Research Skills

Reading For each of the

Listening skills, give yourself a
Watching grading on a scale
Choosing from 1(low) to
10(high).
Questioning
Summarizing
Organizing Which skills do you
Writing consider yourself to
be best at?
Presenting
 CONDUCTING
INVESTIGATIONS
Writing the INTRODUCTION (Background of the Study)
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM & HYPOTHESIS
SCOPE AND DELIMITATION
IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY
DEFINITION OF TERMS

Dr. Raquel C. Pambid

Research Coordinator
Pangasinan State University
Bayambang Campus
Science/Research
is best learned by doing it,
not memorizing it.
The Investigation Process
Identification of the Problem
RESEARCH
PROPOSAL Review of Literature

STAGE
Research Design

Data Collection

Data Analysis & Inference

Writing-Up
• Research Cycle
Observation of, phenomenon that needs solution
or improvement; ideas having a research gap; that
requires investigation or for further verification

Review of related literature and

studies both local and foreign with
synthesis
State the simple title of the study
observing the different variables that you intend to
investigate in the study

Methodology
Make some readings about the study to help
you frame your problems or objectives. Readings will
also help you in the background of the study. It will
also help you design the methodology. Readings will
make your study different/the same from/with other
studies
Interpretation of
data

State the general and specific

problems/objectives, hypotheses, Conclusions &
importance of the study, scope, define terms Recommendations
Research Cycle
Make some
• Observation of, State the readings about the
phenomenon that
needs solution or simple title study
improvement; ideas (Introduction)
having a research
gap; that requires
investigation or for
further verification

State the general and

Review of related specific problems/
literature and objectives, hypotheses,
Methodology studies both local importance of the study,
and foreign with scope, define terms
synthesis

Gather data
Interpretation of Conclusions &
data Recommendations
Characteristics of a good title
• Must be carefully chosen
• Informs the reader correctly
• Assures proper indexing and facilitates information retrieval.
(keywords, and proper use of variables needed)
• Proper syntax (word order) must be observed. The modifier
should be placed near the word modified.
• Know your intended reader
• Must inform with the least possible word
• Avoid the words, study of, investigation on, notes on, analysis
of, comparative- these are in the methodology)
• The topic should be of great interest to you.
• A good problem is one, which invites more complex designing.
• A good problem can be completed in the allotted time desired.
• A title is short, clear and specific that the relationship among
the variables has been indicated.
• Suggested number of words 18 to 10 or less.
• Specific questions should be quantifiable.
• Exercise 1: Improving titles

• 1. Highlights of the main observations made in a field and

laboratory study conducted to compare the effects of salinity
on the germination, growth, head diameter, seed yield and oil
content of cotton
• 2. The results of a study of investigating the effects of using
stereographic analysis in determination of the lattice
relationship in an iron-nickel alloy
• 3. The influence of parasitic infestations on metabolism,
puberty, and first mating performance of heifers grazing in a
tropical area
• 4. Utilization of reconstituted high-protein barley for growing
and lactating dairy cattle
• 5. Salt tolerance in corn Zea Maize L. at germination stage.
• Characteristics of good hypothesis
• It should be reasonable. It should also state, in definite terms,
the relationship between variables.
• Relationship maybe expressed in terms of cause and effect.
• It should be testable.
Tips in making the Introduction
1. Very clear introduction- Lead paragraph
must be striking and talks about the
main topic of the study.
2. The introduction comprises of lead
paragraph, body of the introduction
( causes and effect of the study)
3. Rationale- reason why undertake the
study ( very clear objectives)
• INTRODUCTION (Background of the Study)
It is brief statement of the origin of the problem. It is an account
describing the circumstances which suggested the research. It may
include a justification of the selection of the study. It gives brief
origin of the problem.
Parts – lead paragraph, body, rationale
Parts of the Body:
Effect 1 Effect 2 Effect 3

Core Problem

Cause 1 Cause 2 Cause 3

Cause 1a
• THE COCONUT INDUSTRY OF LAGUNA

Coconut is one of the most important crops in Laguna covering 45% of the cultivated land. Aside
from producing 60% of country’s coconut oil requirement, the coconut industry also provides
direct or indirect employment to almost one third of the country’s population (Bustos, 2002).

