Topic 1: Temperature, heat and kinetic theory (Chapter 13&14

textbook)
Understandings:

•Atomic Theory of Matter •Heat As Energy Transfer

•Temperature and Thermometers •Internal Energy

•Thermal Equilibrium and the Zeroth Law of •Specific Heat

Thermodynamics •Calorimetry—Solving Problems
•Thermal Expansion •Latent Heat
•The Gas Laws and Absolute Temperature •Heat Transfer: Conduction
•The Ideal Gas Law •Heat Transfer: Convection

•Problem Solving with the Ideal Gas Law •Heat Transfer: Radiation

•Ideal Gas Law in Terms of Molecules:

Avogadro’s Number
•Kinetic Theory and the Molecular Interpretation
of Temperature
•Distribution of Molecular Speeds
•Real Gases and Changes of Phase (Triple point)
 1.1 Atomic Theory of Matter
1) Atom
a) All matter is composed of discrete microscopic units called atoms. A group of atoms
can interact to form a molecule.
b) Atomic and molecular masses are measured in unified atomic mass units (u). This
unit is defined so that the carbon-12 atom has a mass of exactly 12.0000 u. Expressed
in kilograms:
1 u = 1.6605 × 10−27 kg
2) Brownian motion is the jittery motion of tiny flecks
in water; these are the result of collisions with individual
water molecules.
a) If we examine a fluid on the microscopic level,
we will see that the individual atoms and molecules are in Evident for atomic theory
constant and random motion .

https://www.chem.purdue.edu/gchelp/atoms/elements.html
More about Brownian Motion:

In the early 1800s the biologist Thomas Brown was observing pollen grains – he
noticed that when he attempted to study pollen grains on the surface of water
through a microscope, the pollen jiggled about. He called this jiggling 'Brownian
motion', but Brown couldn't work out what was causing it.

The concept of particles or ‘atoms’ had been around since the Greeks (Democritus),
yet there was no clear evidence to justify this concept

Seventy years or so later, Einstein investigated this issue. He realised that the
jiggling of the pollen grains seen in Brownian motion was due to molecules of water
hitting the tiny pollen grains, like players kicking the ball in a game of football. The
pollen grains were visible but the water molecules weren't, so it looked like the
grains were bouncing around on their own. Einstein also showed that it was
possible to work out how many molecules were hitting a single pollen grain and how
fast the water molecules were moving - all by looking at the pollen grains.
Importantly, Einstein's paper also made testable predictions about the properties of
atoms that could be tested. The French physicist Jean Perrin used Einstein's
predictions to work out the size of atoms and remove any remaining doubts about
the existence of atoms.
1.1 Atomic Theory of Matter
On a microscopic scale: intermolecular
bond
Molecular theory of solids, liquids and gases
The three phases of matter are solid,
liquid, and gas.
In a solid the molecules can only
vibrate. They cannot translate.
In a liquid the molecules can vibrate solid
and move about freely in a fixed volume.
In going from a solid to a liquid, some
of the intermolecular bonds are broken,
giving the molecules more freedom of
motion.
In going from a liquid to a gas, most
of the intermolecular bonds are broken. liquid
1.1 Atomic Theory of Matter
On a microscopic scale, the arrangements of molecules in solids (a), liquids (b),
and gases (c) are quite different.

-the individual atoms are
held together by strong
electrical forces.
-the atoms remain close to
one another and each
atom is under constant
vibration.
-the electrical forces - the electrical forces are
holding the atoms together extremely weak and
is much weaker and hence individual atoms collide
each atom is able to move with one another with
more freely and rapidy. tremendous.
Recall…….Thermal concepts

Phase change
The process of going from a solid to a liquid is called
melting.
The process of going from a liquid to a gas is called
boiling.
Each process can be reversed.
PHASE CHANGE PROCESS EXAMPLE
solid  liquid melting ice to water
liquid  solid freezing water to ice
liquid  gas boiling water to steam
gas  liquid condensing steam to droplets
solid  gas sublimation frost evaporation
gas  solid deposition frost
1.2 Temperature and Thermometers

• Temperature is a measure
of how hot or cold
something is.
• Most materials expand
when heated. (Properties
of matter change with
temperature).
Expansion joint on a bridge. Note center white line
of highway.
1.2 Temperature and Thermometers

• Thermometers are instruments designed to measure temperature. In

order to do this, they take advantage of some property of matter
that changes with temperature.
• Many common thermometers rely on the expansion of a material
with an increase in temperature.
• Early thermometers:Thermometers built
by the Accademia del Cimento
(1657–1667) in Florence, Italy, are
among the earliest known. These
sensitive and exquisite instruments
contained alcohol, sometimes colored,
like many thermometers today.
1.2 Temperature and Thermometers
• Common thermometers used today include the
liquid-in-glass type and the bimetallic strip.

