Accepted Manuscript

The relationship between violence in the family and adolescents

aggression: The mediator role of self-control, social support,
religiosity, and well-being

Qutaiba Agbaria, Nazeh Natur

PII: S0190-7409(18)30070-7
DOI: doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2018.06.016
Reference: CYSR 3869
To appear in: Children and Youth Services Review
Received date: 27 January 2018
Revised date: 7 June 2018
Accepted date: 15 June 2018

Please cite this article as: Qutaiba Agbaria, Nazeh Natur , The relationship between
violence in the family and adolescents aggression: The mediator role of self-control, social
support, religiosity, and well-being. Cysr (2018), doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2018.06.016

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 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

The Relationship between Violence in the Family and Adolescents Aggression :The

Mediator Role of Self-Control, Social Support, Religiosity, and Well-Being

Dr. Qutaiba Agbaria1,2,* qutaiba100psych@yahoo.com, Dr. Nazeh Natur1

1Al-Qasemi College, Israel

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2Alnajah university of Palestine, Palestine

*Corresponding author.

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ABSTRACT

This paper addresses to what extent experiencing violence in the Palestinian Arab

family in Israel is a predictor for elements of aggressive behavior, and to what extent

is it influenced by skills of self-control, social support, religiosity and well-being as

mediators of aggressive behavior. One hundred and sixty Arab adolescents (42.3%

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male and 57.7% female) Grades 9-12 were sampled in a convenient sampling (none

random sampling method) from Palestinian Arab family in Israel.

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Significant positive correlation was found between experiencing violence in the family

and aggression (r = .30, p < .01), with significant negative correlation between self-
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control skills and aggression (r = -.626, p < .01), religiosity and aggression(r = -.647, p<
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.01), social support and aggression (r = -.59, p< .01) , and no significant correlation

between well-being and aggression (r = -.12, p> .05). Social support, self-control and
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religiosity each alone, fully mediated the relationship between violence in the family
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and aggression.
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These findings constitute a theoretical contribution to knowledge gained with respect

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to aggression among adolescents and students. In addition, the findings could make a

practical contribution through development of training programs on the use of

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mediating skills
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Introduction

This study examined the associations between adolescents’ exposure to violence in

the home and their subsequent use of aggressive behaviors. The authors also

examined whether this link was mediated by variables such as self-control, social

support, well-being and religiosity.

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Violence in the family is a multi-dimensional phenomenon comprising various

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components: physical, verbal, emotional-psychological or sexual. Existing knowledge

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on violence in the family in both Western and Middle Eastern societies has increased

during the last decade (Haj-Yahia and Abdo-Kaloti, 2008; Ozer, Lavi, Douglas and Wolf,
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2017). In the past, the focus of research was on direct harm inflected on children. In
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recent years, the definition of violence in the family has expanded to include not only

experiencing, but also witnessing any situation involving violence (Mathis, Mueller,
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Zhang and Becker, 2010).

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Children who are exposed to violence and violence in the family, either who witness
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violence (CWV) or experience violence (CEV), may suffer long-term developmental

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damage in many areas of life (Osofsky and Osofsky, 2010). Exposure to violence in the

family impairs not only the child's physical conditions and well-being, but also
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jeopardizes one’s perceived well-being. Children who were raised in families in which

violence occurred displayed a tendency to develop violent behavior themselves

(Mathis et al., 2010; Osofsky and Osofsky et al., 2010). Furthermore, exposure to

violence has been associated with elevated levels of stress, including posttraumatic

stress symptoms, depression, and anxiety (Fowler, Tompsett, Braciszewski, Jacques-

Tiura and Baltes, 2009) as well as a wide variety of behavioral problems, including
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conduct disorder (Kersten et al. 2017), substance abuse (Briere and Scott, 2017), and

aggression (Slocum and Agnew, 2017).

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Aggression

In the early nineteen-seventies Bandura (1973) defined violence/aggression as “a

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behavior directed to causing personal damage or destruction of property”; Volavka

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(2002) proposed the term “destructive behavior” to include “any behavior which
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results in total or partial injury to the physical or psychological integrity of a person or

object”. During the past decade the definition was expanded to include an element of
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intent. Joireman, Anderson, and Strathman (2003) defined aggression as all behavior

intended to destroy oneself, others, or objects. In the present paper the authors
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adopt Buss and Perry's (1992) definition of violence, and physical aggression as
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behavior linked to hostile thoughts, misconceptions, and negative feelings (Buss and

Perry, 1992).
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Research conducted in Western cultures found a direct correlation between

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experiencing violence and child neglect (Straus, Gelles, Steinmetz, 2006), and

becoming a victim of sexual violence (Straus, 2017), social violence and involved in

criminal activities (Waldron and Scarpa, 2017), internalized and externalized

behavioral problems (Zarling et al. 2013), and difficulties with emotional coping

(Mohammad, Shapiro, Wainwright , 2015). Coping is essential to processing and

dealing with stressful events. Cummings (1998) referred to the process experienced
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by the child following exposure to violence in the family via two central concepts:

stress and coping. Stress is defined as one’s feeling of overburdening one’s resources

in a manner that endangers one’s well-being, when operating in the environment.

Coping is defined as the process whereby people create a cognitive or behavioral

change in order to deal with internal or external demands in their relation to

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themselves and their surroundings during stressful events. This explanation attributes

a great deal of importance to the interaction between external elements (family

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background and surroundings) and internal elements (personal traits) and between all

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these and the specific, unique significance the child contributes to the events to which

he or she is exposed to (Cummings et al., 1998).

