage of hydrogen in the fuel = H
 Weight of water produced 1 g of the fuel = 9 H g/100 = 0.09
g
 Therefore, heat liberated during the Condensation of steam
= 0.09 H x 587 cal/g

 LCV/NCV= HCV – Latent heat of water liberated

by the fuel

LCV = HCV – (0.09 H x 587)

cal/g
 Corrections Of Bomb Calorimeter

a. Fuse wire correction: As Mg wire is used for ignition, the

heat generated by burning of Mg wire is also included in the
GCV. Hence this amount of heat has to be subtracted from
the total value.
b. Acid Correction: During combustion, S and N present in the
fuel are oxidized to their corresponding acids under high
pressure and temperature.

ΔH= -144,000
cal
ΔH= -57,160,000 cal

The amount of acids formed are analyzed by washings of the calorimeter

For each ml of 0.1 N H2SO4 formed, 3.6 calories should be subtracted.
For each ml of 0.1 HNO3 formed, 1.429 calories must be subtracted
(C) Cooling correction:
 Heating and Cooling are simultaneous processes.

As the temperature rises above the room temperature, the loss of heat
does occur due to radiation, and the highest temperature recorded will be
slightly less than that obtained.

 A temperature correction is therefore necessary to get the correct rise

in temperature.
Time taken for the water in the calorimeter to cool down from the
maximum temperature attained, to the room temperature = x minutes
Rate of cooling = dt/min,

Cooling correction = x × dt.

This should be added to the observed rise in temperature
 Therefore, GROSS CALORIFIC VALUE

Note : Practice numericals related to Bombs calorimeter

 FUELS, Lecture-3

DETERMINATION OF CALORIFIC
VALUE USING BOYS or JUNKERS
CALORIMETER
 BOYS OR JUNKERS GAS CALORIMETER
• For gaseous and volatile liquid fuels.
• Principle Heat lost = Heat gained
CONSTRUCTION
(i) Bunsen Burner: special type of Burner clamped at the bottom. It can
be pulled out of the combustion chamber or pushed up in chamber
during the carrying out combustion.
(ii) Gasometer: It is employed to measure the volume of gas burning per
unit time. This attached with manometer fitted with the thermometer
so that pressure and temperature of the gas before burning can be
read.
(iii) Pressure governor: It can control the supply of quantity of gas at
given pressure.
(iv) Gas Calorimeter/ Combustion chamber: It is a vertical cylinder, which
is surrounded by annular space for heating water and interchange
coils. The entire is covered by an outer jacket in order to reduce the
heat loss by radiation and convection.
 Functioning:
⚫Install the equipment on a flat rigid platform near an
uninterrupted continuous water source of ½” size and a drain
pipe.
⚫ Connect the gas source to the pressure regulator, gas flow meter
and the burner respectively in series.
⚫Insert the thermometer/temperature sensors, into their
respective places to measure water inlet and outlet temperatures
and a thermometer to measure the flue gas temperature at the
flue gas outlet
⚫Start the water flow through the calorimeter at a study constant
flow rate and allow it to drain through over flow.
⚫ Start the gas flow slowly and light the burner out side the
calorimeter
When the steady conditions are established, then the following
reading are taken :

• Volume of gaseous fuel burnt (V) at given temperature

and pressure
in certain period of time (t).

• Quantity of water (W Kg) passing through the annular

space/coils during
the same interval of time (t)

• Temp. of incoming water = T1; Temp. of outgoing water

= T2

• Mass of water (steam) condensed (in Kg) in the outlet

water during this time .
 Calculations:
 Volume of gas burnt at STP in certain time (t)= V m3 or V ltr
 Mass of the water passed through the coil in time t = W kg
 Mass of steam condensed in time t in graduated
cylinder = m Kg
 Temperature of inlet water = T1
 Temperature of outlet water = T2
 Rise in temperature = T2 – T1
 Higher calorific value of fuel = c Kcal/m3
 Specific heat of water = S
 Heat absorbed by circulating water = W(T2-T1)×Specific heat
of water (s)
 Heat produced by combustion of fuel = V c
 Calculation of HCV & NCV:
Therefore,
Heat liberated by the fuel = Heat absorbed by the water and
calorimeter
Vc = W(T2-T1)

HCV or GCV (c) = W(T2-T1)/V

kcal/m3
 NET CALORIFIC VALUE (NCV)/ LOWER CALORIFIC VALUE (LCV)

• Weight of water condensed per m3 of gas = m/V kg/m3

• Latent heat of steam per m3 of gas = (m X 587)/V
Kcal/m3

• LCV = HCV - (m X 587)/V Kcal/m3

LCV = HCV - (m X 587)/V Kcal/m3

Note : Practice numericals based on Boys calorimeter

Theoretical calculation of Calorific value of a Fuel

⚫DULONG’S FORMULA – Acc. to this, the calorific value of a fuel

can be calculated if the percentages of the constituent
elements are known.

⚫ Substrate Calorific value (Kcal/Kg)

Carbon 8080
Hydrogen 34500
Sulphur 2240
Assumptions:
⚫If oxygen is also present, it combines with hydrogen to form H2O.
Thus the hydrogen in the combined form is not available for
combustion and is called FIXED HYDROGEN.
⚫Amount of H available for combustion = Total mass of H - H
combined with O

1g 8g 9g (For every 8 parts of O, 1

part of H is fixed)
⚫Fixed Hydrogen = Mass of oxygen in the fuel/8
⚫Therefore, Mass of hydrogen available for combustion = Total
mass of H-1/8 mass of O in the fuel = H - O/8
.
DULONG’S FORMULA for calculating the calorific value is
given as:

GCV or HCV

NCV or LCV
 Difference between Gross and Net calorific
value
⚫Gross calorific value
(GCV) is the amount of
heat released by the
complete combustion of
a unit of natural gas. It is
also known as Higher
Heating Value (HCV).
⚫ GCV = NCV when
amount of hydrogen will
be zero
⚫GCV is always higher
than NCV
⚫ Net Calorific Value
(NCV) also known as lower
heating value (LHV) or lower
calorific value (LCV) is
determined by the
subtracting the heat of
vaporization of the water
vapour from the higher
heating value. This treats any
H20 formed as a vapor.
⚫ NCV = GCV when amount of
hydrogen will be zero
⚫ NCV is always lower than
GCV