Despite the importance of the sector to the country’s economy, modernization of the coconut
industry has not taken place. Over the years, coconut production continues to decline resulting
to decreasing income of coconut farmers and reduction in the local supply of fresh coconut and
coconut oils. Recently, export of coconut products were also disrupted.

The decline in yield is primarily due to failure of farmers to replace aging and unproductive stand of
palms with new varieties of coconut palms (Marcelo, 2010). These can be attributed to farmer’s
low access to needed inputs as well as their lack of technical skills in applying new varieties and
farm inputs. The low market price of coconut further tends to discourage farmers to plant new
coconut palms.

The present situation is further aggravated by the presence of a viral disease called “cadang-
cadang” or yellow mottle, which kills millions of coconut trees each year. Majority of these
affected coconuts are traditional varieties as they are less resistant to the virus. Moreover,
farmers rarely apply plant protection measures.

Considering the potential of the coconut farming to fuel industry, the Philippine Coconut Authority
has proposed for a loan to International Bank to improve the performance of the industry.
Problem Analysis presented in the Introduction
(Mango Industry of Pangasinan)
Export of coconut product
were disrupted

Declining income of coconut farmers Reduction of fresh coconut & oil

DECLINING COCONUT PRODUCTION

Cococnut increasingly Farmers do not plant new coconut

affected by virus/disease

Farmers Farmers Market

Farmers prices
have low lack
rarely are not
access to technical
apply plant attractive
needed skills
protection to
inputs
farmers
 CORRELATES OF SMOKING

It is for these reasons that the researchers would like to relate the factors that
may trigger smoking. The researchers would also like to arrest the onset of
smoking to help the parents at home and teachers in school identify young
smokers so as to prevent smoking at a specific age bracket. Thus, this
correlates of smoking.

Hurlock (1998) implied that young students often result to smoking when they
are not busy and preoccupied. Often times students experiment on new
adventures. They experiment and experience the sensual effects of smoking
cigarette. Fifty percent of the young smokers reported that they enjoyed
smoking at the beginning. However, when they realized the bad effects of
smoking in their bodies it is already difficult to evade in the system.

In the school students find their friends or peers. Some are good and some are
bad. Peer pressure is one factor that enhances vices among young students.
It is also noted that peer pressure could encourage smoking among young
students (Enriquez, 1999).
Getting hooked to smoking is a problem to most parents
and teachers. Young students are still ignorant of the effects
of smoking to their health. Students feel happy when they
smoke with their friends however, sensitivity to smoke
becomes an allergy to the smoke. Burger’s disease is one of
the diseases caused by smoking aside from lung cancer and
eighty percent of the smokers are reported that they suffer
from sore throat (Lim, 2005)
Smoking is generated as one of the deadliest vices that can
cause many kinds of diseases. An article from the Daily
Inquirer (May 2, 2009) reported that 60% of the young
students in high school who are smokers usually have low
memory and performance in academic subjects. And day by
day there is an increasing trend of young smokers aged 14-
17.
Statement of the Problem
The problem studied must be one which arose
from a need or difficulties. The reader must
recognize that :
1. the problem is precise, accurate and clear.
2. the problem is stated either in declarative or
interrogative statement
3. can be one main statement of a series of
questions or a combination of both and
4. the problem must be defined in terms of the
data that can be obtained
5. Feasible- it can be investigated and significant
6. Quantifiable
7. Invites complex design and engagement.
8. Solvable through current methods and sources
9. Have the literature
10. The problem is still unknown or doubtful.
11. Needs less money, manpower and time. It would be unwise to spend large
amount of money for a problem for minuscule dimension
12. State the problem showing what you want to explore, describe, test, or
explain.
13. Before stating the problem identify the contest where you are joining.
(IPSF, INTEL, SIMS, TOYS, Science Club)

Example:
The study investigated the effect of celery and narra solution in the
control of blood sugar (BGL) among albino rats.
Specifically it answered the following questions:

1. What is the blood glucose level (BGL) of the male albino rats
treated with 75 percent celery and 75 percent narra solution?

