Foam Formation in Porous Media

Chapter 12
Foam Formation in Porous Media

A Microscopic Visual Study
1
Arthur I. Shirley
Downloaded by TUFTS UNIV on November 24, 2015 | http://pubs.acs.org
Publication Date: July 20, 1988 | doi: 10.1021/bk-1988-0373.ch012
Research and Technical Services, ARCO Oil and Gas Company,

2300 West Piano Parkway, Piano, TX 75075
A microscopic examination of foam flow in model

porous media is presented. Experiments were
conducted examining foam formation and displacement
efficiency in glass micromodels with widely different
pore properties. The micromodels were designed: (1)
by petrographic image analysis to generate complex
pore geometries, and (2) by drafting in order to
obtain more homogeneous pore geometries.
A study of the effect of pore geometry on foam

formation mechanisms shows that "snap-off" bubble
formation is dominant in highly heterogeneous pore
systems. The morphology of the foams formed by the
two mechanisms are quite different. A comparison of
two foam injection schemes, simultaneous
gas/surfactant solution injection (SI) and alternate
gas/surfactant solution injection (GDS), shows that
the SI scheme is more efficient at controlling gas
mobility on a micro-scale during a foam flood.
High gas mobility and low sweep e f f i c i e n c y are t y p i c a l problems

encountered i n o i l recovery processes using gas i n j e c t i o n .
Improving gas mobility to increase reservoir sweep can add
s i g n i f i c a n t l y to recoverable reserves and impact the economics of
these t e r t i a r y recovery procèsses^. One technique that has
received much attention as a mobility control aid i s foam
flooding. In t h i s process the injected gas i s dispersed i n a
l i q u i d containing a surface-active agent, forming a foam. The foam
i s composed of a stable configuration of microscopic bubbles that
behave as a very viscous material when the foam i s
made to flow i n a porous medium. This high apparent v i s c o s i t y
Current address: Group Technical Center, The BOC Group, Inc., 100 Mountain Avenue,
Murray Hill, New Providence, NJ 07974
0097-6156/88/0373-0234$07.00/0
° 1988 American Chemical Society
In Surfactant-Based Mobility Control; Smith, D.;

ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, 1988.
12. SHIRLEY Foam Formation in Porous Media 235
i s responsible for the often sizeable reduction i n gas mobility

given by foams, which may have mobilities of less than 1/10000 of
the gas mobility2. Foams can improve areal sweep and also l i m i t
gravity override by gases^»^.
A high-pressure micromodel system has been constructed to v i s u a l l y

investigate foam formation and flow behavior. This system uses
glass plates, or micromodels, with the pattern of a pore network
etched into them, to serve as a transparent porous medium. These
micromodels can be suspended i n a confining f l u i d i n a pressure
vessel, allowing them to be operated at high pressure and
temperature. Because of t h i s pressure c a p a b i l i t y , reservoir f l u i d s
can be used i n the micromodel, and any effects of phase behavior or
pressure- and temperature-dependent properties on foam flow can be
examined.
Micromodels have been used i n previous studies of foam i n porous

media to observe bubble formation and size d i s t r i b u t i o n as well as
the effect of i n j e c t i o n scheme or flow heterogeneities (13-17).
These experiments were conducted at low pressure and temperature.
For studying foams with dense hydrocarbon gases, and f o r examining
the effect of l i v e o i l s or m i s c i b i l i t y , the high-pressure and
temperature system i s necessary. Both low- and high-pressure and
temperature micromodel systems have been used i n studying other
recovery techniques such as waterflooding^, immiscible-gas
flooding**, low-inter facial-tension flooding^, micellar
flooding**"^ and f i r s t - c o n t a c t and multicontact miscible
floodinglO"™ β j
n
e a case they have provided valuable pictures
c n
of f l u i d - f l u i d interactions on the microscopic scale.
The high-pressure and temperature micromodel system has been used

i n this study to investigate the formation, flow behavior and
s t a b i l i t y of foams. Micromodel etching patterns were made from
binary images of rock thin sections and from other designs for a
comparison of pore e f f e c t s . These experiments show how
simultaneous i n j e c t i o n of gas and surfactant solution can give
better sweep e f f i c i e n c y on a micro-scale i n comparison to slug
injection.
Micromodel and High-Pressure System Design
Pressure Vessel and Flow System Design. The operation of glass

micromodels at high i n t e r n a l pressure requires a confining or
external pressure to prevent glass f a i l u r e . Micromodels have
survived internal-external pressure differences of over 700 PSI,
but prolonged exposure leads to fatigue and rupture. The choice of
confining medium i s limited by the additional requirements of
o p t i c a l t r a n s m i t t a b i l i t y and r e f r a c t i v i t y needed for viewing the
-
micromodel from some distance away. The t y p i c a l solutionis "!?- i s
to place the micromodel In some kind of prèssurizable v i s u a l c e l l
and provide confining pressure with an o p t i c a l l y compatible and
transparent f l u i d .

236 SURFACTANT-BASED MOBILITY CONTROL
The p r e s s u r e v e s s e l d e s i g n used here i s s i m i l a r t o one developed by

Campbell and O r r ^ . I t c o n s i s t s of a m i d s e c t i o n h o u s i n g the
micromodel, sandwiched between two p o l y c a r b o n a t e windows, w h i c h i n
t u r n a r e c o v e r e d on each end by doughnut-shaped end p l a t e s ( F i g u r e
1). The whole assembly i s h e l d t o g e t h e r by a b o l t c i r c l e and
s e a l e d between m i d - s e c t i o n and windows by an o - r i n g and gasket
c o m b i n a t i o n . To a c h i e v e a p r e s s u r e r a t i n g o f 3000 p s i a t 150°F,
the windows were machined from 3 - p l y G.E. L e x g a r d P o l y c a r b o n a t e
L a m i n a t e , and the m e t a l p a r t s were made o f J-45 s t e e l from the E.M.
J o r g e n s e n Co.
The micromodel i s l o c a t e d i n the m i d - s e c t i o n o f the p r e s s u r e

v e s s e l . I t i s s e a t e d i n a s l o t where the f e e d p o r t s e x i t the
m i d - s e c t i o n and i s clamped down by r e s t r a i n i n g b a r s . The h o l e s
tapped i n the micromodel a r e a l i g n e d w i t h the f e e d p o r t e x i t s , and
a s e a l i s m a i n t a i n e d by 0 - r i n g s s e a t e d around t h e s e e x i t s . T h i s
d e s i g n d i f f e r s from t h e Campbell-Orr p r e s s u r e v e s s e l w h i c h uses

t u b i n g f i t t e d t o C-claraps t o c a r r y f l u i d s t o and from the
micromodel. The d e s i g n employed here r e s t r i c t s the s i z e o f the
micromodels t o a p a r t i c u l a r s e t o f s p e c i f i c a t i o n s , but does p r o v i d e
a more s e c u r e way of p r e s s u r i z i n g the micromodel.
The f l o w o f f l u i d s t o and from the micromodel i s a c c o m p l i s h e d by