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In Israel 620,000 crimes occurred between the years 2003 and 2010, of which 27
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percent were violent and only 34 percent were reported annually to official

institutions. 85 percent of reported crimes involved mild violence. 66 percent were

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violent in nature and were not reported to any official institution. In 2012 there was a
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14 percent rise in violent robberies compared to 2011. 64.5 percent of Israeli youth

(81.3 percent of boys, and 55.7 percent of girls) reported experiencing at least one act
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of violence at least once in their neighborhoods during their lifetime.

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In traditional societies aggression and violence is perceived differently than it is in

Western societies; violence and use of violence is considered justified when it is used

for education, maintenance of honor and imposition of discipline (Dwairy, 1998). Arab

Palestinian families in Israel are traditional at core: authoritarian, patriarchal and

hierarchical (Dwairy, 1998). As such, Arab families view physical punishment as a

legitimate means of enforcement (Al-Krenawi, 2002. Parental violence towards Arab

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children was, until few years ago, quite common (Haj-Yahia, 2000, Haj-Yahia, Leshem,

and Guterman, 2011).

Various work undertaken on Arab adolescents exposed to violence have reported

exposure rates of 0.3%-31% to physical abuse by fathers, a similar rate by mothers,

and 0.5%-33% by siblings at least once over the preceding year (Haj-Yahia and Dawud-

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Noursi, 1998; Haj-Yahia et al., 2000). Sixty six percent adolescents were exposed to

violence during their life time, and 71% during the past twelve months. No significant

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differences were found between male and female students in the rate of their

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exposure to ECV during their lifetime or the previous year (Natur, 2018 in press).
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Twenty six percent of the youth (36.6% of the boys, and 19% of the girls) reported

witnessing an assault on another person with firearms at least once during their
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lifetime. 21.2 percent of youth (26.9 percent of the boys and 17.2 percent of the girls)

reported witnessing violent death at least once in their lifetime and about twenty
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percent (19.9%) of youth (32.6 percent of the boys, and 10.8 percent of the girls)
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reported being assaulted with a weapon in their communities at least once during

their lifetime (Haj-Yahia, Leshem and Guterman et al., 2011). As evident in the
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literature, whether through witnessing or experiencing, violence within the family is a

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phenomenon that has both short- and long-term implications on a number of aspects

of functioning in children and adolescent. The implications are particularly weighty

when violence is 'legitimized', as it is in traditional society, where physical punishment

of children is viewed as legitimate way of discipline and education, with no awareness

of any possible lasting harmful psychological consequences. We conclude that there

are many ramifications to children’s personal, family, academic, and social functioning
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when exposed to violence. One of the most significant repercussions is how childhood

violence influences violence among adolescents. The contribution of personal

resources such as self-control, well-being, social support, and religiosity on improving

ones perception of own well-being, were examined among Arabs in the context of

happiness (Abu-Raya and Agbaria, 2015), reducing risk behaviors and aggression

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(Agbaria, 2013; Agbaria, 2014a, 2014b; Agbaria, Ronen and Hamama, 2012 ).

To the best of our knowledge, the current study is the first to examine the extent to

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which exposure to family violence in Palestinian Arab society in Israel is a predictor of

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elements of aggressive behavior. It is also the first to study personal resources and
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skills (self-control, social support, religiosity and well-being) as mediators of the

relationship between exposure to family violence and aggressive behavior among

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Arab Palestinian children. This will contribute to enhancing personal resources and

skills that can be used by children exposed to violence to cope effectively with the
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consequences of violence at home at school and at society in large.

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In this study we hypothesize that a positive correlation exists between

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adolescents experiencing family violence and Physical aggression against others. We

also hypothesize that this association is mediated by four intervening factors: self-
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control, social support, well-being and religiosity. A short description of the

intervening factors follows.

Self control

The concept of self-control describes a person's behavior through natural choice,

where one relinquishes a more attractive behavior for a more desirable one (Thoresen
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and Mahoney, 1974). Rosenbaum (1998) describes self-control as a system of goal-

oriented cognitive skills that enable people to attain their objectives, overcome

difficulties linked to thoughts, feelings and behaviors, delay gratification and cope

with pressure.

Children characterized by self-control skills such as delayed gratification, problem-

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solving and cognitive structuring have displayed less aggressive behaviors (Gyurak and

Ayduk, 2008; Weisbrod, 2007). Skills of self-control contribute moderation and

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decrease in aggression, anxiety and other psychopathological symptoms, as well as

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improvement of well-being (Agbaria, Ronen and Hamama, 2012). A study by Agbaria,
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Ronen and Hamama (2014) focusing on aggressive behavior among Palestinian Arab

adolescents in Israel examined the link between well-being and aggression. Findings
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pointed to negative correlations between self-control and aggression and negative

correlations between positive feelings and aggression.

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In the present paper, the use of the concept "self-control skills" refers to the operation
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of a group of skills to attain a desired objective. This group includes cognitions and
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self-instructions in coping with different emotional and psychological responses, the

use of problem-solving strategies, the ability to delay gratification and one’s faith in
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own ability to control self during internal events (Rosenbaum, 1980).

Social support

Environmental resources also include the individual's social support system (Lazarus

and Folkman, 1984), consisting of all those people with whom the individual has

personal, social and family relationships (Sarason, Sarason and Pierce, 1990). It covers
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four central types of support: informative, instrumental, emotional and

companionship (Cohen and Wills, 1985). Social support can mediate tension by

affecting the preliminary or secondary evaluation of an event (Cohen and Edwards,

1989). When an individual deems a support net available to him, it may repress

evaluations of potential threat stemming from the event; it may encourage the

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individual to believe in his ability to cope with the event and/or encourage the use of

adaptive coping strategies, such as problem-solving and positive reevaluation (Cohen

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and Edwards et al., 1989).

