1-11 Heat As Energy Transfer

•Traditionally in the U.S., heat energy is measured in

calories or kilocalories.
One kilocalorie (Calorie) definition of
is the amount of heat needed to raise the kilo-
the temperature of one kilogram of calorie
water by exactly 1 C°.

•1 calorie is needed to raise the

temperature of 1 gram (instead of a
kilogram) of water 1 C°.
•In Europe they don’t talk about “low
calorie cola.”
•Instead, they talk about “low Joule
cola.”
1-11 Heat As Energy Transfer

•Obviously there must be a conversion between Joules

(J) and kilocalories (kcal).
1 kcal = 4.186 kJ mechanical equivalent of heat
1-11 Heat As Energy Transfer

If heat is a form of energy, it ought to be possible

to equate it to other forms. The experiment
below found the mechanical equivalent of heat
by using the falling weight to heat the water:
4.186 J = 1 cal
4.186 kJ = 1 kcal
1-11 Heat As Energy Transfer

EXAMPLE: How many joules is 450000 calories?

SOLUTION:

PRACTICE: A SnickersTM bar has 273.0 Cal. For

foods, Calories are really kcal. How many joules
are in a SnickersTM bar?
1-11 Heat As Energy Transfer

Definition of heat:
Heat is energy transferred from one object to
another because of a difference in temperature.
• Remember that the temperature of a gas is a
measure of the kinetic energy of its molecules.
 1-11 Heat As Energy Transfer (Solving problem)
Working off the extra Calories. Suppose you throw caution to the wind and eat
500 Calories of ice cream and cake. To compensate, you want to do an equivalent
amount of work climbing stairs or a mountain. How much total height must you
climb? (your mass is about 60kg) (human body does not transform food energy
100% efficiency-it is more like 20% efficient)
1-12 Internal Energy
Internal energy (The sum total of all the energy of all the
molecules in an object)

•All substances are composed of individual

molecules that are in vibration.
•As we heat up a substance its vibrations
become more energetic. This is an increase
in the kinetic energy of the molecules.
•Simultaneously, as heat energy is being added
the molecules are also moving farther apart. This
is an increase in the potential energy of the substance.
•The two energies together are called the internal
energy of the substance. Thus EINT = EK + EP.
•When thermal energy (heat) is added to a substance it
is stored as internal energy.
1-12 Internal Energy(gas molecules contain more than one atom)

• If the gas molecules contain more than one

atom, then the rotational and vibrational
energy of the molecules must also be taken
into account.
• The internal energy will be greater at a
given temperature than for a monatomic
gas.

Besides translational
kinetic energy, molecules can have
(a) rotational kinetic energy, and
(b) vibrational energy (both kinetic
and potential).
1-12 Internal Energy (Internal energy of an Ideal gas)
(Monoatomic gas)
1-13 Specific Heat

Specific heat capacity

•Different materials absorb heat energy in different
ways.
•This means that if we have two different substances
having the same mass m, and each absorbs the same
amount of heat Q, their increase in temperature T may
be different.
•We define the specific heat capacity c of a substance
as the amount of heat needed per unit temperature
increase per unit mass.
Q = mcT specific heat capacity c defined
•Each material has its own unique value for c.
1-13 Specific Heat

The specific heat, c, is characteristic

of the material. Some values are
listed at left.
1-13 Specific Heat

Specific heat capacity

•Here are some specific heats for various materials.
Specific Heats c of Various Substances at 20°C and 1 atm.
Substance J / kg·C° kcal/kg·C° (or cal/g·C°)
Air (at 50°C) 1050 0.25
Water (at 15°C) 4186 1.00
Steam (at 110°C) 2010 0.48
Ice (at -5°C) 2100 0.50
Wood 1680 0.40
Ethyl Alcohol 2430 0.58
Steel 450 0.11

FYI
•Note that specific heat units for c are (J kg-1 C°-1).
1-13 Specific Heat

Calculating energies involving specific heat capacity

Q = mcT specific heat capacity c defined
EXAMPLE: Air has a density of about  = 1.2 kg m-3.
How much heat, in joules, is needed to raise the
temperature of the air in a 3.0 m by 4.0 m by 5.0 m
room by 5°C?
SOLUTION:
1-13 Specific Heat

Calculating energies involving specific heat capacity

Q = mcT specific heat capacity c defined
PRACTICE: Suppose we have a 200.-kg steel ingot and
a 200.-kg block of wood, both at room temperature
(20.0°C). If we add 1,143,000 J of heat (the energy of a
SnickersTM bar) to each object, what will its final
temperature be?
SOLUTION:
 1-13 Specific Heat

How heat transferred depends on specific heat. (a) How

much heat input is needed to raise the temperature of an empty 20-kg vat made of
iron from 10°C to 90°C? (b) What if the vat is filled with 20 kg of water?
1-13 Specific Heat

Specific heats of gases are more complicated,

and are generally measured at constant pressure
(cP) or constant volume (cV).