• When temp is increased, the different amounts of

(a) Mercury- or alcohol-in-glass expansion cause the bimetallic strip to bend.
thermometer; (b) bimetallic strip. • Bimetallic strip is in the form of a coil, one end of which
is fixed while the other is attached to a pointer

• Air thermometers, oven thermometers, automatic off

switches in electric coffeepots, and in room
thermostats for determining when the heater or air
conditioner should go on or off.
1.2 Temperature and Thermometers
(Temperatures Scales)

Temperature
Because absorption of thermal energy Boiling
(heat) causes materials to expand, the 100° 212°

fluid in a thermometer can be used to

CELSIUS SCALE

FAHRENHEIT
indirectly measure temperature.

SCALE
Since water is a readily-available
substance that can be frozen, and
boiled within a narrow range of
temperatures, many thermometers are
calibrated using these temperatures. Freezing
0° 32°
We will be using the Celsius scale
in physics because it is a simpler scale.
United States, the Fahrenheit scale is common.
1.2 Temperature and Thermometers (Temperatures Scales)
Converting between Fahrenheit degree(°F) and Celsius degree (°C) temperatures

Boiling
100° 212°

CELSIUS SCALE

FAHRENHEIT
SCALE
Freezing
0° 32°
1.2 Temperature and Thermometers (Temperatures Scales)
1.2 Temperature and Thermometers (Temperatures Scales)
• A range of 100° on the Celsius scale corresponds to a range of 180° on the
Fahrenheit scale.
• 1 °F Corresponds to 100/180=5/9 of 1°C
5
• (1 °F = °C)
9

Exp: body temperature is 98.6°F. Boiling

100° 212°
What is this on the Celsius scale?

CELSIUS SCALE

FAHRENHEIT
SCALE
Freezing
0° 32°
1-3 Thermal Equilibrium and the Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

Two objects placed in thermal contact will

eventually come to the same temperature. When
they do, we say they are in thermal
equilibrium.
• The zeroth law of thermodynamics: if two
systems are in thermal equilibrium with
a third system, then they are in thermal
equilibrium with each other.
1-4 Thermal Expansion
• Most substances expand
when heated and contract
when cooled. However, the
amount of expansion or
contraction varies,
depending on the material.

1. Linear expansion
1-4 Thermal Expansion
2. Volume Expansion
• Volume expansion is similar, except that it is relevant for liquids
and gases as well as solids:

• V0 is the original volume, ∆V s the change in volume when the

temperature changes by ∆𝑇,
• β coefficient of volume expansion (C°)–1
• For uniform solids, β ≈ 3α.

Why??
1-4 Thermal Expansion
Solving problem
Solving problem
Solving problem
 1-4 Thermal Expansion

Water behaves differently from most other solids—its

minimum volume occurs when its temperature is 4°C. As it
cools further, it expands.
1-4 Thermal Expansion (Thermal Stress)

A material may be fixed at its ends and therefore be unable

to expand when the temperature changes. It will then
experience large compressive or tensile stress—thermal
stress—when its temperature changes.
The force required to keep the material from expanding is
given by:

where E is the Young’s modulus of the material. Therefore,

the stress is:
 1-4 Thermal Expansion (Thermal Stress)
If the stress on a solid object is too great, the object fractures, or breaks (Fig. 9–
24).Table 9–2 lists the ultimate strengths for tension, compression, and shear for
a variety of materials. These values give the maximum force per unit area, or
stress,that an object can withstand under each of these three types of stress for
various types of material.
Practice
1. An aluminum rod and a copper rod have the same length of 100 cm
at 5℃. At what temperatures would one of the rods be 0.5 mm
longer than the other? Which rod is longer at such temperature?
∝𝑎𝑙 al = 23.8 x 10−6 ∁°−1 and ∝𝑐𝑢 = 16.8x 10−6 ∁°−1 [76.13 ℃]

2. What should be the length of steel and copper rod so that the
length of steel rod is 5 cm longer than copper rod at all
temperatures. Coefficient of linear expansion for copper and steel
are ∝= 1.7 x 10−5 ∁°−1 and ∝= 1.1 x 10−5 ∁°−1 , respectively. [9.17
cm,14.17 cm]

3. If two rods of length L and 2L, having coefficient of expansion α and

2α respectively, are connected end-to-end, the average of
coefficient of linear expansion of composite rod, equals?[5/3 α]