Electr Eng
DOI 10.1007/s00202-017-0623-2
ORIGINAL PAPER
Design of a high-speed permanent magnet synchronous motor
for electric kart
Karel Hruska1 · Vladimir Kindl1 · Roman Pechanek1
Received: 8 November 2016 / Accepted: 17 July 2017
© Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany 2017
Abstract The subject of the article is a design of a per-
manent magnet synchronous motor for usage in an electric
sports kart. For the purpose of maximal weight savings, the
motor is designed as a high-speed machine. The article fur-
ther deals with necessary reduction in the mass of the chassis
of the motor. The possibility of necessary changes is evalu-
ated on base of computer-assisted analyses—ventilation and
thermal models obtained using applicable numeric methods.
The machine is supposed to be passively cooled.
Keywords Permanent magnet motor · Electromagnetic
design · Cooling · Ventilation · Electric kart
1 Introduction
Due to many of current reasons such as fulfilling of Euro-
pean regulations or so-called dieselgate affair, the automotive
industry is more and more interested in the vision of building
a fully electric vehicle. As a test bench for starting similar
projects, a modified mass-produced car is used. This means
usage of mass-produced chassis newly equipped with an
electric machine of similar performance as the original inter-
nal combustion engine complemented with necessary battery
packs. Such a prototype provides well comparable results in
relation to traditional internal combustion cars, but it requires
usage of well-tested technologies, which may be provided to
the costumers.
For the purpose of testing bleeding-edge technologies and
demonstration of their limits, a non-serial alternative is more
B Karel Hruska
khruska@kev.zcu.cz
1 Regional Innovation Centre for Electrical Engineering,
University of West Bohemia, Pilsen, Czechia
suitable. A very interesting application is the sports kart (see
Fig. 1)—a vehicle with high dynamics, very limited instal-
lation space and relatively low cost of the chassis. The goal
is again to provide a fully alternative kart comparable to a
sports kart equipped with internal combustion machine, but
in this case the dynamic requirements on the whole system
are incomparably higher than in case of modification of mass-
produced cars.
2 Overall design of the electric kart
The design of the new sports kart utilizes experience of the
authors gained on building of its first demonstration kart and
on experience of a well-known manufacturer of racing karts,
who will provide the chassis of the kart. As shown in Fig. 2,
the current type of the demonstration kart is more focused
on demonstration of all of its components—motor, battery
packs, converter, etc., and it does not provide necessary out-
put power, and therefore, it may not be used for sports racing.
The new design will use a regular chassis of a sports kart
with modifications related to installation of necessary elec-
tric equipment. The source of the electric energy will be the
LiFeYPo batteries with total capacity of 21 kWh [2]. They
will be connected in combined serial and parallel system to
provide minimal voltage of 350 V and maximal current of
300 A. The battery pack will be enhanced by battery man-
agement system of own design, which will be able to store
maximum of the energy during recuperative braking. The
LiFeYPo batteries were chosen because of safety reasons
instead of Li-Ion batteries, which could provide higher power
density.
The power from the batteries will be led to two sep-
arate high efficiency silicon-carbide [3] inverters of own
construction, each for one motor separately. The usage of
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 Electr Eng