Some sample values:

1-14 Calorimetry—Solving Problems

• Closed system: no mass enters or

leaves, but energy may be
exchanged
• Open system: mass may transfer as
well (enter/leave)
• Isolated system: closed system
where no energy in any form is
transferred (no energy in any form
passes across its boundaries)
• For an isolated system,
• Energy out of one part = energy into
another part (heat lost = heat
gained)
1-14 Calorimetry—Solving Problems

The instrument to the left is

a calorimeter, which makes
quantitative measurements
of heat exchange. A
sample is heated to a well-
measured high temperature,
plunged into the water, and
the equilibrium temperature
measured. This gives the
specific heat of the sample.
Simple water
calorimeter.
1-14 Calorimetry—Solving Problems (Isolated system)
1-14 Calorimetry—Solving Problems (Isolated system)
ΣQ = 0.

Final Temp of
the mixture : T
 1-14 Calorimetry—Solving Problems
The cup cools the tea. If 200cm3 of tea at 95°C is poured into a 150-g glass
cup initially at 25°C, what will be the common final temperature T of the tea
and cup when equilibrium is reached, assuming no heat flows to the
surroundings? (tea=water) (cup=glass)
1-14 Calorimetry—Solving Problems
Unknown specific heat determined by calorimetry. An
engineer wishes to determine the specific heat of a new metal alloy. A 0.150-kg
sample of the alloy is heated to 540°C. It is then quickly placed in 0.400 kg of
water at 10.0°C, which is contained in a 0.200-kg aluminum calorimeter cup. The
final temperature of the system is 30.5°C. Calculate the specific heat of the alloy.
1-14 Calorimetry—Solving Problems

• Another type of calorimeter is

called a bomb calorimeter; it
measures the thermal energy
released when a substance
burns.
• This is the way the caloric
content of foods is measured.
 12
1-15 Latent Heat
9 3
6

Sketching and interpreting phase change graphs

•Suppose a thermometer is frozen in ice, and the ice is
further cooled to a temperature of -20°C. We slowly add
heat, and plot the temperature vs. the heat Q added:
•Since the thermometer measures kinetic
energy, and since the temperature doesn’t
change during the phase change, the heat 100ºC
must be getting stored ONLY as potential
energy during phase change. 0ºC
T
INTERNAL ENERGY STEAM
100ºC
POTENTIAL KINETIC WATER
ENERGY ENERGY 0ºC
Q
ICE
1-15 Latent Heat

Phase change in terms of molecular behavior

•As a model to help explain phase change consider a
molecule in an open box which can move left and right
but must remain “captured” in the box.
•As more heat is stored as potential energy, the particle
in our model gains height.
•Finally, the potential
energy is great During During
enough to break the phase phase
intermolecular bonds change change
and change the phase temp- potential
of the substance. erature energy
does not does
•The molecule is free!
change change
1-15 Latent Heat

Energy is required for a material to change phase,

even though its temperature is not changing.
1-15 Latent Heat

Specific latent heat

•Since there are two phase changes (two plateaus),
each substance has two latent heats.
Latent Heats Lof Various Substances at 1 atm.
Melting Lf Boiling Lv
Substance Point °C J/kg kcal/kg Point °C J/kg kcal/kg
Water 0 3.33105 80 100 22.6105 540
Mercury -39 0.12105 2.8 357 2.7105 65
Oxygen -219 0.14105 3.3 -183 2.1105 51
Gold 1063 0.65105 15.4 2660 15.8105 377

•Lf is the latent heat of fusion. T

Lv
•Lv is the latent heat of vaporization. Boiling Point

•The temperatures associated with Lf

Q
the phase changes are also given. Melting Point
1-15 Latent Heat

Heat of fusion, LF: heat required to change 1.0 kg

of material from solid to liquid
Heat of vaporization, LV: heat required to change
1.0 kg of material from liquid to vapor
1-15 Latent Heat

Specific latent heat T

•Latent heat means hidden heat, Boiling Point
by which we mean that there is no
temperature indication that heat is Q
Melting Point
being lost or gained by a substance.
•The specific latent heat L is defined in this formula:
Q = mL specific latent heat L defined
•Note that since there is no temperature change during
a phase change, there is no T in our formula. The units
for L are (J kg-1).
FYI
•Use Q = mL during phase change (when T = 0).
•Use Q = mcT otherwise (when T ≠ 0).
1-15 Latent Heat