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Studies examining the link between social support and mental health have been
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consistent in their findings; most have reported on a positive contribution of social

support to improvement of mental health and to decreasing levels of aggression

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(Irwin, LaGory, Ritchey and Fitzpatrick, 2008; Marroquin, 2011). Low levels of social

support are risk factor in the development of aggression (Talaei, Fayyazi and Ardani,
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2009). On the other hand, high levels of family and social support were linked to low
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levels of aggression and lower levels of suicidal thoughts (Csibis, 2011; Galambos,

Barker and Krahn, 2006). Social support and self-esteem have been negatively linked
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with aggression among Iranian students (Talaei, Fayyazi and Ardani, 2009). Kennedy,
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Bybee, Sullivan and Greeson (2010) found a positive correlation between experiencing

violence in the family and aggression, a negative correlation between aggression and

social support, and a negative correlation between experiencing violence in the family

and social support.

Religiosity
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Religiosity is another personal resource that was examined in this research.

Psychologists and psychiatrists from Freud to Ellis have referred to religious

orientation as "irrational" and "as [a] mechanism for people who cannot cope with

life" (Clay, 1996, p.1). Despite this, there has been an increase, over recent years, in

studies pointing to the ability of religious faith to give meaning to life and to improve

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one's well-being and health (Abu-Raiya and Pargament, 2011; Hood, Hill and Spilka,

2009; Koenig, McCullough and Larson, 2001; Paloutzian and Park, 2005). These studies

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have indicated in an undisputable manner that religion plays a central role in the life

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of people and, by-and-large, contributes to better human functioning and well-being.
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However, the vast majority of research on the relationship between religion

and health and well-being has been conducted in the United States and focused
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almost exclusively on Christian populations. It has largely neglected people from other

traditional faiths and different area in the world (; Abu-Raiya, Exline, Pargament and
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Agbaria, 2015; Abu-Raiya and Pargament, 2011). Muslim populations and people from
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Middle East region have been particularly neglected. Recently, an emerging body of

empirical studies on the psychology of Islam have underscored the centrality of Islam
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to the lives of Muslims and identified clear connections between Islamic beliefs,
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practices and methods of coping and the well-being of Muslims (Abu-Raiya,

Pargament and Mahoney, 2011; Abu-Raiya, Pargament, Mahoney and Stein, 2008; Al-

Kandari, 2003).

The link between religiosity, well-being and psychopathology has been well-

researched (Agbaria, 2014a). Spirituality and religion may improve one's well-being

(Jackson and Bergeman, 2011) and self-esteem (Top, Chadwick, and McClendon,
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2003). According to one explanation, significant religious orientation has proven itself

to be positively linked to satisfaction from life, psychological adaptation, self-control,

better functioning, self-esteem and goals in life – where a significant negative

correlation has been found with anxiety, fear of death, neurosis, aggression,

impulsiveness, etc. (Al-Issa, 2000, p. 248). Studies on religiosity and aggression

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support the hypothesis that certain aspects of religiosity are linked to less aggression,

as well as swifter recovery from experiences of violence than for those who are not

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religious (Koenig et al., 2001). A negative correlation was reported between the

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degree of religiosity and aggression (Huesmann, Dubow, & Boxer, 2009) as well as with

anxiety (Hovey , Hurtado, Morales & Seligman, 2014). A positive correlation was
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reported between lack of spirituality and some negative psychological states,
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including aggression (Shorey, Elmquist, Anderson, and Stuart, 2017) and drug use

(Diaz and Horton, 2014).

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Studies on Muslim populations indicated significant positive correlations between

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religiosity and a high sense of well-being (Suhail and Chaudhry, 2004), fewer

psychosomatic symptoms and less anxiety (Abdel-Khalek, 2002) and good physical
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health and optimism (Abdel-Khalek and Naceur, 2007). Furthermore, subjective well-
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being and religious well-being have accounted for 29 percent of the variables that

predict symptoms of aggression and 17 percent of variables predicting risk behavior

(Agbaria, Mahamid and Ziya Berte, 2017; Shannon, Leiter, Phaladze, Hlanze, Tsai,

Heisler and Weiser, 2012). These studies show that religiosity is linked to high levels

of wellbeing and lower levels of aggression.

Well being
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The concept of well-being is another resource that was examined in this research. This

refers to the extent to which a person is satisfied, happy and enjoys life. The term

“subjective well-being” refers to how people experience the quality of their lives and

appraise their internal experiences (Diener, 1984). According to Fredrickson (2009),

positive emotions broaden momentary thought-action repertoires, resulting in a

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higher likelihood of pursuing a wider range of thoughts and actions. This broadening

effect is essentially the opposite of what happens when people experience negative

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emotions. In recent years a number of studies have testified to the importance of

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positive emotions in cognitive and behavioral processes such as memory, thinking

flexibility, creativity, problem-solving, performance in complicated tasks (Aspinwall,

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1998; Isen, 2000), self-control and involvement in risk-behaviors (Aspinwall 1998, Isen
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and Reeve, 2005). In addition, it was found that positive emotions serve as a protective

factor from violent interactions (Arsenio, Cooperman and Lover, 2000).

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Subjective well-being includes elements such as happiness and satisfaction in life in

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both cognitive and emotional domains (Veenhoven, 1991; Diener et al., 1984). The

emotional element refers to daily experiences and includes the evaluation of positive
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and negative feelings experienced in life: excitement, happiness, depression, etc.

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Evaluation is conducted spontaneously and experientially and is a product of the

comparison between good and bad feelings (Myers and Diener, 1995). A high level of

subjective well-being is expressed in a high level of positive feelings and a low level of

negative feelings (Bender, 1997). The cognitive element refers to the evaluation of

rational and intellectual aspects of the extent of satisfaction with life conditions in
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general. This satisfaction stems from the comparison between an individual's

conceived aspirations and his achievements (Myers and Diener et al., 1995).