Dashboard

Battery Battery
pack 3 pack 2

Battery Battery
pack 4 pack 1

Fig. 1 Internal combustion engine equipped sports kart [1] Motor

control

Inverter Inverter

Motor Motor

Fig. 3 Schematic layout of the electric installation

Table 1 Rated Parameters of designed machine

Parameter Value Unit

Output power P 35,000 W

Fig. 2 First generation of demonstration electric kart
two permanent magnet motors will allow implementation of
an electronic differential gear, which will improve the con-
trollability of the kart. To obtain a noiseless operation of the
converter and motors, the pulse-width modulation switch-
ing frequency is supposed to be higher than 20 kHz. Using
injection of the third harmonic component in the phase volt-
age, the inverter will be able to provide a line-to-line voltage
approximately 248 V [4,5].
The overall layout of the electric installation of designed
electric kart is shown in Fig. 3. As shown in the schema, the
batteries will be divided into four battery packs, which are
supposed to be placed in front of the driver and on his both
sides. The dashboard showing all operation conditions will
be placed near the steering wheel, and it will be directly con-
nected to the motor control, which will gather all information
from the inverters and motors.
3 Electromagnetic design of the machine
3.1 Design requirements
To create a competitive solution to currently used internal
combustion motor equipped with sports kart, the new elec-
Line voltage V 248 V
Phase current I 109 A
Power factor cosφ 0.8 –
Efficiency η 93.8 %
Speed n 9000 rpm
tric kart needs to fulfill all of its parameters including desired
speed range. According to data obtained from measurements
taken on Nürburgring, the sports karts operate from mini-
mal speed 80 km/h to top speed 240 km/h, where the most
common speed is approximately 160 km/h. This speed has
been therefore chosen as the reference and rated speed of the
motor. Considering presumed gear ratio 1:3.5, the rated rota-
tional speed of the machine results 9000 rpm with practically
used speed range from 4500 to 13,500 rpm.
The commonly used racing karts utilize one internal
combustion engine with maximal output power 100 HP
(approximately 74 kW). To obtain similar performance, the
two 35-kW permanent magnet synchronous motors with a
possibility of overload to 50 kW are used. To have a robust
design without any additional cooling requirements, the nat-
ural air cooling is presumed with minimal speed of ambient
air 80 km/h. This presumes a relatively high efficiency of the
machine—approximately 94 per cent. A summary of param-
eters of the motor is listed in Table 1.
A comparison of its traction characteristics with charac-
teristics of a 6-gear internal combustion engine is shown in

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Electr Eng
350
35 kW
300 50 kW
250
torque [Nm]
200
150
100
50
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
speed [km/h]
Fig. 4 Comparison of designed PMSM characteristics at 35 and 50 kW
with characteristics of a 6-gear internal combustion engine
Fig. 4. The solid lines in Fig. 4 denote the characteristics
of each gear of the internal combustion engine, the dashed
line shows the traction characteristic of the machine at rated
power and dotted line shows its characteristic in overload to
50 kW output power at rated point.
3.2 Electromagnetic design
Both machines are designed as surface-mounted permanent
magnet synchronous machines equipped with tooth winding
with 6 slots and 4 rotor poles [6–8] with 26 winding turns per
phase. The stator of the machine is presumed to be manufac-
tured of M250-35A [9] steel sheets with specific losses only
0.98 W/kg at 1.0 T and 50 Hz and thickness 0.35 mm. The
winding will use class H grade 2 round wires with presumed
usage within class F insulation.
The low amount of slots at relatively small diameter results
in significantly extending shape of the slots with narrow slot
opening and wide slot base. The relatively high-rated current
of the machine (∼100 A) leads to necessity of usage of a
combination of many wire strands, which require wide slot
opening, therefore most of available space at the top of the
slots near the air gap is formed by slot openings.
The construction of the rotor presumes N40UH perma-
nent magnets [10] glued on the surface on massive steel
shaft. The permanent magnets will be further ensured by
carbon fibre banding against centrifugal forces. Since the
stator of the machine features relatively wide slot openings,
the usage of massive magnets would lead to high permanent
magnet losses. To reduce these losses, the permanent mag-
nets are divided into separate segments in both tangential and
axial directions [11–14]. The cross section of the designed
machine is shown in Fig. 5.
300
Fig. 5 Partial cross section through the magnetic circuit of the machine
3.3 Numerical verification of the electromagnetic design
The initial design of the machine was performed using tradi-
tional analytical design methods used for electric machines.
For the purpose of keeping high efficiency of the machine and
the inverter, the machine was optimized for control algorithm
with Id = 0 A [4,15], which provides very similar results
with the maximum torque-per-ampere (MTPA) control [16–
18] for SPMSM machines in range between zero and rated
speed. The results of the design were verified using various
software (GNU/Octave [19], FEMM [20], ANSYS Maxwell
[21], etc.) for the purpose of evaluation of the accuracy and
suitability of the design [22].
3.3.1 Verification of design of the magnetic circuit
The verification of the design of the magnetic circuit is
focused on check of the confirmation of the magnetic flux
densities in reference parts of the machine (teeth, yoke, air
gap) and the back electromotive force (back EMF). The
results of these analyses provide information about accu-
racy of design of the magnetic circuit including permanent
magnets. This requires setting of two types of tasks—a mag-
netostatic task for calculation of the magnetic flux densities
and a set of spatially shifted magnetostatic tasks in FEMM
controlled by a LUA script [23] for calculation of the back
EMF. The displacement of the magnetic flux density in the
machine is shown in Fig. 6.
The results confirm low saturation of the magnetic circuit,
which correspond with necessary lowering of steel losses at
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 Electr Eng

