Just a brief introduction

▪ Zeroth law of thermodynamics

▪ First law of thermodynamics
▪ Second law of thermodynamics
▪ Heat’s engine
▪ Carnot’s engine

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▪ One of the principal branches of physics and engineering is
thermodynamics, which is the study and application of the
thermal energy (often called the internal energy) of systems.

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▪ Temperature is one of the
seven SI base quantities.
▪ Physicists measure
temperature on the Kelvin
scale, which is marked in units
called kelvins
▪ The temperature of a body
apparently has no upper
limit, it does have a lower
limit

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 Our whole universe was in a hot, dense state
Then nearly fourteen billion years ago expansion
started,
The earth began to cool, the autotrophs began to drool
Neanderthals developed tools
We built a wall (we built the pyramids)
Math, science, history, unraveling the mysteries
That all started with the big bang!

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▪ The properties of many bodies change as we alter
their temperature,
▪ As temperature increases:
▪ Volume of liquid increases
▪ Metal rods grow a little longer
▪ Electrical resistance of wire increases
▪ Pressure exerted by a confined gas increases

▪ → these properties as the basis of an instrument →

concept of temperature
A thermoscope. The numbers
increase when the device is heated and
decrease when it is cooled. The thermally
sensitive element could be—among many
possibilities—a coil of wire whose electrical
resistance is measured and displayed.
 (a)
(b)

(c)

If bodies A and B are each in thermal equilibrium with a third body T,

then A and B are in thermal equilibrium with each other. 7
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▪ In generalizing this situation, we describe the
cola or the coffee as a system (with
temperature TS)
▪ the kitchen as the environment (with
temperature TE)
▪ If TS is not equal to TE, then TS will change (TE
can also change some) until the two
temperatures are equal
▪ thus thermal equilibrium is reached.

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 Heat is the energy transferred between a system
and its environment because of a temperature
difference that exists between them.
▪ Heat is positive when energy is transferred to
a system’s thermal energy from its
environment (we say that heat is absorbed
by the system).
▪ Heat is negative when energy is transferred
from a system’s thermal energy to its
environment (we say that heat is released or
lost by the system).
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▪ heat was measured in terms of its ability to
raise the temperature of water
▪ Thus, the calorie (cal) was defined as the
amount of heat that would raise the
temperature of 1 g of water from 14.5°C to
15.5°C.
▪ the British thermal unit (Btu), defined as
the amount of heat that would raise the
temperature of 1 lb of water from 63°F to
64°F.
1 cal = 3.968 x 10-3 Btu = 4.1868 J.
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▪ The heat capacity C of an object is the
proportionality constant between the heat Q
that the object absorbs or loses and the
resulting temperature change T of the
object;

Q = C T = C(T T ) f i

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▪ If two objects made of the same material
▪ heat capacities proportional to their masses.

Q = cm T = cm(Tf - Ti)

c =1 cal/g C° = 1 Btu/lb F° = 4186.8 J/kg K.

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 1 mol = 6.02 x 1023 elementary units
▪ 1 mol of aluminum means 6.02 x 1023 atoms (the atom
is the elementary unit),
▪ 1 mol of aluminum oxide means 6.02 x 1023
molecules (the molecule is the elementary unit of
the compound)

▪ When quantities are expressed in moles, specific

heats must also involve moles (rather than a mass
unit); they are then called molar specific heats

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▪ A copper slug whose mass mc is 75 g is heated in a
laboratory oven to a temperature T of 312°C. The
slug is then dropped into a glass beaker containing a
mass mw = 220 g of water. The heat capacity Cb of the
beaker is 45 cal/K. The initial temperature Ti of the
water and the beaker is 12°C. Assuming that the slug,
beaker, and water are an isolated system and the
water does not vaporize, find the final temperature Tf
of the system at thermal equilibrium.

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A gas is confined to a cylinder with a
movable piston. Heat Q can be added to or
withdrawn from the gas by regulating the
temperature T of the adjustable thermal
reservoir. Work W can be done by the gas
by raising or lowering the piston.