the f l o w system shown i n F i g u r e 2. Two ISCO 5000 LC pumps a r e used
to meter gas and l i q u i d t o t h e micromodel a t h i g h p r e s s u r e . The
pump f o r the l i q u i d a l s o p r e s s u r i z e s a t r a n s f e r v e s s e l o f g l y c e r o l
t h a t g i v e s t h e overburden p r e s s u r e . When b o t h gas and l i q u i d a r e
f l o w i n g i n t o the micromodel a s a m p l i n g v a l v e breaks the f l o w i n t o
15 pi s l u g s t o i n s u r e i n t i m a c y o f the f l u i d s w i t h o u t foaming.
Downstream a TEMCO s t a t i c back p r e s s u r e r e g u l a t o r i s used t o
m a i n t a i n system p r e s s u e w i t h v e r y s m a l l f l u c t u a t i o n s .
Micromodel f l o o d s were r e c o r d e d on v i d e o t a p e f o r l a t e r a n a l y s i s . A
t e l e v i s i o n camera w i t h a zoom l e n s a l l o w e d m a g n i f i c a t i o n l e v e l s
from 33x t o 333x as measured on the m o n i t o r ' s s c r e e n . A F u j i n o n
35mm l e n s was used f o r l a r g e r f i e l d s o f v i e w . R e c o r d i n g was made
i n time l a p s e f o r r e p l a y i n r e a l t i m e , a l l o w i n g up t o 10 days w o r t h
of r e c o r d i n g on a two-hour t a p e .
Micromodel D e s i g n and F a b r i c a t i o n . I n p a s t s t u d i e s u s i n g
micrmodels the e t c h i n g p a t t e r n s were d r a f t e d by h a n d ^ " ^ . These
p a t t e r n s were e i t h e r r e g u l a r pore networks o f i d e n t i c a l pore b o d i e s
and throats** AO o r t r a c i n g s o f t h i n - s e c t i o n s H > ^ ^ . I n e i t h e r
case the i n f l u e n c e of human hand and mind i s g r e a t enough t o r a i s e
the q u e s t i o n o f whether o r n o t micromodel r e s u l t s a r e a f f e c t e d by
the d r a f t i n g t e c h n i q u e . T h i s may be e s p e c i a l l y t r u e f o r foam f l o w
i n micromodels, where bubble f o r m a t i o n , and breakup and d e f o r m a t i o n
w i l l depend on pore g e o m e t r y ^ . I t may seem odd t o be so
concerned about h a v i n g e x a c t l y the same pore shapes as a r e found i n
n a t u r e when the micromodel i s a l r e a d y a g r e a t a p p r o x i m a t i o n ; i . e . ,
a t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l problem ( f l o w i n porous media) i s reduced t o
two-dimensions, and r e l a t i v e l y smooth, c l e a n g l a s s i s s u b s t i t u t e d
f o r rough, d i r t y r o c k . Pore geometry i s p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t ,
however, because the v a r i a b i l i t y i n pore dimensions w i l l determine

SCREW
Figure 1. Micromodel Pressure Vessel: Exploded View

DIFFERENTIAL
SI'
BOTTLE
PRESSURE
TRANSDUCER
BACK PRESSURE
REGULATOR
VIDEO _ a
CAMERA
0 Π
CHART RECORDER
VIDEO
RECORDER
-Φ—U b-e-
CAPILLARY Γ±| MICROMODEL
SIGHT H PRESSURE
VESSEL MONITOR
GLASS LjJ
LIGHT
RLTER
FLOW
LINES
CABLES
VALVES
PRESSURE
TRANSDUCER
ISCO ISCO
PUMP PUMP CHECK
VALVE
Li V
Figure 2. Micromodel Flow System Schematic

the h e t e r o g e n e i t y o f the porous medium, and t h i s q u a l i t y i s a

c r u c i a l p a r t of many p h y s i c a l p r o c e s s e s i n f l o w i n porous
media^. H a n d - d r a f t e d p a t t e r n s cannot d u p l i c a t e the c o m p l e x i t y
of n a t u r a l pore systems, so i t i s d e s i r a b l e t o copy the n a t u r a l
pore networks e x a c t l y .
To a c c o m p l i s h t h i s a pétrographie image a n a l y s i s ( P I A ) t e c h n i q u e
f o r g e n e r a t i n g micromodel p a t t e r n s was developed by M. Parma and
W.J. Ebanks-^ t h a t can t a k e c o l o r images of t h i n - s e c t i o n s and
c o n v e r t them t o d i g i t a l maps f o r making b l a c k - a n d - w h i t e e t c h i n g
p a t t e r n s . I t uses f a l s e - c o l o r p r o c e s s i n g t o s e p a r a t e the c o l o r s i n
a t h i n - s e c t i o n i n t o d i f f e r e n t grey l e v e l s , w h i c h can be segmented
by computer i n t o v a r i o u s components o f the t h i n s e c t i o n . S i n c e the
epoxy f i l l i n g the pore spaces i s b r i g h t b l u e , i n c o n t r a s t t o the
d u l l shades of the r o c k m a t r i x , p o r o s i t y and n o n - p o r o s i t y can be
easily distinguished.
The r e s u l t i n g computer-processed image, as viewed on a v i d e o

m o n i t o r , i s a m i x t u r e o f green ( f o r p o r o s i t y ) and b l a c k ( f o r
n o n - p o r o s i t y ) p i x e l s . The green p i x e l s can be counted and d i v i d e d
by the t o t a l p i x e l number t o g i v e the p o r o s i t y o f the s e c t i o n under
view. The v i d e o b i n a r y image can t h e n be f e d t o a f l a t - s c r e e n TV
f o r photographing.
Because the t h i n s e c t i o n has t o be h i g h l y m a g n i f i e d ( ^ 1 0 0 x ) t o

make the pores show up c l e a r l y a s i n g l e v i e w i s i n s u f f i c i e n t f o r
making a p a t t e r n . To get a l a r g e enough a r e a f o r a p a t t e r n , the
f i e l d of v i e w i s moved over s l i g h t l y i n one d i r e c t i o n ( t o where i t
i s s t i l l p a r t i a l l y o v e r l a p p i n g the p r e v i o u s v i e w ) , and a n o t h e r
b i n a r y image i s g e n e r a t e d . T h i s procedure i s c o n t i n u e d u n t i l the
photographs o f the o v e r l a p p i n g views can be p l a c e d t o g e t h e r t o form
a montage, u s u a l l y f i v e photos l o n g by two photos wide. The
montage i s t h e n reduced (=10x) onto h i g h - c o n t r a s t b l a c k - a n d - w h i t e
photo paper o r onto t r a n s p a r e n c i e s t o get the f i n a l e t c h i n g
p a t t e r n . I n t h i s way the s c a l i n g o f the t r u e pore network t o t h a t
on the e t c h i n g p a t t e r n can be c o n t r o l l e d p r e c i s e l y a l t h o u g h an
e x a c t 1:1 s c a l i n g would r e q u i r e an i m p o s s i b l y l a r g e montage.
U s i n g t h i s t e c h n i q u e e t c h i n g p a t t e r n s f o r d i f f e r e n t r o c k t y p e s have
been g e n e r a t e d . One of t h e s e r o c k s i s a r e s e r v o i r sandstone
( F i g u r e 3) showing a f a i r l y r e g u l a r g r a i n s i z e ( b l a c k a r e a s ) and
h i g h l y i n t e r c o n n e c t e d pore b o d i e s ( w h i t a r e a s ) . P o r o s i t y f o r t h i s
sample was c a l c u l a t e d t o be 30% w i t h v e r y few dead-end pores and
the t o t a l m a g n i f i c a t i o n or s c a l e from t h i n - s e c t i o n t o e t c h i n g
p a t t e r n ( a reduced v e r s i o n of F i g u r e 3) was 10.9x. A second
e t c h i n g p a t t e r n was i n c l u d e d i n t h i s work t o a l l o w f o r a comparison
between the imaged-analyzed and h a n d - d r a f t e d p a t t e r n s . The d e s i g n
i s an a r c h i t e c t u r a l t r a n s f e r c a l l e d " P a t i o Stone" t h a t i s made by
Para-Tone, I n c . I t i s used t o i n d i c a t e masonry o r stone f l o o r s on
b l u e p r i n t s , but has been p r e v i o u s l y used as an e t c h i n g p a t t e r n
because of i t s s i m i l a r i t y t o a pore network ( F i g u r e 4 ) . As can be
seen from the f i g u r e , t h i s p a t t e r n g i v e s v e r y r e g u l a r , l a r g e pores
when e t c h e d , w i t h a pore body/pore t h r o a t a s p e c t r a t i o o f c l o s e t o
u n i t y . I t would be expected t h a t t h i s l a c k o f h e t e r o g e n e i t y might