1.092e+000 : > 1.150e+000

1.035e+000 : 1.092e+000
9.775e-001 : 1.035e+000
9.200e-001 : 9.775e-001
8.625e-001 : 9.200e-001
8.050e-001 : 8.625e-001
7.475e-001 : 8.050e-001
6.900e-001 : 7.475e-001
6.325e-001 : 6.900e-001
5.750e-001 : 6.325e-001
5.175e-001 : 5.750e-001
4.600e-001 : 5.175e-001
4.025e-001 : 4.600e-001
3.450e-001 : 4.025e-001
2.875e-001 : 3.450e-001
2.300e-001 : 3.875e-001
1.725e-001 : 2.300e-001
1.150e-001 : 1.725e-001
5.750e-002 : 1.150e-001
<0.000e+000 : 5.750e-002
Density Plot: |B|, Tesla

Fig. 6 Magnetic flux density displacement

1 1

0.8
component magnitude [T]
magnetic flux density [T]

0.5

0.6

0
0.4

-0.5 0.2

0
-1 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
0 50 100 150 200
order of harmonic component [-]
distance [mm]
Fig. 8 Spectrum of air gap magnetic flux density
Fig. 7 Magnetic flux density in the air gap of designed machine

mentioned value of B1 = 0.92 T used in the analytical cal-

relatively high frequency of the magnetic flux ( f = 300 Hz).
The magnetic flux density in the air gap excited by the
permanent magnets is also set to a relatively low value—
the design considers the fundamental harmonic component
B1 = 0.92 T. Its space dependency distorted by various edge
effects is shown in Fig. 7.
The Fourier analysis of the magnetic flux density displace-
ment in Fig. 7 is shown in Fig. 8. It confirms the presence of a
large amount of higher-order harmonic components, result-
ing in total harmonic distortion of the magnetic flux density
THD = 0.084 [24]. The fundamental harmonic component
magnitude results according to the FFT B1 = 0.89 T, which
is a 2.2 per cent difference in comparison with previously
culations.
Using a LUA script, it is possible to simulate the rotary
movement of the rotor. This results in angularly shifted set
of magnetostatic tasks, which may be used for evaluation of
phase flux linkage time dependency and therefore calcula-
tion of the time dependency of the back EMF. The resulting
time dependency of the back EMF (Fig. 9) shows a trape-
zoidal shape but with very low total harmonic distortion
(THD = 0.002) caused almost purely by 5th harmonic compo-
nent. The calculated magnitude of the fundamental harmonic
component is E i1 = 150.76 V. In comparison with analyt-
ically presumed value (E i = 159.97 V), this means a 5.76
per cent difference. The calculation of line-to-line back EMF

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Electr Eng

200
0.9
150 60
0.8

100 50 0.7

0.6
back EMF [V]

50

torque [Nm]
40
0.5
0
30 0.4
-50
0.3
20
-100
0.2
-150 10
0.1

-200 0 0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
time [ms] efficiency
speed [x1000 rpm]
[ -]
Fig. 9 The phase back EMF of designed machine
Fig. 11 Efficiency map of the designed machine

5
torque [Nm]