2. Is there significant difference in the BGL of the male albino rats

treated with 75% narra and 75% celery solution ?
 SELECTION OF PROBLEMS

PUZZLING
FAMILIAR

HIGH TECH BUSINESS

• Hypothesis
Hypotheses are tentative statements about a
given population. They serve as a tentative
answer to one or more of the research
questions, and are subjected to a statistical test.
a. The hypothesis should be stated in a testable
form. It is testable if it can determine whether
the proposition is either true or false.
b. Qualitative research does not test hypothesis
however, Experimental researches require
hypothesis to determine the cause and effect (or
to determine the effect of the independent
variable to the dependent variable).
C. The hypothesis can predict the results and is
appropriate to the research question.
Example:
Ho: There is no significant difference
between the effects of 75 percent narra
and 75 percent celery solution in the blood
glucose level of male albino rats.
Scope and Delimitation of the Study
Limits of the study need to be defined.
The scope is expected to indicate a reasonable
area of study which is large enough to be
significant but narrow enough to permit careful
treatment and what you want to achieve.
The scope of the problem should be stated
specifically: The nature of any subjects treated,
their number, the treatments they received, any
limitations that exist in the reference population,
instruments or research design.
Example of Scope and delimitation
This study tested the effectiveness of
75 percent narra and 75 percent celery
solution on the BGL among 15 male albino
rats. It also looked into the BGL of the
male albino rats during the initial and final
phase of the experiment. The differences
of the solution were compared with the
anti-hyperglycemic activity of metformin
solution within three days.
Practice:
Title: Soybean oil as varnish plasticizer
The study was designed to produce soybean oil and test
its suitability when applied as varnish on camachili and
narra wood samples.

Specific objectives:
To determine the qualities of soybean oil plasticizer when
applied on camachili and narra wood samples in terms of
color, glossiness, and drying time
To differentiate the qualities of soybean oil plasticizer when
applied to camachili and narra iin terms of a. color, b.
glociness ang drying time.

Write your scope and delimitations of the study?

• Significance of the study
This part of the study required for proposals so
that the study can be justified, State why the
problem investigated is important, and what
significance the results have. It should include a
statement on relevance to felt needs, has
potential contribution to new knowledge, has
environmental impact, adaptive to Philippine
culture, contribute to the advancement of
science, result may be parallel to a scientific
research, and observes ethical principles, and
has impact on several
groups or agencies.
Definition of terms
Clear definition should be stated for important
variables. It could be theoretical (BASED FROM
BOOKS) or operational (HOW IT IS USED IN
THE STUDY) or both.

Example:
Concentration-theoretical definition
Operational- it means 75% narra solution (NS) or
75% celery solution (CS). (25 ml. water and 75
ml narra and 25 ml. water and 75 ml celery)
BGL- blood glucose level
Tips in writing Related Literature
1. Related in the study, cite similarities or
differences in methodology, results,
variable under study
2. Related studies could be used or cited
during the discussion & interpretation.
3. Related studies should be taken from
reliable sources, journals, newspapers,
books, reliable websites of prestigious
universities, & reliable organizations
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Present relationships and principles shown in the
results section
Ex. It appears the bud sprouting is closely related to smut
infection in sugarcane. All susceptible hybrids had more bud
sprouts (20%) than the resistant plants (10%)

Show how your results and interpretations agree or

disagree with previously published works.
Ex. Jones (1999) reported that potassium was deficient in the
leaves during the dry months. In this study, however,
amounts of potassium, phosphorous, and calcium in the leaves
were high during this period and in the whole experiment
Point out exceptions, discrepancies, and
inconsistencies and define them.
• Ex. Jones (1999) reported that potassium was deficient in the
leaves during the dry months. In this study, however, amounts
of potassium, phosphorous, and calcium in the leaves were high
during this period and in the whole experiment

• Point out exceptions, discrepancies, and

inconsistencies and define them.