Figure 3. Reservoir Sandstone Binary Image
11
Figure A. "Patio Stone Binary Image

have a profound e f f e c t on d i s p l a c e m e n t s t a b i l i t y , phase m i x i n g and

t r a p p e d phase s a t u r a t i o n s . The e t c h i n g p a t t e r n s i n F i g u r e s 3 and 4
were reduced by r o u g h l y the same amount o f f o r the a c t u a l e t c h i n g
f i l m s . T a b l e I g i v e s t h e e s t i m a t e d range o f pore s i z e s , s c a l e , and
p o r o s i t y f o r t h e s e e t c h i n g p a t t e r n s , a l o n g w i t h the pore volume o f
the e t c h e d micromodels.
1
TABLE I . P e r m e a b i l i t i e s , Pore S i z e Ranges, S c a l e ,
Pore Volume and P o r o s i t y o f Micromodels
1 z
M-M k - t , Darcy-yun- Pore S i z e s , yam S c a l e P.V., cc P o r o s i t y %
Sandstone 385 50-200 10.9 0.18 30

3
Patio 473 400-1300 N/A 0.39 —
Stone
1
k - t = QuL/WAP L = 2.75", W = 1.75"
2
S c a l e = Avg. Pore S i z e o f Micromodel
Avg. Pore S i z e o f T h i n S e c t i o n
3
From R e f . 10
Subsequent t o the c o m p l e t i o n o f the image a n a l y s i s work f o r

g e n e r a t i n g e t c h i n g p a t t e r n s , a paper by T r y g s t a d , e t a l . 19
appeared i n the l i t e r a t u r e w h i c h d e s c r i b e s e s s e n t i a l l y the same
p r o c e s s . The e t c h i n g p a t t e r n s of T r y g s t a d , e t a l . have s c a l e
f a c t o r s from l O x t o 25x, and m i c r o s c o p i c e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e i r
micromodels r e v e a l s t h a t t h e e t c h e d pores and the t h i n - s e c t i o n
pores have an almost e x a c t g e o m e t r i c s i m i l i t u d e i n terms of a s p e c t
r a t i o and pore shapes. Displacement experiments i n t h e i r
micromodels c o n f i r m the a n t i c i p a t e d f l o w e f f e c t s o f the r e a l r o c k
h e t e r o g e n e i t i e s , and show t h a t t h e s e models a l l o w f o r a more
a c c u r a t e comparison between p o r e - l e v e l f l o w b e h a i o r i n micromodels
and c o r e - f l o o d r e s u l t s .
The e t c h i n g o f the micromodels used i n t h i s s t u d y was performed by

M. Graham o f Adobe Labs Co. u s i n g a t e c h n i q u e developed by B.T.
Campbe
uio
2
and I . C h a t z i s ^ .
Micromodel Foam F l o o d s
T a b l e I I l i s t s the micromodel experiments performed i n t h i s s t u d y .

Only two micromodels, t h e R e s e r v o i r Sandstone (RS) and t h e " P a t i o
Stone" ( P S ) , were used. I n t h e s e experiments the performance o f
d i f f e r e n t i n j e c t i o n schemes and the e f f e c t s o f s u r f a c t a n t on gas
d i s p l a c e m e n t o f water were i n v e s t i g a t e d .
Each experiment would b e g i n w i t h the micromodel f i l l e d w i t h e i t h e r

water o r s u r f a c t a n t s o l u t i o n . I f o n l y gas were t o be i n j e c t e d , t h e
gas pump would be s e t t o meter a t the a p p r o p r i a t e r a t e and t h e n the

flow l i n e s to the pressure vessel would be purged u n t i l the gas

reached the i n l e t to the pressure vessel. At t h i s point the purap
would be stopped, the value c o n t r o l l i n g flow to the micromodel set
open, and the system would s e t t l e to the preset back pressure. At
t h i s point i n j e c t i o n would begin, and the pressure and video
recording would s t a r t .
For simultaneous gas and l i q u i d i n j e c t i o n , the procedure was

altered to purge the flow l i n e s with both f l u i d s . A mixing chamber
upstream of the purge outlet allows for a gentle blending of the
f l u i d s . Once the pressure was s t a b i l i z e d i n j e c t i o n of the preraixed
f l u i d would begin.
To quantify micromodel flow c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , the

mobility-thickness, M-t, and the permeability-thickness, k-t, can
be calculated. These quantities are used here instead of mobility

and permeability because the flow i s only two-dimensional.

Mobility-thickness i s defined as
M-t = QL
W ΔΡ (1)
where Q i s the flow rate, and L and W are the length and width of
the micromodel, respectively. For example, the SAG foam flood gave
M-t=10.7 darcy-um/cp, while the straight surfactant solution flood
gave M-t=55.0 darcy-um/cp. When the flow i s single phase at 100%
saturation, then k-t can be calculated from
k-t = Q JLAL
WAV (2)
where u i s the flowing phase v i s c o s i t y . Using the surfactant

solution v i s c o s i t y of 8.6 cp as measured with a Brookfield
viscometer, this gives ^ ί = 4 7 3 darcy-um for the PS micromodel.
Similar calculations give k-t=385 darcy-ura for the RS micromodel
(Table I ) .
A. "Patio Stone" (PS) Micromodel
Of the many experiments run i n the PS micromodel, only Test 11-19A

i s described here (see Table I I ) . I t was a gas-drive of surfactant
solution (GDS), i n which the pressure drop across the micromodel
was measured and analyzed i n terms of the flow behavior recorded
simultaneously on videotape. I t was also of interest to examine
bubble formation and breakup processes i n the PS model, where the
large and f a i r l y regular pores might give a different behavior than
the smaller, more variable pores of the RS model. The surfactant
used i n the PS model was an anionic-nonionic blend i n a 10 wt.%
(weight percent active) solution, and nitrogen was the gas used i n
the GDS test. Conditions were 1000 p s i back pressure and ambient
temperature.
Bubble formation i n the GDS process was found to occur by two

separate mechanisms. The f i r s t mechanism has been i d e n t i f i e d

TABLE I I . Experimental Conditions, Flow Rates and Fluids

For Micromodel Experiments
Test // Micromodel P,psi T,°F I n j . Scheme Q,cc/HR Gas Liquid
11-19A PS 1000 75 GDS 0.3 A A