People with a high sense of well-being have been found to have more satisfying

relationships, a higher ability to connect, help and understand others, a higher ability

to cooperate, to act pro-socially and altruistically, and a high ability to resolve conflicts

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in an efficient manner. They feel more in control over their lives, cope effectively with

pressures, and set goals in life for themselves (Lyubomirsky, King and Deiner, 2005;

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Rydell, 2005).

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A number of studies have emphasized the importance of positive feelings in cognitive
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processes and behaviors such as memory, flexibility of thinking, creativity, problem-
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solving, improved performance of complex tasks (Aspinwall, 1998; Isen et al., 2000),

and self-control and caution in situations of risk (Aspinwall, 1998; Isen and Reeve et
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al., 2005). In addition, it was found that positive feelings constitute a protective factor
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from violent interactions for children (Arsenio, Cooperman and Lover, 2000). Research
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indicates the importance of personal resources for an individual's ability to cope with
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situations of distress (Blair et al., 2004; Gyurak, Ayduk et al., 2008; Ronen and Seeman,

2007; Weisbrod et al., 2007).

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Published studies on violence experienced in the family mostly indicate a risk of

developing adaptation problems in general, and problems of violence in particular,

among adolescents exposed to violence in the family. In addition there may also be

harm to adolescents’ subjective well-being, expressed in the development of anxiety,

aggression, lack of self-esteem and dissatisfaction with life. However, the presence of

social and personal resources such as social support, religiosity and self-control may
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mediate between experiencing violence in the family and an adolescent's violent

behavior.

Thus we aim to examine whether intervening factors, personal and social resources,

could mediate and explain the relationship between exposure to violence and Physical

aggressive behavior. While a moderator variable is one that influences the strength of

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a relationship between two other variables, we chose to treat these variables

as mediator variables, thus attempting to explain the relationship between exposure

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to violence and aggressive behavior. Examining these factors could shed some light on

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possible reduction of the development of future aggression among children exposed
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to violence.
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Two approaches can be identified in the literature concerning the relationships of

intervening factors and personal and social resources to exposure to violence and
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outcomes. One approach considers the intervening factors and personal and social
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resources as moderating factors. For example, Berman, Kurtines, Silverman and

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Serafini (1996) found that social support and coping strategies moderate between
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exposure to violence and stress. Lanclos (2002) found that parenting behaviors

moderate between community violence and outcome in terms of academics, social

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skills, and self-concept. The other approach considers the intervening factors and

personal and social resources as mediating factors. For example, Rost (1999) studies

religiosity as a mediating variable between attribution style and mental health among

collegiate athletes. Linares, Heeren, Bronfmon, Zuckerman, Augustyn and Tronick,

(2001) found that maternal distress mediated the link between exposure to

community violence and the development of early child behavior problems.

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Finkenauer et al. (2015) suggested self-control as a mediating variable between family

violence and personal and social well-being. The present study suggests that the

aforementioned variables, including self-control and well-being, mediate between

exposure to violence and Physical aggressive behavior. This model relies on two types

of previous studies: studies showing that exposure to violence leads to negative

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outcomes in terms of the aforementioned intervening variables (O’Keefe, 1994;

Sternberg et al., 1993) and studies showing that the intervening variables lead to

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different outcomes, including aggressive behavior (Abu-Raya and Agbaria, 2015;

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Agbaria, 2014; Agbaria, Ronen and Hamama, 2012; Al-Issa, 2000; Aspinwall, 1998;

Csibis, 2011; Galambos et al.,, 2006; Isen et al., 2000).

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Regarding the first type, and as documented in the literature, family violence can lead
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to a rupture in social relationships (Australian Childhood Foundation, 2015), which

could lessen the social support for those exposed to family violence. This reduction of
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social support is accompanied by a loss of culture, which in turn results in a loss of

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identity (ibid). This loss of identity in turn is expected to be accompanied by negative

outcomes related to undesirable outcomes in the other two intervening variables,

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religiosity and well-being. Regarding the second type, low levels of each of the
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intervening variables is expected to lead to high levels of aggressive behavior and to

less protective means available for the individual. For example, high levels of family

and social support are linked to low levels of aggression (Csibis, 2011; Galambos et al.,

2006). Furthermore, high levels of self-control inhibit aggression (DeWall, Finkel and

Denson, 2011).
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This study aims to examine whether a positive correlation exists between

adolescents experiencing family violence and aggression against others, and whether

the association between experiencing family violence and aggression is mediated by

self-control, social support, well-being and religiosity.

Research hypotheses

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There is a positive correlation between exposure to violence in the family and

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perpetration of adolescent Physical aggression towards others.

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Social support will mediate the link between violence in the family and perpetration

of adolescent Physical aggression towards others.

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Self-control will mediate the link between violence in the family and perpetration of
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adolescent Physical aggression towards others.

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Religiosity will mediate the link between violence in the family and perpetration of
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adolescent Physical aggression towards others.

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Method
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Participants
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The participants numbered 160 (42.3% males, 57.7% females) Palestinian Arab

students in Israel, in grades 9-12. They were chosen in a convenience sampling from

five state schools in five Arab cities in the center of the country. 45.8 percent of the

participants were in the ninth grade, 18.1 percent in the tenth grade, 34.8 percent in

the eleventh grade and 1.3 percent in the twelfth grade. The population was Muslim,

mostly defined as traditional (Dwairy 1998), of a lower-than-average socio-economic

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status between the 2nd and 4th decile (Central Bureau of Statistics, 2013, Table B1).

Arabs in Israel comprise about 20 percent of the population, but its contribution to

GDP is only 8 percent (Podem, 2013). The poverty rate (per household) according to

the definition of the National Insurance Institute of Israel based on income from work

stands at 49 percent among Arabs in contrast to 15 percent among Jews (Podem et

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al., 2013).

