Wildfires

David Alexander
University College London
 Forest and rangeland fires (wildfires)
are a source of important
ecological and economic damage and
risk to human lives and settlements.

A wildfire burns out of control and

threatens people, buildings or resources.
 Synonyms:-

• bushfire (Australia)

• forest fire, range fire (North America)

• environmental fire

• wildfire.
 Phases of wildfire:-

• confined - limited to a
predetermined area using
natural and man-made barriers

• contained - surrounded by a control

line so that it cannot spread further

• under control - completely

encircled by the control line
and burning in predictable ways.
 The causes of wildfires:-

• lightning strikes (a natural

cause of varied importance)
• human negligence and vandalism
(greatest at the
urban-rural interface)
• vegetative fermentation leading to
spontaneous combustion are possible
but not probable causes of wildfires.
 Dendrochronology: the frequency of
wildfires in the past is visible in damage
to the xylem of the tree, which can be
dated by counting the annual rings.
Model of the acceleration of a wildfire
in an open environment
Proportion of area burnt

Time (minutes)
Map of the evolution of a wildfire in the USA
 Peak of
Maximum fire
Area involved

spread of fire Dying out

Flash Dying out

over
Extinct

Latent Beginning Accele-

rated
Main
fire
Time
Start diffusion phase
of fire Emission of
smoke and
hot gases
The dimensions, duration and intensity
of wildfires varies according to:-
• the type, inflammability and water
content of wood: the loading factor
for combustible material
• meteorological conditions
(temperature, humidity)
• the speed, direction and
variability of winds
• topography and ground
slope in the local area.
The essential ingredients
of a wildfire are:-

• combustible material

• heat

• oxygen.
 Classification of wildfires:-

• ground fire: combustion without flames

in the roots and undergrowth
• surface fire: in rangelands,
undergrowth, etc.
• spot fire: localised, concentrated

• dependent crown fire: the crowns of

trees catch fire but the fire is
propagated in the undergrowth.
(a) Ground fire (c) Dependent crown fire

(b) Surface fire (d) Running crown fire

More elements of the classification:-
• running crown fire: the fire is
propagated through the tree crowns

• a “backfire” can occur if the

wind changes direction and the
combustible material has not
been completely consumed
A wildfire can climb a slope
propelled by wind convection
and by heat radiation.
 Convective wildfire which climbs
a slope propelled by wind turbulence
Convective wildfire that climbs a slope
Ground fire
Running crown fire
 Wildfire fuel can be classified as:-
• aerial material: branches, leaves, moss

• surface material:
low-level vegetation, wood,
leaves, grass, detached branches

• buried and composting materials

• mineral soil and roots.

 Some environmental effects
of wildfires:-
.... on vegetation:
• can stimulate the growth
of rangelands and meadows
• can encourage the germination of seeds
• can stimulate flowering
of bushes and plants
• but can restrict the
growth of woody plants.
 Environmental effects of wildfires:-
.... on soil:
• they can purify soil by destroying
toxins, fungi and parasites
• but can accelerate erosion of the soil
.... on birds:
• can destroy nests and cause
fragmentation of habitats
Ecological environments created
or maintained by wildfire show
the greatest diversity of species.
 Australia has an extremely high wildfire
risk: 40% of the nation contains adequate
combustible material, the climate is dry,
temperatures are high and damaging
fires are common.
 Mediterranean maquis (chaparral in
California) is highly inflammable

Mediterranean vegetation gives rise to

very hot fires (540-1100 degrees C),
fed by dry bushes that are
full of highly inflammable oils.
 The elimination of Mediterranean
vegetation by wildfire can:-

• impermeabilise surfaces by depositing

natural polymers (hydrophobic residues)

• cause surface slides of dry ravel

• cause mudflows and debris flows

• contribute to the formation of gullies.

 Mitigation of wildfire:-

• controlled fire - can reduce fuel

loading levels, but it remains
controversial and can cause damage

• total elimination of wildfires allows

massive accumulations of inflammable
material and therefore leads
to much bigger and hotter
fires that spread more rapidly.
 Monitoring of wildfire risk:-

• lookout towers and field patrols

• aerial surveillance

• infrared monitoring from the

ground, the air and satellites.
 ALGORITHM USED TO
CALCULATE AN INDEX
OF FUEL AVAILABILITY

INDEX OF FUEL AVAILABILITY

 Wildfire fighting:-

• one needs to reduce the supply of

heat, oxygen or fuel to the fire

The attack:
• train personnel

• use parachute brigades in areas

that are difficult to reach
• construct corridors of low fuel loading.
 The attack:

• dump water or flame retardant

chemicals from aircraft

• Canadair CL-215 "Super Scooper"

aircraft are able to take up
6,000 litres of water in 12 seconds

• drop water on flames from helicopters.

 Bell-412
helicopters
can transport
1,400 litres
of water.
C-130 aeroplanes can carry 11,000 litres
of flame-retardant chemicals
 California Firescope, a centralised
system of fire fighting:-

• an Incident Command System (ICS)

• a coordination system for various

agencies that work in the field
(Multi-Agency Coordinating System,
MACS) -- for 28 agencies

• an Operations Coordination
Center (OCC) for field attacks.
Average annual number of forest fires
in 12 U.S. states

Total number
Caused by lightning
California Firescope includes an information
system and data bank, which covers:-

• weather forecasting
• infrared surveillance of areas
at greatest risk of wildfires
• immediate reports on the state
of fires and suppression activities
• advice on the best tactics
to adopt for fighting fires.
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