11-21A PS 1000 75 S 0.3 A A
1-13A RS 1000 75 S 0.3 B B
1-14A RS 1200 75 S 0.3 B B
1-16A RS 2000 75 S, GDS 4.0 B B
1-24A RS 1000 75 GDS 0.23 B B
1-27A RS 500 75 GDS 0.23 B B
1-27B RS 2000 75 GDS 0.23 B B
2-3A RS 2000 120 GDW 0.23 C C
2-3B RS 2000 120 GDW 0.23 C C
2-3C RS 2000 120 SI, 3:1 0.23 C D

2-5A RS 2000 120 ST, 3:1 0.23 c D

4-1.1A RS 1000 120 GDW 0.3 c C
4-11B RS 1000 120 GDW 0.3 c C
4-14A RS 1000 120 GDS 0.3 c E
4-14B RS 1000 120 GDS 0.3 c E
4-15A RS 1000 120 GDS 0.3 c E
4-15B RS 1000 120 GDS 0.3 c E
4-16A RS 1000 120 GDW 0.3 c C
KEY
PS = Patiostone Micromodel
RS = Sandstone Micromodel
S = Surfactant Injection Only
GDS = Gas Drive of Surfactant Solution
GDW - Gas Drive of Water
SI, 3:1 • Simultaneous Injection, Gas:Liquid Ratio = 3:1
Gases
A - N 2
Β = CH4
C • Reservoir Injection Gas (Mostly C^)
Liquids
A - 30% Liquinox i n H2O

Β = 0.5% A l i p a l C0-128 i n 15% NaCl Brine
C = Reservoir Brine
55
D 0.1% A0S-1618 In Reservoir Brine
Ε - 0.5% A l i p a l CD-128 In Reservoir Brine

15 17
previously as " s n a p - o f f " * , i n which a gas finger invading a
l i q u i d - f i l l e d pore body w i l l snap o f f smaller bubbles by forming
lamellae at the pore throat (Figure 5a, b). At f i r s t the bubbles
tend to be the same diameter as the throat, but as the l i q u i d i s
depleted the bubbles become larger u n t i l lamellae formation f i n a l l y
stops. Snap-off i s governed by a set of equations r e l a t i n g pore
dimensions (such as aspect r a t i o ) to pressure drop and surface
2 1
t e n s i o n , which for gas-liquid systems t y p i c a l l y requires a
large pore body/pore throat aspect r a t i o vv3). Because the pore
dimensions were f a i r l y uniform ( i . e . constant pore radius) for the
PS model, snap-off was rarely observed.
The second bubble formation mechanism i s shown i n frames c and d of

Figure 5. I t occurred only i n those areas where one pore crossed
another. I f a long gas finger were moving i n one pore, and another
gas bubble were to be forced into the i n t e r s e c t i o n of the two pores
by a p r e v a i l i n g pressure gradient, the long finger would break

towards i t s t a i l i n g end into a long piece and short piece. The gas
bubble i n the i n t e r s e c t i n g pore could then s l i p between the long
and short pieces, leaving three bubbles where only two had existed
before. This process would continue at different intersections
u n t i l the long finger had been broken into several smaller ones.
The majority of the bubbles i n the GDS experiment were formed i n
this manner. Bubbles formed by t h i s second mechanism are several
times larger than the pore radius, whereas bubbles formed by
snap-off tend to be the same size as the pore throat radius.
As the gas would finger through the surfactant solution during the
GDS sequence, the pressure drop across the micromodel fluctuated as
a slugs of gas and l i q u i d moved through the major flow channels.
This i s because the t o t a l pressure drop across the model i s the sum
of the pressure drops across the i n d i v i d u a l lamellae moving i n the
main flow path. By synchronizing the pressure recording on a s t r i p
chart with the video tape, i t was found that the peaks i n the
pressure difference fluctuations occurred when no gas movement was
v i s i b l e . The pressure difference would decrease when a gas finger
would enter a major flow channel, and the gas finger would rapidly
move through the channel. As the flood proceeded, the size of the
l i q u i d slugs separating the gas fingers decreased u n t i l l i q u i d
production ceased, at which point an uninterrupted gas path existed
through the micromodel (breakthrough). Simultaneously, the
pressure drop decreased from 1.8 to 0.5 p s i . A plot of the volume
of l i q u i d between gas fingers (as measured by the distance between
pressure peaks) against the logarithm of the gas throughput appears
to give a l i n e a r r e l a t i o n s h i p (Figure 6). This behavior i s
consistent with the observation that as the gas saturation
increases, there i s less l i q u i d i n the micromodel to be produced;
thus, the size of the lquid slugs separating the gas fingers
decreases. The logarithmic r e l a t i o n s h i p i s not as e a s i l y
explained, however. As the l i q u i d saturation decreases the
pressure drop must increase to force l i q u i d i n other regions of the
model to flow. Thus, the pressure loss gets larger as the flood
progresses u n t i l breakthrough, when i t must decrease since there i s
no longer any resistance by l i q u i d to gas flow. Unless l i q u i d i s

Figure 5. Bubble Formation During Gas-Drive

a,b. Front of Finger
c,d. End of Finger

continually replenished, the mobility control by surfactant w i l l be

only temporary.
The magnitude of the pressure drop fluctuations (the peaks and

valleys on the s t r i p chart recording of ΛΡ) increased as the
average pressure drop increased during the GDS flood. Similar
results have been found i n foam floods i n bead packs and core
4
f l o o d s . Figure 7 i s a plot of height of a f l u c t u a t i o n , ^
versus the average pressure drop duing that fluctuation, A^avg-
The data seem to f a l l along a l i n e having a slope around unity
( i . e . , average pressure drop change proportional to fluctuation
T h i s
width change) and an intercept (d • 0) of AP vg£°« a
intercept may be due to additional pressure losses i n the flow

l i n e s outside the micromodel between the pressure transducer taps,
or perhaps due to c a p i l l a r y pressure. The interpretation of Figure
7 would be that the fluctuations, which are correlated with the
movement of the l i q u i d slugs i n the main flow channels, are

one-half the amount of pressure loss necessary to i n i t i a t e movement

of the l i q u i d slugs i n the main flow channel. This pressure loss
increases as the volume of l i q u i d decreases i n the main channel,
the pressure drop increases u n t i l i t reaches a l e v e l at which the
c a p i l l a r y forces opposing the flow are overcome, i t then decreases
u n t i l the l i q u i d exits the micromodel. This behavior i s
s i g n i f i c a n t because i t indicates that the foam pressure drop i s not
primarily due to viscous flow but rather c a p i l l a r y resistance, at
least i n the two-dimensional model.
Reservoir Sandstone (RS) Micromodel. The RS micromodel was used i n

a variety of experiments examining the effects of surfactant, foam
quality, i n j e c t i o n scheme and pressure l e v e l on foam displacement
e f f i c i e n c y and flow patterns. Various gases and brines or
surfactant solutions were used, primarily f i e l d i n j e c t i o n gas and
brine, and the surfactant AES (trade name: A l i p a l CD-128) at a
concentration of 0.5 wt.%.
Figure 8 shows an o v e r a l l view of the micromodel a f t e r simultaneous

i n j e c t i o n (SI) of gas and surfactant solution (Frame a) and a f t e r
GDS flooding with only one cycle of gas i n j e c t i o n (Frame b). The
SI process was filmed during Test 2-5A while the GDS process was
filmed during Test 4-15A. Foam flow i n the SI process spreads out
from the major flow channel more than the GDS flood, and the
average size of the bubbles i s smaller i n the SI case than i n the
GDS case. The SI process appears to d i s t r i b u t e the gas i n a more
uniform fashion throughout the porous medium when compared to the
GDS flood.
When comparing the gas-drive processes GDS and GDW the presence of
surfactant i n the displaced l i q u i d has a great effect on the
displacement mechanisms and flow patterns. Figure 9 shows
schematically the f i n a l extent of sweep for gas-drive of brine
without surfactant (Frame a) and with surfactant (Frame b). In
each case the gas appears to have p r e f e r e n t i a l l y flowed through a
few large channels that zig-zag across the micromodel; however, i n