4
of the machine. This means that the machine will keep its
3
high efficiency in wide range of overloading. Similarly high
2 efficiency will be kept at its rated torque within the range
1 between 2500 and 9000 rpm.
load angle [deg]
0
-180 -135 -90 -45 -1 0 45 90 135 180
3.3.2 Verification of rated working point
-2

-3 A deeper check of analytically obtained results may be

-4
-5
Fig. 10 Cogging torque of designed machine
provides very similar results—it also includes almost purely
5th harmonic component and its total harmonic distortion is
0.2 per cent.
The same set of magnetostatic tasks allows determination
of the cogging torque of the machine arising from super-
position of stator teeth and rotor poles. In case of relatively
wide slot openings, the cogging torque rises to a considerably
high values (Tc = 4.15 Nm; see Fig. 10) exceeding 10 per
cent of the rated torque of the machine (Tr = 37 Nm). Since
the machine is not supposed to be operated in near-to-zero
speed, these values of cogging torque should not influence its
behaviour in a serious way. In case of possible noise or dura-
bility issues, it is possible to introduce further adjustments
of the rotor topology such a magnet skewing, etc. [25,26].
Using a self-written script in the GNU/Octave, the effi-
ciency map of the machine was obtained (see Fig. 11). As
seen from the efficiency map, the rated working point of the
machine (n = 9000 rpm, Tr = 37 Nm) is located near to
the bottom edge of the “island” with the highest efficiency
performed using proprietary software (ANSYS Maxwell
RMxprt). This allows a quick check of equivalent circuit
parameters and parameters related to the working point of the
machine and its overloadability. The comparison of analyti-
cally calculated results and results obtained through RMxprt
is listed in Table 2. The values show a very good correspon-
dence of results (within 5 per cent), where the main difference
is caused by inaccuracy in calculation of the armature reac-
tive inductance.
The torque characteristic of the machine (Fig. 12) was
obtained using analytically calculated equivalent circuit
parameters, and its maximal value is listed higher in Table 2.
As shown in Fig. 12, the machine covers at rated temperature
a power range within −60,000 kW (recuperative breaking)
and +60,000 W (motor mode); therefore, the required over-
loading to 50 kW should be met with approximately 20 per
cent reserve. The load angle at 50 kW in motor mode should
be approximately 50◦ at rated temperature.
Based on analytically obtained parameters of the equiv-
alent circuit, constructed phasor diagram of the machine is
shown in Fig. 13. According to presumption of design with
Id = 0, the phasors of the current of the machine and its back
EMF should overlap each other. Thanks to some inaccuracies
in the design of equivalent circuit parameters there is a slight
phase shift (approximately 4.6◦ ).

123
 Electr Eng

Table 2 Rated working point

Parameter Design RMxprt Difference (%)
parameters
Phase current I 109 A 112 A +2.75
Power factor cosφ 0.8 0.83 +3.75
Load angle β 36.87 33.88 −8.11
Armature resistance Ra 13 m 12 m −7.69
Leakage inductance L σ 0.28 mH 0.28 mH −1.04
Reactive inductance L ad 0.14 mH 0.10 mH −28.6
Maximum power Pmax 60 659 W 62 407 W +2.88

80
20 °C
out. power [kW]