EXAMPLE:
Bob has designed a 525-kg ice chair. How
much heat must he remove from water at
0°C to make the ice chair (also at 0°C)?
SOLUTION:
1-15 Latent Heat

Specific latent heat

EXAMPLE: Compare boiling and evaporation.
SOLUTION:
•Boiling takes place within the whole liquid at
the same temperature, called the boiling point.
•Evaporation occurs only at the surface of
a liquid and can occur at any temperature.
•Evaporation can be enhanced by increasing the
surface area, warming the liquid, or having air
movement at the surface.
•Boiling and evaporation both remove the same
amount of heat energy from the liquid. This is
why sweating removes excess body heat so well!
1-15 Latent Heat

The latent heat of vaporization is relevant for

evaporation as well as boiling. The heat of
vaporization of water rises slightly as the
temperature decreases.
On a molecular level, the heat added during a
change of state does not go to increasing the
kinetic energy of individual molecules, but rather
to break the close bonds between them so the
next phase can occur.
A method for measuring the latent heat of fusion
1-15 Latent Heat
1-15 Latent Heat

p/s:
1-15 Latent Heat
1-16 Heat Transfer: Conduction

Conduction, convection and thermal radiation

•Consider a material that acts as a conductor of heat
from the hot object to the cold object.
12

9 3
20°C
40°C
60°C 100°C
80°C
60°C
6
Direction of heat flow
•During the process the hot object loses energy and
cools, while the cold object gains energy and warms.
•At the end of the process the two ends have reached
thermal equilibrium at which point there is no more net
transfer of heat.
1-16 Heat Transfer: Conduction

Hot particles vibrate more, so collide with

adjacent particles. The heat energy travels
from hot to cooler areas.
1-16 Heat Transfer: Conduction

Conduction, convection and thermal radiation

•Metals are good heat conductors because they have
lots of free electrons (the same reason they are good
electrical conductors).
•The rate Q / t at which heat energy is transferred
depends directly on the cross-sectional area A and
inversely with the length d of the conductor.
HC H
O
O
L d A
O
TD T
•That rate, Q / t, is also proportional to the difference
in temperature T, between the two ends.
Q / t = kAT / d thermal conduction
1-16 Heat Transfer: Conduction
(in your text book, page 400)

Heat conduction can be visualized as occurring

through molecular collisions.
The heat flow per unit time is given by:
1-16 Heat Transfer: Conduction

The constant k is called

the thermal
conductivity.
Materials with large k
are called conductors;
those with small k are
called insulators.
1-16 Heat Transfer: Conduction

Conduction, convection and thermal radiation

EXAMPLE: A brick has 2.50 m
a thermal conductivity 0.500 m
of k = 0.710 J / m·s·C°,
and the dimensions 20°C 0.750 m 100°C
shown.
•Two heat sources are placed in contact with the ends
of the brick, as shown. Find the rate at which heat
energy is conducted through the brick.
SOLUTION: A = 0.7500.500 = 0.375 m2. Why?
•Then
Q / t = kAT / d
= 0.7100.375(100 – 20) / 2.50 = 8.52 J s-1.
1-16 Heat Transfer: Conduction (Solving problem):
1-17 Heat Transfer: Convection

Conduction, convection and thermal radiation

•Another form of heat transfer is called convection.
•Convection requires a fluid as a medium of heat
transfer.
•For example, hot air is less dense
than cold air, so it rises.
•But as it rises it cools, and so
becomes denser and sinks.
•We thus obtain a cycle, which Convection
forms a circulation called a current
convection current.
•Convection currents drive many
interesting physical systems as
the next slides illustrate.
1-17 Heat Transfer: Convection

• Convection: Transfer of heat caused by mass motion of a fluid (air or water)

when the heated fluid moves away from the heat that carries energy.
• occurs when heat flows by the bulk movement of molecules from one place
to another.
• It may be natural or forced; both these examples are natural convection.
Heat cannot travel in solids by
convection.
Convection is the process whereby heat
flows by the bulk movement of molecules
from one place to another.
Why
Whereas conduction involves molecules ?
(and/or electrons) moving only over small
distances and colliding, convection involves
the movement of large numbers of
molecules over large distances.
Explain why fish and chip are served wrapped in
newspaper.