SHIRLEY Foam Formation in Porous Media 247
0.15 η
BREAKTHROUGH
.1 1 10
PORE VOLUMES INJECTED
Figure 6. Volume of Liquid Between Gas Fingers During Drainage

Displacement (GDS Flood) (Test 1-24A)
1.50 -ι
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
FLUCTUATION HEIGHT, PSI
Figure 7. ΔΡ Fluctuations vs. Average ΔΡ (Test 1-24A)
American Chemical Society

Library
1155 16th SU N.W.
ACS Symposium Series;Washington, D.C.Society:
American Chemical 20036Washington, DC, 1988.
a. SIMULTANEOUS INJECTION b. SURFACTANT-ALT.-GAS
I I LIQUID Y///À GAS
Figure 8. F i n a l Fluid Saturations f o r Foam Displacement of

Brine
a. Simultaneous Injection (Test 2-5A)
b. Gas-Drive of Surfactant Solution (Test 4-15A)
a. WITHOUT SURFACTANT b. WITH SURFACTANT
I I LIQUID Y///À GAS
Figure 9. F i n a l F l u i d Saturations for Gas-Drive of Brine

a. Without Surfactant (Test 4-1IB)
b. With Surfactant (Test 4-14B)

the g a s - d r i v e where s u r f a c t a n t was used, the gas spread out from

these major c h a n n e l s more t h a n when s u r f a c t a n t was not p r e s e n t ,
l e a v i n g a l a r g e r swept a r e a i n the model and d e l a y i n g
b r e a k t h r o u g h . T a b l e I I I shows t h i s n u m e r i c a l l y , as t h e number o f
pore volumes i n j e c t e d b e f o r e b r e a k t h r o u g h i s n e a r l y t w i c e as l a r g e
w i t h s u r f a c t a n t as i t i s w i t h o u t . I n t e r e s t i n g l y , p r e s s u r e drop
measurements a t b r e a k t h r o u g h as g i v e n i n Table I I I show t h a t the
p r e s s u r e drop f o r g a s - d r i v e i s s m a l l e r when s u r f a c t a n t i s p r e s e n t .
T h i s r e s u l t i s unexpected, and w i l l be examined i n the d i s c u s s i o n
s e c t i o n of t h i s paper.
TABLE I I I . E f f e c t of S u r f a c t a n t on Gas-Drive P r e s s u r e Drop
AP Gas-Drive Cum. Flow

Test Surfactant? AP L i q u i d , p s i psi at B.T.,
4-11A Ν 0.05 0.20 0.13

4-11B Ν 0.05 0.25 0.10
4-14A Y 0.05 0.13 —
4-14B Y — — 0.19
4-15A Y 0.10 0.18 0.20
4-15B Y 0.03 0.13 0.18
4-16A Ν 0.02 0.24 —
N O T E : See Table I I for experimental conditions and fluids.
The SI p r o c e s s i s more e f f e c t i v e a t d i s p l a c i n g a l i q u i d t h a n t h e
GDS p r o c e s s , w h i c h i n t u r n i s b e t t e r t h a n the GDW p r o c e s s . The
reasons f o r t h i s r a n k i n g can be u n d e r s t o o d from a m i c r o s c o p i c
e x a m i n a t i o n o f the f l o w b e h a v i o r . F i g u r e s 10 and 11 demonstrate
how i n t i m a t e m i x i n g o f gas and l i q u i d d u r i n g s i m u l t a n e o u s i n j e c t i o n
a f f e c t s the d i s p l a c e m e n t p r o c e s s . I n F i g u r e 10a, s m a l l bubbles can
be seen f l o w i n g i n t o and out of a pore body i n the c e n t e r o f t h e
f i g u r e , moving from bottom t o t o p . Stagnant l a r g e bubbles f i l l the
pores below and t o the l e f t and r i g h t o f t h e c e n t e r pore. The f l o w
g o i n g t h r o u g h the c e n t e r pore i s v e r y wet, h a v i n g o n l y a few
e n t r a i n e d b u b b l e s , because a l a r g e s l u g o f s u r f a c t a n t i s p a s s i n g
t h r o u g h . The p r e s s u r e drop measured a t t h i s time was 1.65 p s i . As
more gas e n t e r e d t h e micromodel d u r i n g s i m u l t a n e o u s i n j e c t i o n , t h e
q u a l i t y of t h e foam i n c r e a s e d and t h e bubbles got l a r g e r ( F i g u r e
1 0 b ) , and the p r e s s u r e drop i n c r e a s e d , r e a c h i n g 2.1 p s i .
As t h e p r e s s u r e drop f l u c t u a t e s and the average bubble s i z e changes

d u r i n g s i m u l t a n e o u s i n j e c t i o n , the f l o w paths a l s o change. Such
changes l e a v e some pores f i l l e d w i t h s t a g n a n t bubbles w h i l e foam
f l o w s by i n n e i g h b o r i n g p o r e s . F i g u r e 11 shows a l a r g e r v i e w o f
t h e a r e a s u r r o u n d i n g the c e n t e r pore i n F i g u r e 10 ( s e e n j u s t below
the date and time i n d i c a t o r ) . A low q u a l i t y f l o w o f s m a l l bubbles
can be seen i n the c h a n n e l t h a t goes d i a g o n a l l y from the bottom
l e f t t o the t o p r i g h t o f t h e photograph, w h i l e connected t o t h i s
c h a n n e l i s a network o f o t h e r pores f i l l e d w i t h l a r g e r s t a t i o n a r y
b u b b l e s . As time went on, the bubble s i z e i n c r e a s e d , f i l l i n g t h e
f l o w p a t h w i t h l a r g e b u b b l e s . These became t r a p p e d due t o t h e i r