• Ex. Citrus yield in the whole experimental area was high

except three plants in one corner. A closer investigation
showed that in this particular area, water from a leaking,
buried pipe seeped continually below the ground, but did
not show any evidence of it on the surface.

• Be consistent in tense. Use the past tense to report

observations of your experiment.
• Ex. NPK fertilizers appreciably corrected foliar yellowing six
months from initial applications.
• Use present tense for general truths
and references to stable conditions.
Information from a research published in a
primary journal is considered knowledge
and is present. Use present tense for
presenting implications. Use present tense
in referring to the table and charts.
• Use past tense for reporting the
procedure and for reporting research
results.
Results and discussion
1. Clear answers to the problems. Follow
the sequence of the problem in the
discussion.
2. Tables are not left hanging without
explanation, why such results taken.
3. There should be more citations in the
discussion to give strength to the results
4. There should be no sweeping statements
in the discussions.
5. Follow the rules for table writing.
• CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
• Conclusions of research results end with
implications of the significance of the findings.
Of what importance are the findings?
Conclusions, implications and recommendations
should be stated simply and clearly. Do not use
high-sounding words and fancy technical terms.
• Ex. Tillage level did not significantly affect corn
stand, ear length, grain yield and weed
population. This finding implies that some basic
tillage operations in corn production can be
minimized by using low-cost, but suitable and
effective herbicides.
• It is recommended that an evaluation
study be made to determine the most
economically effective herbicide for corn.
Tips in writing the conclusions &
recommendations
1. Conclusions should be drawn from the
results and discussion.
2. Recommendations should be based from
the conclusion.
• Some pointers
• Is my research contributing to the
development of knowledge, skills, and
attitude in science? (creativity,
resourcefulness, validity of methodology,
applicability of scientific principles)- 35%
• Contribution to S & T Community and
national development (40%)- applicability
to national goals, economic value, use of
local materials.
• Presentation skills (25%) Write up,
exhibit, oral delivery(5%)
TYPES OF VARIABLES
a. Independent variables- they are manipulated by the researcher and
focus of inquiry, called experimental, treatment, cause.
ex. Characteristics, attitude, self-concept
b. Dependent variable-factors that are affected called effect, response,
outcome
Ex. Performance, satisfaction, healing
c. Intervening variable-factor that exists between dependent and
independent variable. It explains why the relationship exists and bears
influence
d. Moderator variable- it affects the strength or direction of the
relationship between IV and DV
Ex. The degree of anxiety during board exam is low among takers
who had experience failure (moderator board experience) but high
among takers who have no previous board experience.
TYPES OF DEFINITION OF TERMS

a. conceptual- universal definition, textual meaning

from the dictionary, book
Ex. Motivation- something that causes a person
to act
b. Operational- how it is used in the study,
functional, practical definition
Ex. Motivation- ability of the nurse on duty to
finish the task on or before the time
c. lexical- definition from authority
Ex. According to Keith (2009) motivation is a
state of well being that elevates the spirit that
generates self-confidence to do the task.
For student researches problems can
 arise from curiosity
 based on necessity
 be of practical importance
 be of theoretical value
 be an exploratory study
 or application of a known concept
towards a new development
Steps involved in literature search

• define the research problem precisely

• read relevant secondary sources
• select and read 1 or 2 appropriate general reference works
• formulate terms (key words) pertinent to the problem
• search for relevant publications
• take note and summarize key points in the sources