60 rated

40

20
load angle [deg]
0

-180 -135 -90 -45 0 45 90 135 180

-20

-40

-60

-80

Fig. 12 Power characteristics of the machine

Fig. 14 Outer view on original designed machine

+Re
RaI
Vph

jXqI fins around its periphery. The bearing brackets enclosed the
I
inner space of the centre of the central chassis, and they also
Ei form the holding element of the machine. On the non-drive
end (NDE) bearing, an RLS RM 44 [27] encoder is placed
for the purpose of estimation of rotor position. The sensor-
less control is considered to be included in second stage of
programming of the control algorithm.
+Im The grommets for phase wires are placed near to the NDE
bearing bracket together with a connector to Pt 100 ther-
Fig. 13 Phasor diagram of the machine at rated working point mal sensors embedded in the winding of the machine. The
NDE bearing bracket was supposed to be placed near to
the wheels of the machine; therefore, the initial design con-
4 Thermal and mechanical design sidered usage of additional sealing element to obtain IP 66
enclosure degree. The drive end (DE) of the shaft was sup-
4.1 Initial design of the chassis posed to be placed near to the axis of the kart; therefore, IP
44 class enclosure was considered as sufficient. The ending
The initial design of the machine considered usage of tra- of the shaft was presumed to be a cylinder with a wedge for
ditional topology of motor chassis—a tube equipped with mounting the band wheel. The bearing currents were sup-
cooling fins (centre of the chassis) and two bearing brackets. posed to be reduced by usage of a hybrid bearing in the DE
To achieve maximal weight savings, the centre of the chas- bearing bracket. The original concept of the chassis is shown
sis was designed as an aluminium tube with turned cooling in Fig. 14.

123
Electr Eng

153.41 Max

144.7

135.99

127.28

118.58

109.87

101.16

92.456

83.749

75.042 Min

Fig. 15 Temperature displacement in steady state

4.2 Verification of initial thermal design 180

160
The position of the machines on the kart provides relative low 140
volume of cooling air, and therefore, the cooling air should
temperature [°C]

120
be led from both sides of the kart the machines by tubes. The
correct air flow around the periphery of the machine would 100

be ensured by aluminium plates on tops of cooling fins on 80

rear sides of the machine. 60
The initial thermal analysis of the machine showed [28–
40
30] that the temperature of permanent magnets exceeds minimal temperature
allowed limits (>220 ◦ C). This fact led to division of per- 20
maximal temperature
manent magnets to smaller segments—five segments per 0
0 600 1200 1800 2400 3000 3600
pole in tangential direction and two segments per pole in
time [s]
axial direction. This led to significant decrease in permanent
losses, resulting in their approximate temperature 150 ◦ C. In Fig. 16 Dependencies of minimal and maximal temperatures in tran-
comparison with the presumptions of the analytical design, sient thermal analysis
the final temperature resulted approximately 10 ◦ C higher,
which is approximately 7 per cent difference. On the other
of time constant of the machine. The time constant of the
hand, the temperature of the stator winding resulted slightly
machine was determined from the transient thermal anal-
lower (approximately 115 ◦ C in comparison with presumed
ysis in ANSYS Workbench, and for the initial design and
130 ◦ C), which corresponds with required thermal usage of
its thermal capacitances, it results approximately 600 s. The
the machine within the class F and introduces a reserve for
progress of the transient analysis with maximal and minimal
usage of class H insulation. The highest temperature on the
temperatures is shown in Fig. 16.
surface of the chassis resulted 105 ◦ C. The temperature of the
According to results of the transient thermal analysis, the
bearing brackets in places of bearings resulted approximately
steady state is for rated output power reached after more than
80 ◦ C, which allows safe usage of selected sealed bearings.
3600 s (60 min), and the time constant evaluated from the
The temperature layout in the machine on its cross section
hottest part of the machine (permanent magnets) is approx-
obtained from ANSYS Workbench is shown in Fig. 15.
imately 600 s (10 min). At the time of the time constant, the
The highly unstable loading style of kart motors with
temperature of permanent magnets reaches 115 ◦ C, which
many accelerations and decelerations requires determination
offers further reserve in the thermal design. The run time of