Figure 10. Bubble Size and Flow Resistance (Test 2-5A)

a. Low Quality Foam (ΔΡ=1.65 p s i )
b. . High Quality Foam (ΔΡ=2.10 p s i )

size, and the r i s i n g pressure drop required to raove these bubbles

also dislodged the previously stagnant bubbles. In this way the
flow paths were continually changing and new flow areas were opened
up during SI of gas and surfactant.
This behavior i s quite different from that observed during

gas-drive of surfactant solution. In the GDS foaming process the
fingering gas enters the pores along the major flow path and snaps
off the bubbles. Because the l i q u i d f i l l i n g these pores has been
displaced and no new l i q u i d i s entering the micromodel, the foam
that i s l e f t i n these pores has a very high quality and i s almost
always trapped. Figure 12 i s a photograph of a highly magnified
view of the area immediately surrounding a major flow channel
running from upper l e f t to lower r i g h t . As i n previous
photographs, the l i g h t areas are the "grains" of the glass matrix,
the darker gray areas are f i l l e d with gas, and the thin black l i n e s
are water-films along the pore walls or foam lamellae separating

gas bubbles. This shot was taken shortly before breakthrough, and
i t can be seen that the major flow channel i s almost e n t i r e l y
g a s - f i l l e d with only a few lamellae breaking up the gas. The pores
connected to t h i s channel are f i l l e d with a high-quality polyhedral
foam that i s stationary. After breakthrough, only gas w i l l flow i n
the main channel while the foam i n the neighboring pores w i l l be
unmoved.
The back pressure at which a gas-drive i s operated w i l l affect the

e f f i c i e n c y of the displacement, as the data i n Table IV indicates.
As the back pressure i s increased, the ultimate pressure drop also
increases and the number of injected pore volumes before the f i n a l
state (the point where e s s e n t i a l l y only gas i s produced)
decreases. A piston-like displacement would require one pore
volume of injected gas before a l l the l i q u i d was produced, while
increasingly less e f f i c i e n c y displacements would require more
volumes.
TABLE IV. Effect of Pressure on Foam Flow Pressure Drop

and Breakthroughl
2
Test P, psia Δ Ρ F i n a l State*, p s i PVI F i n a l , PV
1-27A 500 0.50 1.25
1-24A 1000 0.50 1.10
1-27B 2000 0.60 1.05
1
See Table II f o r experimental conditions and f l u i d s
2 " F i n a l " conditions are defined here as the point at which

only gas i s produced from the micromodel, i d e n t i f i e d by a
constant pressure drop.
Discussion
Effect of Injection Scheme on Foam Displacement. I f the main

interest i n using foam i s f o r c o n t r o l l i n g gas mobility, then i t i s
necessary to have a c r i t e r i o n to judge the effectiveness of a foam

Figure 11. Enlarged View of the Pores i n Figure 10, Showing

Foam Flow i n Channels with Neighboring Water-Filled
Pores (Test 2-5A)
Figure 12. Gas Finger with High Quality Foam (Test 1-27B)

process. For foam floods i n cores or sand packs, the pressure drop
generated during foam i n j e c t i o n i s commonly the parameter used to
quantify effectiveness, but for floods i n micromodels, a v i s u a l
estimate of the area swept by foam i s the most natural c r i t e r i o n to
choose. A. comparison of the areas swept by gas for different
i n j e c t i o n schemes gives great insight into the manner i n which the
foaming process redistributes and s t a b i l i z e s the gas flow, as well
as being a measure of effectiveness. Of course, the
two-dimensional nature of the micromodel and i t s small size make i t
d i f f i c u l t to predict behavior i n three-dimensional rock. The
e f f e c t of the loss of dimensionality and of model size on the
micromodel results i s considered at the end of the discussion
section.
When comparing SI and GDS i n j e c t i o n processes i n the RS model on a

microscopic l e v e l , one difference that i s immediately apparent i s

i n the degree of f l u i d mixing. For the GDS process the

displacement of surfactant solution by gas-drive yields only a
small amount of i n t e r f a c i a l area formation at the displacement
front, with l i t t l e interface generation behind the front. The SI
process, on the other hand, has a continuous mixing of gas and
l i q u i d due to the breaking and reforming of bubbles as they flow,
and t h i s mixing occurs throughout the foam-swept area. Bubble
sizes tend to be much smaller with the SI process, and the foams
are much wetter than those from the GDS process.
Bubble generation during GDS foam flooding occurs by the mechanisms

shown i n Figure 5, p r e f e r e n t i a l l y the snap-off mechanism. Snap-off
tends to be an i n e f f i c i e n t foaming mechanism^ since most bubbles
are formed at the displacement front, where they are pushed ahead
of the main gas body. Behind t h i s front there are fewer lamellae
because the only operative bubble formation mechanism i s the
breakup of gas fingers (Figure 5 c,d). During the SI foam process,
however, the constant flow of surfactant solution allows both
bubble formation mechanisms to operate at anytime and anywhere i n
the pore space. The additional l i q u i d , at a flow rate of one-thord
that of the gas, tends to make the foam wet enough that snap-off i s
the predominant ^bubble formation mechanism. Bubbles appear to be
generated more frequently i n the SI process.
Another difference between SI and GDS foam l i e s i n the mechanism by

which the foam reduces gas mobility. In each process the foam
flows through the largest channels, creating flow resistance due to
the foam lamellae spanning these pores. In the GDS process, the
foam w i l l invade the pores connected to the main flow channels,
plubbing them o f f . As the l i q u i d i s depleted from the main channel
a continuous gas path i s formed, and the microscopic d i s t r i b u t i o n
of gas and l i q u i d becomes permanently fixed. Mobility reduction i n
the GDS process i s a result of the high trapped gas saturation
which has blocked o f f some flow paths. In the SI process, foam
w i l l also invade the neighboring pores around the main flow
channels, but t h i s gas i s not permanently trapped. Instead, foam
w i l l flow through a channel u n t i l the bubbles become so large and
so numerous that the channel i s plugged (for example, the

t r a n s i t i o n from Figure 10a to 10b). The pressure gradient w i l l

increase as a result of this blockage, dislodging bubbles that were
plugging another channel. In this way, the flow w i l l move through
different channels at different times, and more flow paths are
opened up as a consequence (see Figure 8).
The fluctuating pressure gradient that i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of foam

flow i n cores was present i n the micromodel experiments, and a few
aspects should be noted about the nature of this phenomena. The
fluctuations i n the GDS foam flood (Test 11-19A) were found to
correlate with the passage of l i q u i d slugs i n the main gas flow
channels, and appear to be a l i n e a r function of the average
pressure (Figure 7). By correlating each fluctuation with the
respective l i q u i d slug size (Figure 6), i t i s found that the
smallest l i q u i d slugs resulted i n the largest pressure fluctuations
and average pressures. This relationship might seem
counterintuitive, since i t could be expected that when the l i q u i d

f r a c t i o n a l flow decreases and gas f r a c t i o n a l flow increases that

the gas would be "easier" to push. However, i t should be
remembered that the gas i s a discontinuous phase and that a l l the
pressure losses occur i n the l i q u i d phase i n the t h i n films and
lamellae. In the SI foam floods the fluctuations were much smaller
than the average pressure drops, presumably because of the wetter
flow, and high pressure drops could be sustained for longer times
than could be done with the GDS scheme.
Mobility Control as a Function of Rock Heterogeneity. Although the

effect of rock heterogeneity on foam formation and propagation was
not studied i n a systematic fashion i n this investigation, some
observations about i t can be made from the experiments described
above. To begin with, a d i s t i n c t i o n should be made between sweep
e f f i c i e n c y on a macro scale (as i n core floods) and on a micro
scale (as i n the present experiments). In p a r a l l e l core tests, a
foam w i l l have roughly the same mobility i n a high-permeability
4
core as i n a low-permeability c o r e , leading many to believe that
foam can overcome permeability variations i n a r e a l reservoir and
give a p i s t o n - l i k e displacement. On a microscopic l e v e l , however,
the areal sweeps i n Figure 8 for the GDS and SI foam processes are
not p i s t o n - l i k e . A sizable portion of the micromodel i s untouched
by gas, being estimated from 50% i n Frame a to 70% i n Frame b.
Undoubtedly the results i n Figure 8 are influenced by the small
size of the model, but they are s t i l l f e l t to be indicative of the
micro-sweep e f f i c i e n c i e s expected i n larger, three-dimensional
porous media. Thus, even though the movement of the foam bank may
appear to be p i s t o n - l i k e on a macro scale, large amounts of pore
space may be bypassed.
The micro-sweep e f f i c i e n c y w i l l depend on the l o c a l heterogeneity

of the porous medium and the foam's flow properties. The RS
micromodel had a few large channels where the flow was heaviest and
other regions with smaller pores that were not invaded by foam.
The PS micromodel, on the other hand, had fewer pore connections,
and the pores were of more uniform size; consequently, i t was
almost completely swept of l i q u i d i n the GDS foam flood (Test