Procedure

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The study was approved by the Chief Scientist in the Ministry of Education. Data were

collected maintaining regulations according to detailed instructions in the APA Edition

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VI (2006). A parental consent form was initially distributed to potential participants,
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90 percent of whom returned the signed forms. The questionnaires were distributed

by the researchers themselves in the classroom. They were anonymous and did not
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request any identifying information. The purpose of the study was explained to the
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participants, and responses were then collected and stored. All participants received
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Arab-language questionnaires.
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Measures
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All of the measures were translated from English and Hebrew into Arabic and pilot

tested by five Arab professional experts in psychology, counseling, Arabic language,

and education. They evaluated the clarity and relevance of the questions and the

translation, which was done by the researchers with the help of the professional

experts. After completion the translated draft of the questionnaires was back-

translated into English by an independent expert in translation. The translated version

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was then pilot tested among twenty 9-12 graders and refined further for clarity

according to their comments. All instruments used in the study were content validated

by Arab scholars and used previously in other published studies (Agbaria, 2014;

Agbaria et al., 2012; Agbaria and Daher, 2015). In addition to the personal detail

questionnaire, two scales were used to measure well-being: One was the "Subjective

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Happiness Scale" (Lyubomirsky and Lepper, 1999), a 4-item, 7 point Likert scale

ranging from low level (1) to high level of happiness (7). Cronbach's alpha of the

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English scale range between .79-.92 and for the Arabic version of the scale as used in

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a previous study of Arab adolescents (Agbaria et al., 2012) was found to be at α =.70.

The other was the "Positive and Negative Affect Schedule for Children- PANAS-C"
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(Watson, Clark and Tellegen, 1988) that was adapted for children and adolescents by
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Laurent (1999). This is self-characterization scale that contains ten items describing

positive feelings and ten items describing negative feelings experienced by

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participants during the preceding two weeks. Responses were on a 5-level Likert scale
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ranging from "very little" (1) to "very much" (5). Reliability for positive feelings was α
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= 0.84 and for negative feelings α = 0.736 (Ronen, Seeman et al., 2007). Cronbach's
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alpha values for the Arabic version of the scale as used in a previous study of Arab

adolescents (Agbaria et al., 2012) was found to be at .79. The "Revised Conflict Tactics
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Scale - CTS2" (Straus, Hamby, Boney-McCoy and Sugarman, 1996) was used to

measure how families cope with conflicts. It is an adolescent self-report measure that

aims to assess exposure to violence in the family. The participants completed only the

8-item physical violence subscale examining direct physical violence by parents

toward the respondent. The scale is a 7-point Likert scale ranging from Never (-10) to
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More than 20 times (7). Alpha coefficients of reliability for the CTS2 coefficients

ranged from .64 to .94, with a mean of .77.

Religiosity was examined using the "Positions Regarding Religion Questionnaire"

(Kendler, Liu, Gardner, McCullough, Larson and Prescott, 2003). The original

questionnaire consisted of 63 items of which only 31 that can be suitable for every

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religion were used, reflecting elements of spirituality and understanding of one's place

in the universe, in addition to the contribution of the relationship with God as

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expressed in daily activities and during crises. Responses were on a 5-level scale from

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1= never to 5= always. The Arabic version of the questionnaire was adapted for the
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Arab Muslim population (4 items were deleted from the questionnaire and 12 items

were added, the new 12 items were chosen by several Arab specialists in the field and
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were found to be suitable to Arab Muslim population. The items were content

validated by five judges. Cronbach's alpha values for the Arabic version used in
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previous studies (Agbaria, 2014) ranged from α = 0.86 to α = 0.93. In order to measures
E
PT

individual differences in skills of self-control, the Adolescence Self-Control Scale

(Rosenbaum et al., 1980) was used. This is as 32-item self-characterization

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questionnaire that was adapted for children and adolescents by Rosenbaum and
AC

Ronen (1991). Participants were asked to evaluate each of the items on a 6-level Likert

scale from 1= very uncharacteristic of me to 6= very characteristic of me. Reliability of

the original scales was at α = 0.87 for adults and α = 0.69 for children. Cronbach's alpha

values for the Arabic version of the scale used in a previous study of Arab adolescents

(Agbaria and Daher, 2015) were at α =.78 . Social Support Questionnaire that

developed by Cohen, Mermelstrin, Kamarck and Hoberman (1985), was used to

 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

measure the perceived availability of potential social resources. The original scale

consisted of 40 items, with 4 subscales. In this study we administered a short version

of the scale (12 items) that cover mainly friends’ social support. The items were rated

on a 4-point scale ranging from 1 =definitely false to 4= definitely true. Cronbach's

alpha values for the Arabic version of the scale used in a previous study of Arab

PT
adolescents (Agbaria and Daher, 2015) were at α =.66. And finally, Aggression,

“Aggression Questionnaire (AGQ)" (Buss, Perry et al., 1992) was used to evaluate

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different elements in adolescents’ tendency to violent behavior towards others. The

SC
questionnaire consisted of 28 items examining four elements of violence: physical

violence (8 items), verbal violence (5 items), anger (7 items) and hostility (8 items).
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Responses were on a 5-level Likert scale ranging from 1 =very much disagree to 5 =
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very much agree. Cronbach's alpha values for the Arabic version of the scale used in a

previous study of Arab adolescents (Agbaria and Daher, 2015) was at α =.84 with a
D

validity score of 0.86. In this study we use physical aggression factor.

E
PT

Data Analysis
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Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) was utilized for every analysis in this

research. Statistical analysis was conducted to examine the correlations among

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research variables and evaluate the research hypotheses. Descriptive analysis,

Pearson correlations and regression analysis were independently conducted. To

investigate the hypothesized mediational model, we conducted a hierarchical linear

regression. Sobel tests using unstandardized coefficient were additionally conducted

to strengthen the statistical conclusion for mediational pathways.