Importance of theory and review of related literature

• it identifies the gaps, weak points and inconsistencies in the previous
researches. It provides the study with a conceptual framework,
justifying the need for the investigation.
• It puts together all constructs or concepts. The theory leads the
researcher into specific questions to be asked in the present study.
• It presents relationships among variables that have been investigated.
• It provides conceptual or theoretical framework
• It gives information about methods used.
• It provides finding and conclusions of past investigation
• METHODOLOGY

• Full details of the materials and methods used are described in

this section. The design appropriate for investigatory projects is
experimental design. Methodology can be divided into 4 groups
• samples
• procedure of the conduct of the experiment
• instruments and materials used and how are they used
• statistical treatment is appropriate
• Rules in handling numbers and words
• If the term used more than once in the report, it maybe
presented in acronym form (i.e. moisture content MC)
• Abbreviate the units of weight and measurement (1 kg, 101
grm, 4 mo, 2 wk, 2 gal)
• Italicize scientific names and agency. Do not italicize authors,
species written as sp.
• Avoid beginning sentence with numbers.
• Spell out 1 digit number (1 to 9) and use number for 10 and
above
• Use the symbol % after a numeral. (78%)
I DEVELOPMENT OF KNOWLEDGE, SKILLS &
ATTITUDE IN SCIENCE
• A. Creativity, Resourcefulness, and
Inventiveness
1. Creative ability in presenting the problem,
approach to solving the problem, analysis &
interpretation of data and use of equipment
2. New design/combination of facts/process/
novel approach/ innovation introduced
3. Intelligence & imagination in finding
means to undertake the study
B. Validity of Methodology
1. Supported by experiment
2. Appropriateness of methodology

C. Applicability of scientific principles

1. Utilization of scientific principles
2. Use of variables and control
II CONTRIBUTION TO S & T COMMUNITY & NATIONAL
DEVELOPMENT

A. Further invention and process

1. Impact of result
2. Advancement of S & T
B. Applicability to national goals
1. Contribution to social development & national
self sufficiency
C. Utility/economic value
1. practical value
2. effectiveness and efficiency
3. Profitability
D. Use of local materials
1. Availability of materials in the locality
2. Continuous supply of raw materials
E. Presentation skill of report
1. Clear problem statement
2. Well defined procedure
3. Clearly-recognized variables
4. Adequate data to support the conclusion
5. Citation of scientific literature
6. Logical/well-organized presentation of data
7. Relevant further study to be undertaken
8. Orderliness of the report
 COCONUT INDUSTRY IN PANGASINAN

Unreplace Decreased Poverty among

old export coconut farmers
coconut

Core Problem ( Decreased coconut production)

Poor Poor knowledge

Pest
infrastructure in coconut
farming
Paradigm
1. A paradigm is a diagram of interrelationships of
variables in the problem.
2. Use of symbols
Problem Identification

• Most critical decision that has to be made.

• Choosing the topic determines the area on which
the investigation will be focused.
– Challenge is in the choice of the system to be
used in the investigation.
– For science laboratory class – choices is
limited by the concepts that has to be
learned.
– For student projects, problems could –
 arise from curiosity
 based on necessity
 be of practical importance
 be of theoretical value
 be an exploratory study
 or application of a known concept
towards a new development
Literature Survey

• Provide basis for research design.

• Appropriate methodology can be guided by

prveious related works.

• Choice of materials can be wisely based on

the experiences of previous investigators.
Literature Survey

New ideas/approaches for practice.

Identify relevant studies/investigators.
Suggest methods.
Identify other sources of information.
Place your own study and practice in
perspective.
Evaluate various studies by comparison.
Sources of Literature
• Library
– Card catalogue and bibliographic indices.