11-19A). No attempt was made to quantify the heterogeneities of

the two models, so no t h e o r e t i c a l interpretation of these data can
be made.
Further evidence of an effect of microscopic heterogeneity on foam

sweep e f f i c i e n c y comes from Figure 9. During gas drive, when no
surfactant i s present i n the brine, the gas traverses the model
along the larger channels, breaking through at 0.12 pore volumes
injected, as averaged from the data i n Table 4. When surfactant i s
present, breakthrough i s delayed to 0.19 PV injected, a 52%
increase i n sweep e f f i c i e n c y . By comparing Frames a and b of
Figure 9, however, i t would appear that the gas has followed the
same flow paths i n each case, the difference being that the gas has
spread out from the main channels when surfactant i s present. This
behavior indicates that the microscopic heterogeneity i s
c o n t r o l l i n g foam propagation i n the micromodel, and may mean that

foams cannot give a complete sweep i n r e a l porous systems.
One anomalous result from the experiments summarized i n Table III

i s the lower pressure drop during gas-drive of surfactant
solution. An average of the tabulated data gives AP=0.15 p s i when
!=
surfactant was i n the brine versus ΔΡ 0.23 p s i when i t was not.
T y p i c a l l y , the gas-drive of surfactant solution require a higher Ρ

than the gas-drive of brine. One possible explanation i s that the
foam formation i n the "surfactant-present" gas-drives was poor,
such that very l i t t l e gas was present i n a discontinuous state.
The higher gas saturations i n these floods would then allow more
area for gas flow, such that the pressure drop requirements were
lower than when the surfactant was not present. C a p i l l a r y pressure
might account for the difference, since the presence of surfactant
should decrease the surface tension, resulting i n the less
c a p i l l a r y pressure i n the GDS flood than i n the GDW flood. The
same s i t u a t i o n would not necessarily exist i n gas-drives i n
three-dimensional media, since pressure drop requirements for
breakthrough are less for 3-D than for comparable 2-Ό networks^,
and because c a p i l l a r i t y i s often not correctly scaled i n
micromodels24.
Effect of Micromodel Size and Dimensionality on the Interpretation

of the Results. It i s not known how to quantitatively adjust
flooding results i n two-dimensional systems to bring them i n l i n e
with results i n their three-dimensional counterparts, but i t i s
possible to state how the results might d i f f e r . Loss of
dimensionality can lead to lower ultimate recovery, which occurs
for either of two reasons: f i r s t , because two-dimensional systems
of the same coordination number have lower macroscopic connectivity
and second, because loss of dimensionality often lowers the
coordination number of the p o r e s ^ . Thus, a lower sweep
e f f i c i e n c y by foam i n the micromodels would be expected, although
lower recovery might also result for other reasons. The
pore-shapes and pore size d i s t r i b u t i o n of a two-dimensional thin
section d i f f e r s greatly from that of the three-dimensional

SURFACTANT-BASED MOBILITY CONTROL
256
2 4
r o c k , thereby a l s o a f f e c t i n g the displacement. I f the
t h i c k n e s s i s s u b s t a n t i a l l y s m a l l e r than the pore-width, then the
t h i c k n e s s would be the c o n t r o l l i n g l e n g t h - s c a l e , w h i c h c o u l d be a
problem i f t h e t h i c k n e s s i s v e r y u n i f o r m .
F o r t h e micromodel experiments d e s c r i b e d h e r e , i t i s f e l t t h a t t h e
foam sweep e f f i c i e n c y was l o w e r , o v e r a l l , due t o the l o s s o f
d i m e n s i o n a l i t y , but t h a t the r e l a t i v e performance by S I , GDS and
GDW i n j e c t i o n a r e u n a f f e c t e d by d i m e n s i o n a l i t y . I t i s not l i k e l y ,
e i t h e r , t h a t t h e pore t h i c k n e s s dominated any c a p i l l a r y phenomena
t h a t s h o u l d i n s t e a d have depended on t h e t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l pore s i z e
d i s t r i b u t i o n . I f a t y p i c a l pore t h i c k n e s s between 200 and 300mm i s
2
taken,10 > 0 t h e n T a b l e I would seem t o i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e pore
d i a m e t e r s were a t l e a s t comparable i f n o t much s m a l l e r , such t h a t
the pore d i a m e t e r s would be r e s p o n s i b l e f o r any v a r i a t i o n i n
c a p i l l a r y pressure.
The s i z e o f t h e micromodel, b o t h pore dimensions and t h e s i z e o f

the e t c h e d a r e a , can a f f e c t micromodel r e s u l t s i n a number o f
ways. F o r example, t h e e t c h e d pores i n the RS micromodel were
d e s i g n e d t o be 10.9x l a r g e r t h a n t h e a c t u a l pores i n the t h i n
s e c t i o n . One might t h e r e f o r e expect t h a t the c a p i l l a r y p r e s s u r e i n
the micromodel would be about l / 1 0 t h of what i t i s i n t h e r o c k .
The l a r g e r pore s i z e may a l s o i n t r o d u c e boundary and end e f f e c t s
i n t o t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t s , s i n c e i t r e q u i r e s about 40 pore l e n g t h s t o
remove l e n g t h e f f e c t s i n t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l s i m u l a t i o n s o f
2 2
n e t w o r k s . T h i s r e q u i r e m e n t i s d e f i n i t e l y met f o r the RS model,
but i s p r o b a b l y o n l y b a r e l y s a t i s f i e d , o r n o t s a t i s f i e d a t a l l , f o r
the PS model. However, from F i g u r e s 9 and 10, t h e r e i s e v i d e n c e of
b o t h boundary and end e f f e c t s even i n the RS micromodel: i n c o m p l e t e
sweep a t t h e i n l e t m a n i f o l d of the model and r e s i d u a l l i q u i d a l o n g
the s i d e s .
Conclusions
The c o n c l u s i o n s reached from t h e experiments and a n a l y s e s p r e s e n t e d

here a r e :
ο Foam f l o o d i n g by s i m u l t a n e o u s i n j e c t i o n ( S I ) o f gas and

s u r f a c t a n t s o l u t i o n gives greater displacement e f f i c i e n c i e s
than g a s - d r i v e of s u r f a c t a n t s o l u t i o n i n j e c t i o n .
ο W i t h the g a s - d r i v e o f s u r f a c t a n t s o l u t i o n (GDS) i n j e c t i o n
scheme, t h e degree of m i c r o s c o p i c h e t e r o g e n e i t y w i l l determine
t h e m i c r o s c o p i c sweep e f f i c i e n c y .
ο The dominant mechanism o f bubble f o r m a t i o n depends i n t i m a t e l y

on the h e t e r o g e n e i t y of the porous media and the i n j e c t i o n
scheme. R e a l i s t i c ( i . e . n a t u r a l ) pore s t r u c t u r e s w i l l g i v e a
wide b u b b l e s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n .
ο P r e s s u r e drop f l u c t u a t i o n s were found t o c o r r e l a t e w i t h t h e

passage o f gas and l i q u i d s l u g s i n the main f l o w c h a n n e l s of

12. SHIRLEY Foam Formation in Porous Media 2-57
the micromodel. A l t h o u g h they appear random, t h e f l u c t u a t i o n s

a r e found t o depend l i n e a r l y on t h e average p r e s s u r e drop.
Acknowledg ment s
The a u t h o r would l i k e t o e x p r e s s h i s a p p r e c i a t i o n t o Tom Lawless

f o r a s s e m b l i n g t h e f l o w system and p e r f o r m i n g t h e e x p e r i m e n t s .
J.P. H e l l e r and I.M. B a h r a l a l o m p r o v i d e d v e r y h e l p f u l d i s c u s s i o n s
f o r which t h e a u t h o r i s a l s o g r a t e f u l .
Literature Cited
1. NPC Committee on Enhanced Oil Recovery Enhanced Oil Recovery,

May 1984, Draft to D.P. Hodel, Secretary of Energy.