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Results

(insert table 1)

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A statistical analysis was conducted to examine the correlations among research

variables and to examine research hypotheses.

RI
SC
Table 2 describes the associations among research variables, using Pearson

correlations coefficients.
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(insert table 2)
MA

The results in table 1 reveal a significant positive correlation between violence in the

family and aggression (r = .30, p < .01); significant negative correlations between
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aggression and the other variables (self-control, religiosity and social support);
E
PT

significant negative correlation between self-control and aggression (r = -.647, p < .01);

and significant negative correlation between religiosity and aggression (r = -.361, p <
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.01). Pearson correlations coefficient were calculated and hierarchical regression

AC

analyses was conducted in order to examine research hypotheses.

The first research hypothesis focused on the correlation between experiencing

violence in the family and aggression; here, too, a hierarchical regression analysis was

conducted. It was found that experiencing violence in the family significantly

contributed to the explanation of the variance of Physical Aggression (BETA = .096, p

< .01). ( insert table 3)

 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Regression analyses were conducted to determine whether social support, self-

control and religiosity mediated the relationship between experiencing violence in the

family and physical aggression. The method suggested by Baron and Kenny (1986) was

used to evaluate mediation effects. According to this method, the independent

variable (IV), the dependent variable (DV), and the potential mediator must be

PT
significantly correlated in order to establish mediation. Three separate regression

analyses were employed, using three different equations. In Equation 1, the potential

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mediator was regressed on the IV. In Equation 2, the DV was regressed on the IV. In

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the third equation, the DV was regressed on both the IV and the potential mediator.

Mediation was indicated when the effect of the IV on the DV was less in the third
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equation than in the second. This was determined by comparing standardized beta
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coefficients from Equations 2 and 3 (the standardized coefficient should be less in

Equation 3 than in Equation 2). To provide a more formal assessment of mediation

D

effects, we also conducted Sobel (1982) tests. This test assesses whether the indirect
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effect of the IV on the DV via the mediator is significantly different from zero. Table 4
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displays the results of the regression analyses and Sobel tests for mediation.
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(insert table 4)
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Focusing on the second hypothesis about the mediation of social support, Table 4

reveals that the standardized beta coefficients were less in Equation 3 than in

Equation 2 with regard to physical aggression. Inspection of the results of the Sobel

test in Table 4 confirms these findings and indicates that social support acts as a

mediator between experiencing violence in the family and physical aggression.

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With regard to the third hypothesis about the mediation of self-control, the

standardized beta coefficients were less in Equation 3 than in Equation 2 for both

criterion variables. Inspection of the results of the Sobel test in Table 4 confirms these

findings and indicates that self-control support acts as a mediator between

experiencing violence in the family and physical violence.

PT
With regard to the forth hypothesis about the mediation of religiosity, the

standardized beta coefficients were less in Equation 3 than in Equation 2 for both

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criterion variables. Inspection of the results of the Sobel test in Table 4 confirms these

SC
findings and indicates that religiosity acts as a mediator between experiencing
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violence in the family and physical violence.
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D

Discussion
E
PT

This study for the first time examined aggression among Arab junior and senior high
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school students in Israel as correlated with exposure to family violence, and with

reference to four mediating variables: well-being, social support, religiosity and self-
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control. In general, most of the research hypotheses were confirmed and the findings

strengthened previous results obtained among other populations in Israel and across

the globe (Agbaria et al., 2014; Hamama, Ronen, & Feigin 2009; Ozden and Koksoy,

2009).

Results revealed a significant positive correlation between experiencing violence in

the family and aggression. In other words, it was found that adolescents exposed to
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

violence in the family developed more aggressive behaviors. This finding is consistent

with other studies which found a correlation between violence in the family and

Physical aggression (Agbaria et al., 2014; Miller, Grabell, Thomas, Bermann and

Graham-Bermann, 2012). Another possible explanation is that due to children's

viewing of their parents as models for imitation, children or adolescents in violent

PT
families will learn to imitate the violent behavior of their parents and will become

violent themselves (Bandura et al., 1977).

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We also found a significant negative correlation between self-control skills and

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aggression. Adolescents with high self-control skills had a lower level of aggression.
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This could explain the mediating effect of self-control skills on the correlation between

experiencing violence in the family and Physical aggression. This finding is consistent
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with other studies (Agbaria et al., 2014; Ozden and Koksoy, 2009; Stuart and

Holtzworth-Munroe, 2005). A possible explanation for this finding is linked to the

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manner in which skills of self-control are used, namely the ability of adolescents to
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PT

identify automatic thoughts, to use distractions and alternative thinking, and to find

alternative solutions in an expression of self-control skills that will lead them to choose
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controlled, planned, adaptive and less impulsive behavior. Another explanation relies
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on Dodge’s (1996) model of social information processing (Crick and Dodge, 1996;

Dodge and Coie, 1987). According to this model, the ability to process information in

a more balanced (and less distorted) manner is dependent upon providing an

interpretation that corresponds to social and internal cues encoded by the individual.

This interpretation will lead to the selection of controlled, adaptive behavior. The

choice of this kind of behavior over the violent physical alternative is an expression of
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the use of self-control skills. This finding is in line with Finkenauer et al. (2015) who

suggest that self-control is a mediating variable between family violence and different

outcomes. They explain this mediating role in that family violence depletes self-

control, which results in negative results associated with a person's well-being. In our

case, family violence results in the depletion of self-control, which in turn results in

PT
the person's aggressive behavior.