Newspaper is made
out of paper, which
paper is made out of
wood. Woods are good
insulator. Good
insulators can delay
the transfer of heat,
which is the reason
newspaper can keep
hot things hot. In
between the papers,
there is air, which air is
a bad conductor, that
means that air is good
insulator.
 Re-arrange the sentences and
write them in the correct order

1. In this way a circular convection current can be formed

2. The heated fluid rises because it is less dense
3. A fluid is a liquid or gas
4. Convection currents also cause wind.
5. This makes it less dense than the surrounding fluid
6. When a fluid is heated it expands
7. Cooler fluid takes its place
8. Convection currents can occur in kettles
 Convection
1. A fluid is a liquid or gas
2. When a fluid is heated it expands
3. This makes it less dense than the surrounding fluid
4. The heated fluid rises because it is less dense
5. Cooler fluid takes its place
6. In this way a circular convection current can be formed
7. Convection currents can occur in kettles
8. Convection currents also cause wind.
1-17 Heat Transfer: Convection (For your own reading)
(may refer text book page 402)

Many home heating systems are forced hot-air

systems; these have a fan that blows the air out of
registers, rather than relying completely on
natural convection.
Our body temperature is regulated by the blood; it
runs close to the surface of the skin and transfers
heat. Once it reaches the surface of the skin, the
heat is released through convection, evaporation,
and radiation.
1-18 Heat Transfer: Radiation
Conduction, convection and thermal radiation
•Thermal energy can be transferred from a warmer
mass to a cooler mass by three means: conduction,
convection, and radiation.
•Only thermal radiation transfers heat without any
physical medium such as solid, liquid or gas.
EXAMPLE: The heat from a wood-burning stove can be
felt from all the way across the room
because photons carrying infrared
energy can travel through space.
When these photons strike you,
they are absorbed as heat. This
process of thermal energy transfer
is called thermal radiation.
1-18 Heat Transfer: Radiation

Infrared radiation can travel through a

vacuum (and through air)

All life on Earth depends on the transfer of energy from the Sun, and this
energy is transferred to the Earth over empty (or nearly empty) space. This
form of energy transfer is heat—since the Sun’s surface temperature (6000
K) is much higher than Earth’s (300K)—and is referred to as radiation.
1-18 Heat Transfer: Radiation

Sun consists of visible light plus many other wavelengths that the eye is not
sensitive to, including infrared (IR) radiation, which is mainly responsible
for heating the Earth
1-18 Heat Transfer: Radiation
The energy radiated has been found to be proportional to
the fourth power of the temperature: Stefan-Boltzmann
equation:

The constant σ is called the Stefan-Boltzmann constant

(universal constant):
σ = 5.67 × 10−8 W/m2∙K4
• The emissivity e is a number between zero and one
characterizing the surface; black objects have an
emissivity near one, while shiny ones have an
emissivity near zero. depends somewhat on the
temperature of the material.
1-18 Heat Transfer: Radiation

Infrared radiation
Black objects are good absorbers of infrared
radiation.
1-18 Heat Transfer: Radiation

Infrared radiation
Shiny objects reflect infrared radiation.

Nottingham
Forest winning
the champions
league in 1979
1-18 Heat Transfer: Radiation

Infrared radiation
Which would cool fastest?

100°C 100°C

Shiny!
1-18 Heat Transfer: Radiation

Infrared radiation
Black objects are good EMITTERS of IR
radiation

100°C 100°C

Shiny!
1-18 Heat Transfer: Radiation
Whenever deal with radiation, always remember: “An object that
radiates energy well also absorbs well, and an object that radiates
poorly also absorbs poorly.”
1-18 Heat Transfer: Radiation (Solving problem)
1-18 Heat Transfer: Radiation (Solving problem) (HW)
1-18 Heat Transfer: Radiation (Solving problem)

• An interesting application of thermal radiation to diagnostic medicine

is thermography. A special instrument, the thermograph, scans the
body, measuring the intensity of infrared† radiation from many points
and forming a picture that resembles an X-ray.
• Areas where metabolic activity is high, such as in tumors, can often
be detected on a thermogram as a result of their higher temperature
and consequent increased radiation.
 Summary
• Internal energy U refers to the total energy of all
molecules in an object. For an ideal monatomic gas,

• Heat is the transfer of energy from one object to

another due to a temperature difference. Heat can be
measured in joules or in calories.
• Specific heat of a substance is the energy required to
change the temperature of a fixed amount of matter
by 1° C.
 Summary
• In an isolated system, heat gained by one part of the
system must be lost by another.
• Calorimetry measures heat exchange quantitatively.
• Phase changes require energy even though the
temperature does not change.
• Heat of fusion: amount of energy required to melt 1
kg of material.
• Heat of vaporization: amount of energy required to
change 1 kg of material from liquid to vapor.
 Summary
• Heat transfer takes place by conduction,
convection, and radiation.
• In conduction, energy is transferred through
the collisions of molecules in the substance.
• In convection, bulk quantities of the substance
flow to areas of different temperature.
• Radiation is the transfer of energy by
electromagnetic waves.