2. Bernard, G.G.; Holm, L.W. Soc. Pet. Eng. J., 1964, 267-274.
3. Castanier, L.M.; Brigham, W.E. Chem. Eng. Prog., 1985, 37.
4. Casteel, J.F.; Djabbarah, N.F. SPE 14392, Sept. 1985.
5. Wardlaw, N.C. SPE 8843, April 1980.
6. Chen, J.-D.; Koplik, J. J. Coll. Int. S c i . , 1985, 108, 304.
7. Hornof, V . ; Morrow, N.R. SPE/DOE 14930, April 1980.
8. Davis, J.A., J r . ; Jones, S.C. SPE 1847, Oct. 1967.
9. Dawe, R.A.; Wright, R.J. Royal Sch. Mines J., 1983, 33, 25.
10. Campbell, B.T.; Orr, F.M., J r . SPE 11958, Oct. 1983.
11. Bahralolom, I.M.; Bretz, R.E. SPE 14147, Sept. 1985.
12. Bahralolom, I.M.; Orr, F . M . , J r . SPE 15079, April 1986.
13. Holm, L.W. Soc. Pet. Eng. J., 1968, 8, 359.
14. David, Α.; Marsden, S.S. SPE 2544, Sept. 1969.
15. Mast, R.F. SPE 3997, Oct. 1972.
16. Kanda, M.; Schecter, R.S. SPE 6200, Oct. 1976.
17. Owete, O.S. Ph.D. Thesis, 1982, Stanford, Univ.
18. Parma, M. Simple Pore Geometry Characterization from Digital
Image Analysis Technique, 1985, ARCO O i l & Gas Co.
19. Trygatad, J.C., Ehrlich, R.; Wardlaw, N.C. SPE/DOE 14891,
April 1986.
20. Chatzis, I. N.M. Inst. of Mining and Tech Report PRRC 82-12,
March 1982.
21. Gardescu, I . I . Trans. AIME, 1930, 86, 351-370.
22. Chatzis, I . ; Dullien, F.A.L. J. Can. Pet. Tech, 1977, 16, 97.
23. LeNormand, R., Zarcone, C.; Sarr, A. J. Fluid Mech., 1983,
135, 337.
24. Dullen, F.A.L. J. Microscopy, 1986, 144, 277.
Received January 5, 1988


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Chapter 12

Foam Formation in Porous Media

Research and Technical Services, ARCO Oil and Gas Company,

A microscopic examination of foam flow in model

A study of the effect of pore geometry on foam

High gas mobility and low sweep e f f i c i e n c y are t y p i c a l problems

In Surfactant-Based Mobility Control; Smith, D.;

i s responsible for the often sizeable reduction i n gas mobility

A high-pressure micromodel system has been constructed to v i s u a l l y

Micromodels have been used i n previous studies of foam i n porous

of f l u i d - f l u i d interactions on the microscopic scale.

The high-pressure and temperature micromodel system has been used

Micromodel and High-Pressure System Design

Pressure Vessel and Flow System Design. The operation of glass

In Surfactant-Based Mobility Control; Smith, D.;

The p r e s s u r e v e s s e l d e s i g n used here i s s i m i l a r t o one developed by

The micromodel i s l o c a t e d i n the m i d - s e c t i o n o f the p r e s s u r e

d e s i g n d i f f e r s from t h e Campbell-Orr p r e s s u r e v e s s e l w h i c h uses

The f l o w o f f l u i d s t o and from the micromodel i s a c c o m p l i s h e d by

In Surfactant-Based Mobility Control; Smith, D.;

Figure 1. Micromodel Pressure Vessel: Exploded View

In Surfactant-Based Mobility Control; Smith, D.;

In Surfactant-Based Mobility Control; Smith, D.;

the h e t e r o g e n e i t y o f the porous medium, and t h i s q u a l i t y i s a

The r e s u l t i n g computer-processed image, as viewed on a v i d e o

Because the t h i n s e c t i o n has t o be h i g h l y m a g n i f i e d ( ^ 1 0 0 x ) t o

In Surfactant-Based Mobility Control; Smith, D.;

Figure 3. Reservoir Sandstone Binary Image

In Surfactant-Based Mobility Control; Smith, D.;

have a profound e f f e c t on d i s p l a c e m e n t s t a b i l i t y , phase m i x i n g and

Sandstone 385 50-200 10.9 0.18 30

Subsequent t o the c o m p l e t i o n o f the image a n a l y s i s work f o r

The e t c h i n g o f the micromodels used i n t h i s s t u d y was performed by

T a b l e I I l i s t s the micromodel experiments performed i n t h i s s t u d y .

Each experiment would b e g i n w i t h the micromodel f i l l e d w i t h e i t h e r

In Surfactant-Based Mobility Control; Smith, D.;

flow l i n e s to the pressure vessel would be purged u n t i l the gas

For simultaneous gas and l i q u i d i n j e c t i o n , the procedure was

To quantify micromodel flow c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , the

be calculated. These quantities are used here instead of mobility

and permeability because the flow i s only two-dimensional.

where u i s the flowing phase v i s c o s i t y . Using the surfactant

A. "Patio Stone" (PS) Micromodel

Of the many experiments run i n the PS micromodel, only Test 11-19A

Bubble formation i n the GDS process was found to occur by two

In Surfactant-Based Mobility Control; Smith, D.;

TABLE I I . Experimental Conditions, Flow Rates and Fluids

Test // Micromodel P,psi T,°F I n j . Scheme Q,cc/HR Gas Liquid

11-19A PS 1000 75 GDS 0.3 A A

2-3C RS 2000 120 SI, 3:1 0.23 C D

2-5A RS 2000 120 ST, 3:1 0.23 c D

C • Reservoir Injection Gas (Mostly C^)

A - 30% Liquinox i n H2O

In Surfactant-Based Mobility Control; Smith, D.;

The second bubble formation mechanism i s shown i n frames c and d of

by a p r e v a i l i n g pressure gradient, the long finger would break

In Surfactant-Based Mobility Control; Smith, D.;

Figure 5. Bubble Formation During Gas-Drive

In Surfactant-Based Mobility Control; Smith, D.;

continually replenished, the mobility control by surfactant w i l l be

The magnitude of the pressure drop fluctuations (the peaks and

intercept may be due to additional pressure losses i n the flow

movement of the l i q u i d slugs i n the main flow channels, are