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SC
The present study also found a significant negative correlation between social support

and aggression, together with the mediating effect of social support on the link
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between experiencing violence in the family and Physical aggression. Adolescents who
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experienced family violence yet had proper social support did not develop a tendency

towards physical aggression. This finding is consistent with previous studies that
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reported that social support contributed positively to the improvement of mental

E

health and to the decrease in levels of aggression (Irwin, LaGory, Ritchey, Fitzpatrick
PT

et al., 2008; Marroquin, 2011; Talaei et al., 2009) and suicidal thoughts (Fayyazi and
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Ardani, 2009; Galambos et al., 2006). Social support is associated with an increase in

an individual's sense of belonging; it may lessen feelings of tension via the response
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to the need for contact with others by distractions from worries linked to the situation

or via the relieving of one's mood (Cohen, Wills et al., 1985). Another explanation is

that social support can mediate tension by affecting the preliminary or secondary

evaluation of an event (Cohen, Edwards at al., 1989). When an individual sees a

support network as being available to him, it may repress evaluations of potential

threat stemming from the event and encourage the individual to believe in his ability
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to cope with the event and/or encourage the use of adaptive coping strategies such

as problem-solving and positive reevaluation (Cohen, Edwards et al., 1989; Cohen and

McKay, 1984). Therefore, according to Lazarus’ and Folkman's model (1984), social

support is perceived as an environmental resource that can assist in coping with

tension and difficult life events. Our findings concur with previous studies that pointed

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to the mediating role of social-support between psychological variables. For example,

Salsman, Brown, Brechting and Carlson (2005) found that the relationships between

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intrinsic religiousness and life satisfaction and between prayer fulfillment and life

SC
satisfaction were mediated by social support. In our case the mediating role of social

support between experiencing violence in the family and aggression behavior results
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from the depletion of a major source of social support for the individual in the case of
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family violence. Violence reduces the individual’s confidence in the family, which will

be perceived as denying him its social support.

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We also found a negative correlation between well-being and aggression. This finding
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PT

adds to the knowledge accumulated from previous studies, in which an inverse link

was discerned between well-being and aggression among adolescents (Anthony,

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1997; Farrell and Bruce, 1997; Agbaria et al., 2013). A possible explanation for the
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finding is based on the importance inherent in one's level of happiness for inducing

flexible thinking that leads to efficiency in problem-solving, self-control, thinking

ahead and caution in situations of risk (Aspinwall, 1998; Isen, Reeve et al., 2005). In

other words, positive feelings contribute to less impulsive and more controlled and

planned behavior. Another explanation is that, according to previous studies (Arsenio

et al., 2000), positive feelings reduce frustration and anxiety: happy adolescents can
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cope with frustration better and can develop social and interpersonal skills that

constitute a defense against provocative, stressful, and frustrating events. In the

literature other variables were examined as mediators between a psychological

variable and well-being. For example, Molix and Nichols (2013) found that self-

reported satisfaction of basic psychological needs mediates between community

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esteem and well-being. In the present study well-being took on a mediating role

because exposure to violence in the family resulted in negative outcomes in terms of

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well-being variables (for example, feelings). These negative well-being outcomes

SC
could result in proneness to aggressive behavior, because then the individual has little

to lose.
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We found a significant negative correlation between religiosity and aggression, in
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addition to the mediating effect of religiosity between experiencing violence and

Physical aggression. These findings are consistent with previous studies conducted on
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the subject (Francis, Fond, Olsson and Schipper, 2004; Shehni, Movahhed and
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PT

Shokrkon, 2002; Zimmerman, McDermut and Mattia, 2000; Amrai, Zalani, Arfai and

Sharifian, 2011; Shannon et al., 2012). This correlation between religiosity and
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aggression can be explained according to various cognitive and behavioral

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approaches. According to the cognitive approach, individuals' behavior is a product of

the interpretations they grant to events they experience, where each occurring event

obtains an interpretation and awakens different feelings, leading to behaviors (Beck,

1995). From this explanation one can speculate that religious people maintain beliefs

and schema that provide them with much meaning to their lives – meanings that

provide interpretations, enabling more relaxed life management, and schema that
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assist them in attaining self-control and well-being. In a preliminary qualitative study

(Agbaria and Wattad, 2011) on a population of religious adolescents, the following

schemata arose: "In the end, God will help me"; "I don't allow myself behaviors that

might anger God"; "More acceptance and patience in crises will grant me more

heavenly rewards", together with many schemata based on verses from the Koran or

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the words of the prophet Muhammad, such as "Look for seventy excuses for your

brother before you judge him"; "The strong is not one who uses force but rather one

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who holds back anger"; "One must accept any of God's decrees".

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In time, these schemas become an integral portion of the cognitive-behavioral
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repertoire of believers, and they begin to influence and guide their behavior in various

situations.
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The present research findings agree with previous studies that pointed at the
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mediating role of religiosity between psychological variables. For example, Dowling,

E

Gestsdottir, Anderson, von Eye, Almerigi and Lerner (2004) found that religiosity
PT

mediates between spirituality and thriving in adolescence. Mediation of religiosity

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could occur because, when exposed to family violence, adolescents will be pre-

occupied with this violence, which could lessen the influence of religiosity on them,
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which in turn makes them more prone to aggressive behavior. However, we are aware

that religiosity is more complex than the other intervening variables, and that the

relationship between violence and religion for those exposed to violence needs more

research (Ganzevoort, 2006). More research should be carried out on religiosity as a

mediating variable between experiencing violence in the family and aggression

behavior.
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Educational and clinical applications

Few studies have so far been conducted on exposure to family violence and Physical

aggression among Arab children and adolescents. The presents study focused on Arab

adolescents how resources contributed to the development of more adaptive

behavior among them. Personal resources such as self-control, religiosity and

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wellbeing, as well as external resources such as social support, contribute to improving

adaptive behaviors and decrease aggressive behaviors. The topic is thus of great

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relevance to the school system. The result indicate that Arab students need sensitive,

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structured assistance during the transition from middle to secondary school. The study
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also made a theoretical contribution to previously accumulated data on aggression

among adolescents in school, especially concerning its importance during periods of

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transition in the lives of adolescents.