– Computerized cataloguing:

• OPAC (On-Line Public Access Catalog)

• LORENZO (Library On-Line REaders
Network ZOne)

• Internet or World Wide Web

Guide on which Information
Tool to Used
• PERIODICALS/JOURNALS
– Information on popular “hot” topics.
– Information on current events.
– Articles written by scientists/experts who have
done research.
– Local news and information.
– Very current information.
– A focus on a narrow part of a larger topic.
– Examples of events or people in the news that
help makes the research clearer.
Guide on which Information
Tool to Used
• BOOKS
– In-depth coverage of a particular topic.
– Information written by specialists who have
done extensive research.
– Information that does not have to be very
current (check copyright date).
– Information logically and coherently arranged
with an index and a table of contents.
Guide on which Information
Tool to Used
• ENCYCLOPEDIA
– A short general overview of the topic to
scan for background information.
– Answers to specific factual questions.
– Information written by specialists who know
their subject.
– Information that does not have to be very
current (check copyright date.)
Research Design
• Factors to consider:
– Choice and control of condition
• Experimental parameters determine the
soundness of the data that will be collected.
• Information gathered from literature survey
can be a guide in the selection of the
conditions to be set during the research.

• Preliminary experiment could be carried out

to screen the appropriateness of various
experimental conditions.
Research Design

– Controlled Experiments
• Systematic variation of parameters that is
widely used scheme in experimental work.

• Employed to study the influence of some

factors in the behavior of a system.
• To highlight effect of the factor, positive and
negative controls are used as reference point
of comparison.
Research Design
• Determines the validity of the data and the
acceptability of any generalization that will be
inferred during the study.

– Type and number of systems used in the

investigations must be consistent with the
objectives.

– Reproducibility of the observations and the data

should be ensured.
Steps in Experimental Scientific
Method
• Identify variables
– Based on the gathered information, make
an educated guess about what types of
things affect the system you are working
with.

• Make Hypothesis
– Hypothesis is a question in which has
been reworded into a form that can be
tested by an experiment.
Steps in Experimental Scientific Method

• Design Experiments to Test Your Hypothesis

– Step-by-step list of what you will do to answer
each question – Experimental Procedure
– For reliable answer, a “control” is essential.
– A series of experiments that includes a control is
called a “controlled experiment”.
– Experiments are often done many times.
– Reproducibility is a crucial requirement.
Steps in Experimental Scientific Method
• Obtain Materials and Equipment
– Make a list of the things you require to do
the experiment.
• Do the Experiments and Record Data
– A series of experiments can be done by
changing one variable each time.
– Responses are measured and numerical
measurements are recorded. This is
referred to as “Raw Data” (unprocessed).
– Processed “Raw Data” becomes results.
Guidelines for Experimental Procedures

• Select only one thing to change in each experiment.

Things that can be changed are called variables.
• Change something that will answer your questions.
• The procedure must tell how you will change this
one thing.
• The procedure must explain how will you measure
the amount of change.
• Each experiment should have a “control” for
comparison so that you can see what the change
actually did.
Pedagogical problems associated with
science projects
• Equipment is usually specialized and not
available
- being not part of the normal curriculum, it is
uneconomical to purchase expensive items for
the use of just a few students for the year.

• Transporting students to labs is

cumbersome and costly
Now let us see what approaches have been
taken by others to tackle this problem of
training young scientists.
• There are many university programs nationwide
that take teachers or students under their wings
for special training.

• and then return them to their home schools

with great hopes that the teachers will teach
more productive science, and that the student’s
will become active young students.
Ideal Set-Up
At an early age, those young people who show
an interest in the sciences should be identified.

They and their home teachers should be coached

by professional scientists, and given the
equipment to do their experiments.

Generally, the students would qualify for the next

step in the program by having participated in a
science fair or similar activity.
The most between the schools and the
institutions of higher education should be
bridged and the doors opened so that the
teachers and the students could feel free
to make use of the facilities and faculties
of the nearby participating college,
university, state, or federal lab.

This proposal promotes such a continuum

of the scientific pathway of exploration
and discovery.