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Internal energy of the system is conservative. Change of internal
energy depend only on initial and final state.
▪ Eint = Eint,f - Eint,i

Heat is the energy transferred between a system and its environment

because of a temperature difference that exists between them
Qin and Qout make system state changed (P,V, T, U, etc.)

Work W is a mechanism to transfer the energy between system and

environment

W =  dW =  PAdx =  PdV = PV = P(V f − Vi )

f f f

dx
i i i
mg
F=PA
▪ First Law of Thermodynamics

▪ Internal energy of the system tend to change

from initial state Ui to final state to a Uf due to
heat Q and work W:

Eint = Eint,f - Eint,i = Q – W (first law)

▪ Adiabatic process = no transfer of energy as heat occurs

▪ Q = 0 yields
▪ Eint = -W

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▪ Constant-volume process
▪ If the volume of a system (such as a gas) is held
constant, that system can do no work.
▪W=0
▪ Eint = Q

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▪ Cyclical processes
▪ after certain interchanges of heat and work, the
system is restored to its initial state
▪ Eint = 0
▪ Q =W (cyclical process)

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▪ Free expansions ▪ These are adiabatic
processes in which no
transfer of heat occurs
between the system and its
environment and no work is
done on or by the system
▪Q=W=0

▪ Eint = 0

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▪ Let 1.00 kg of liquid water at 100°C be
converted to steam at 100°C by boiling at
standard atmospheric pressure (which is 1.00
atm or 1.01 x 105 Pa) in the arrangement as
the figure. The volume of that water changes
from an initial value of 1.00 x 10-3 m3 as a
liquid to 1.671 m3 as steam.
(a) How much work is done by the system
during this process?
(b) How much energy is transferred as heat
during the process? (Heat of vaporization Lv =
2256 kJ/kg)
(c) What is the change in the system’s internal
energy during the process?

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▪ If an irreversible process occurs in a closed system,
the entropy S of the system always increases; it never
decreases.

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▪ thermodynamics : a measure of the unavailable
energy in a closed thermodynamic system that is
also usually considered to be a measure of the
system's disorder, that is a property of the system's
state, and that varies directly with any reversible
change in heat in the system and inversely with
the temperature of the system
▪ broadly : the degree of disorder or uncertainty in a
system

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▪ If a process occurs in a closed system, the entropy of
the system increases for irreversible processes and
remains constant for reversible processes. It never
decreases.

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▪ A heat engine, or more simply, an engine, is a device
that extracts energy from its environment in the form of
heat and does useful work

▪ Heat engines have three main characteristics:

1. Heat is sent to the engine at a relatively high temperature

from a place called a heat reservoir.
2. Some of the input heat is used to do work by the working
substance of the machine, which is the material in the
machine that actually does work (e.g., a mixture of air-
gasoline in a car engine).
3. The remainder of the heat input heat is discharged at a
lower temperature from the input temperature to a place
called a cold reservoir.
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▪ QH denotes the input heat, and
subscript H denotes hot
reservoir.
▪ QC denotes the amount of heat
removed, and subscript C
represent cold reservoir.
▪ W represents work done.

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▪ For the Carnot engine, the comparison between the heat
discharged QC by and the input heat QH can be
expressed by the following equation:
QC TC
=
QH TH
where TC and TH are in kelvins (K).
▪ The efficiency of the Carnot engine can be written as
follows : QC TC
e = 1− = 1−
QH TH

This relationship provides the maximum possible

efficiency value of a heat engine operating between TC
and TH
▪ Imagine a Carnot engine that operates between the
temperatures TH = 850 K and TL = 300 K. The engine
performs1200 J of work each cycle, which takes 0.25 s.
▪ (a) what is the efficiency of the engine?
▪ (b) what is the average power of the engine?
▪ (c) How much energy |QH| is extracted as heat from the high-
temperature reservoir every cycle?
▪ (d) How much energy |QL| is delivered as heat to the low
temperature reservoir every cycle?

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