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The study's practical contribution will be in the development of plans for training and
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implementing self-control skills, workshops on self-control and the development of

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social and personal skills, anger management, and alternative thinking on how to cope
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with various social or inner stimuli. Such programs can contribute to improving

adjustment and develop pro social behaviors so as to bring about a reduction in

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aggressive behavior and in the drop-out rate. It will also help Arab and others

adolescents develop more adaptive behaviors and become integrated into

complicated society.

Another practical contribution will be in holding workshops for parents, teachers and

colleagues on the importance of social support during the period of transition in life

of children and adolescence and the help it can provide during this time of change.
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

This can give rise to a support group that will accompany adolescents and help them

reduce negative feelings which could deleteriously affect their social and cognitive

functioning.

In conclusion, research findings point to the contribution of a number of resources in

mediating aggression among Arab adolescents. The study sheds light on the

PT
importance of personal resources like self-control, religiosity and well-being, together

with environmental resources like social support, in the reduction of aggression levels.

RI
These findings constitute a theoretical contribution to knowledge gained with respect

SC
to aggression among adolescents and students. In addition, the findings could make a
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practical contribution through development of training programs on the use of

mediating skills. Such programs could focus on developing self-control, happiness, and
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means to attain social support, along with an emphasis on the importance of instilling

different religious values to improve social behavior and reduce the tendency towards
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aggression.
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PT

A number of factors limit the generalizability of this research. One of them is linked to
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the sampling; the study employed a convenience sample, with no representation of

other religious groups, and therefore it is recommended to use a more representative

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sample in future research.

In addition, the present research made use of self-reporting questionnaires. These

questionnaires provided the participants’ point of view, a single informant, but it is

possible that other sources like peer groups or parents may add different information.

One must remember that the basis on self-reporting is limited and indicates a

tendency only. Therefore, it is recommended to use additional research tools like

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teachers’ questionnaires and peer groups in future research. An additional limitation

linked to the use of self-reporting questionnaires is associated with social desirability.

Furthermore, the study employs correlational design, but perhaps a longitudinal

design could be more beneficiary, in future studies other statistical analysis should be

applied in order to examine the nature of the complex relationship between the

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various variables.

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Table 1: Mean, standard deviation, range and reliability of research Measurements
(n=156-159)
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Variable Mean SD Median Range Reliability
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Self-control 3.99 1.23 4.01 5 0.68

Physical Aggression 2.36 1.04 2.33 4 0.77

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violence in the family 2.16 1.84 2 4 0.93

PT

Happiness 5.05 1.25 5.25 4 0.65

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Positive Affect 3.60 1.22 3.80 4 0.80

AC

Negative Affect 2.35 1.15 2.30 4 0.74

Social support 3.19 .87 3.25 3 0.75

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Table 2: Pearson correlations between the study variables

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1

1. Age -- .

PT
2. Sex -- ---

RI
3. Social .20 -
---
support * .11

4. 0.
SC
NU
- -
Happines 218* ---
.10 .06
MA

s *

5. -
D

.465*
Positive .03 .19 .148 ---
E

*
affect *
PT

- -
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6.Negativ .19 -
.03 .358* .278* ---
e affect * .123
AC

* *

- -
7.Religios - .520* .442*
.18 .123 .326* ---
ty .01 * *
* *
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

-
8. Self - .557* .189 .424* .591*
.11 .327* ---
control .13 * * * *
*

9. -
.16 - -
Violence .17 -.43* -.12 .069 -.025 ---
* .38** .40**

PT
in family *

RI
10.
- - -

SC
Physical .00 - .304* --
.04 .591* -.11 .13 .647* .626*
Aggressio 2 .120 * -
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* * *
n
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* p<.05 **p<.005 ***p<.001

E D
PT
CE
AC
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Table 3: Regression analysis of Aggression

Beta Adjusted R Square

Step1 -0.001
Sex -0.15
Age 0.08

Sibling order 0.017

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Sibling number 0.006

Step2 0.575

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Social Support -.255**

SC
Happiness -0.02 NU
Positive Affect -0.088

Negative Affect 0.04

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Religiosity -.249**

Self Control -.187**

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Violence in family .096**

PT
CE
AC
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Table 4: Regression Analyses for Social Support , Religiosity and Self-control as

Mediator between Domestic Violence and Physical Aggression

IV Mediator DV Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 ∆β Z

PT
Violenc Social Physical ∆R2=.04* ∆R2=.04* ∆R2=.11* .0 1.71

e in the Aggressio * * * 5 *

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Support
family n
β=.20 β=.20 β=.15

Violenc Self- Physical ∆R2=.04*

SC
∆R2=.06* ∆R2=.13* .0 2.5*
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e in the Control Aggressio * * * 5 *
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family n
β=.20 β=.25 β=.20

violenc Religiosit Physical ∆R2=.09* ∆R2=.04* ∆R2=.05* .0 1.56

E D

e in the y Aggressio * * 4 *
β=.31
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family n
β=.20 β=.16
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*p < .05, **p < .01

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Note: Step 1: Mediator regressed on independent variable; step 2: Dependent variable

regressed on independent variable; step3: Dependent variable regressed on

independent variable and mediator; β = standardized beta coefficient; ∆β = change in

standardized beta from regression equation 2 to regression equation 3 (Baron &

Kenny, 1986); Z = test of whether indirect effect of independent variable on

dependent variable via mediator is significantly different from zero (Sobel, 1982).
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