123

Fig. 17 Outer view on stage II machine design
the kart is presumed to be 15 min, and therefore, obtained
results were accepted as satisfying including a reserve for
overloading of the machine.
4.3 Modification of the original design
During the preparation of final component list for the elec-
tric kart, it was found that the total weight of the kart exceeds
required limits. As one of possibilities to reduce the weight
of the kart the electric motors were selected. Since the elec-
tromagnetic design could not be modified, it was necessary
to modify the chassis of the machines. The total estimated
weight of the original design was estimated to approximately
45 kg per machine with required reduction of weight to 35 kg
per machine.
To achieve required weight savings, an alternative to
welded chassis known from traction motors was proposed.
The new construction of the machine therefore does not
utilize any kind of chassis, only its magnetic circuit and nec-
essary bearing brackets. The central part of the “chassis” is
formed by the magnetic circuit, which is held together by
composite bars placed in the axes of teeth of the machine
on the periphery of original magnetic circuit. These bars are
connected by pressing plates at both ends of the magnetic
circuit so they form a “squirrel cage” holding the magnetic
circuit together. The bearing brackets are now formed by
aluminium “pots” screwed to pressing plates (see Fig. 17).
To obtain necessary cooling area, two forms of stator
sheets are used. The shape A sheets have the same form as
original steel sheets, but they are equipped with a notch for
placing the composite bar in the axis of teeth. The shape B
sheets have increased outer diameter by 40 mm to form cool-
ing fins. Instead of notches, they are equipped with holes for
123
Electr Eng
Fig. 18 Comparison of shape A (left) and shape B sheets (right)
mounting the composite bars. The whole stator is divided
into 21 segments, 10 segments composed of shape A sheets
and 11 segments composed of shape B sheets. A comparison
of both sheet forms is shown in Fig. 18.
To utilize the surface of bearing brackets, they are also
equipped with cooling fins at the same dimensions as the
magnetic circuit of the machine. The mentioned modification
allowed reduction in the outer diameter of the machine from
240 to 220 mm with chassis length 236 mm and resulted in
total weight of the machine 34 kg. As a further aftereffect,
the new design may be placed in the axis of the rear wheels
allowing usage of planetary gear mounted to the DE bearing
bracket, which leads to further reduction in weight of the kart
through sparing additional mechanical components (motor
holders, band wheels, etc.).
4.3.1 Verification of stage II thermal design
The thermal analysis of the redesigned machine confirmed
marginal impact of performed geometry changes on thermal
conditions on the machine in rated load. The comparison
of thermal displacement of the redesigned machine (Fig.
19) and the original one (Fig. 15) shows approximately the
same value of temperature of permanent magnets (approx-
imately 152 ◦ C). The temperature of the winding of the
machine increased from approximately 120 ◦ C to approxi-
mately 135 ◦ C, which still allows the usage of the machine
in class F insulation limits for S1 regime rated load.
The relatively low heat capacity of the original chassis
was replaced by heat capacity of newly designed fins made
of electrotechnical steel, which results in comparable time
constant of the whole machine. The comparison of thermal
behaviour of the original and new designs during transient
thermal analysis (see Figs. 16 and 20) confirms very similar
trends in reaching thermal steady state.
Electr Eng

152.4 Max
147.53
142.65
137.77
132.89
128.01
123.13
118.25
113.97
108.49
103.61
98.733
93.853
88.974
84.095 Min

Fig. 19 Temperature displacement in steady state

180
Since the chassis of the machine had to be redesigned, the
160 final term of assembly of the machines shifted to Q2/2017
140 (originally intended term was Q3/2016). After the manufac-
ture of machines, they will be tested in a laboratory stand
temperature [°C]

120
in Q3/2017 and they will be prepared for mounting into the
100
chassis of the kart in Q3-Q4/2017.
80
Acknowledgements This research has been supported by the Min-
60
istry of Education, Youth and Sports of the Czech Republic under the
40 RICE—New Technologies and Concepts for Smart Industrial Systems,
minimal temperature Project No. LO1607, project TA ČR number TA002000103, Centre for
20
Intelligent Drives and Machines (CIDAM) and funding program of the
maximal temperature
0 University of West Bohemia number SGS-2015-038.
0 600 1200 1800 2400 3000 3600
time [s] Compliance with ethical standards
Fig. 20 Dependencies of minimal and maximal temperatures in tran- Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of
sient thermal analysis interest.

5 Conclusion References

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most cases exceed 10 per cent, which is a satisfying result.
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allow programming of accurate motor status control allow-
ing maximal usage of the output power of the machine. This
will enhance both control algorithms of the machines, and it
will lead to achieve optimal and safe usage of the machine.
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