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2017 International Conference on Computation of Power, Energy, Information and Communication (ICCPEIC).

Component Selection For An Electric Vehicle: A

Review

Ashish Tiwari Om Prakash Jaga

Department of Electrical Engineering Department of Electrical Engineering
GLA University, Mathura, India GLA University, Mathura, India
ashish.tiwari_mtee15@gla.ac.in Omprakash.jaga@gla.ac.in

Abstract— Electric vehicles are widely used for pollution free
transportation but it has been observed that distance travelled
by battery operated electric vehicle is very less as compared with
the other fuel powered engine and poor regenerative energy
recapturing from the vehicle’s kinetic energy. There are so many
types of losses in power converter which increase consumption of
battery energy. For increment of distance travelled by electric
vehicles and increment of recapturing of regenerative energy we
have to improve performance of all component used in electric
vehicle like electric motor, power converter and energy storage
system like battery or ultra-capacitor. This paper presents
comparative study of all components used in an electric vehicle.
This paper also concluded that which drive or converter is
suitable for electric vehicle is being proposed. Best coordination
of all components can lead to optimize power consumption in
electric vehicle. Energy dissipated in power train during the
operation of conversion from electrical energy to mechanical
energy and vice-versa should be minimize, it cans be achieved
only by using a converter whose efficiency is high like interleaved
boost converter. There are various methods of modifying power
converter to get more efficiency and increased power rating is
explained, like using multi model method of boost converter.
termed as green vehicle is under process as it is eco-friendly in
nature. The electrical energy can easily generate and store
with the help of different methods with less operating cost.
Electric vehicle is well knows as future vehicle of world.
Power performance of electric vehicle can be improved in the
way as mentioned below:
x Improvement in vehicle battery energy performance.
x Reduction in loss of the propulsion motors and power
train.
x Recovering regenerative braking energy from
vehicle.
It is necessary that reduction of energy loss method should not
affect any other factor of system like acceleration, speed and
cost of the vehicle. For example if we reduce the size of
electrodes then power performance of battery will improve but
it reduce energy density and life of battery.

Keywords—component used in electric vehicle, lithium-ion

battery, buck-boost converter, interleaved boost converter.

I. INTRODUCTION
Conventionally we are using IC engine for rotating wheel of
vehicle but it has a disadvantage of pollution over other type
of vehicle and an another problem with IC engine is its fuel
which is being finished in next few decades so that scientist
are trying to make an efficient vehicle which can replace
conventional vehicle. Everybody wants to move on a vehicle
which can reduce pollution, availability of that source of
energy in world for future use and cost of the vehicle should
be low with best performance. Electric vehicle is most suitable
for current scenario as efficiency of motor is about 90%,
efficiency of battery is approximate 75%, and efficiency of
power converter is also about 90%. So overall efficiency of
electric vehicle is about 75%, which is very high in
comparison of IC engine vehicle whose efficiency is about 5-
10% [1]. Research work on electric vehicle which can be
Fig.1. Block diagram of electric vehicle.
Figure (1) shows block diagram of electric vehicle which has
three basic component included, electric motor, power
converter and energy storage system. Energy storage system is
again divided into two parts main and auxiliary energy storage
system. Main energy source is connected of unidirectional
boost converter and auxiliary energy source or energy storage
system is connected by bidirectional dc-dc converter.
Comparison of all type of component is on the basis of their
characteristic like modularization, size, losses of electric

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Ashish Tiwari et al: Component Selection For An Electric Vehicle: A Review

motor and battery, voltage stress on power converter switch,

simplicity of controller and finally overall cost of the product.
This paper presents a comparative study of motor, power Constant
torque
Constant
Power
High
speed
converter, and battery used in an electric vehicle. There are
many method of modifying power converter to get more Torque

efficiency and high power rating like inductor coupled method

and ripple rejection network. Motor performance can also be Stator voltage

improved by some methods [2] [3].

Stator
current
II. COMPONENTS USED IN ELECTRIC VEHICLE Slip

There are basically four factors that affect efficiency of

electric vehicle
x Drive to rotate wheels
Base speed speed

x Energy storage system Fig. 2. IM Characteristics [6]

x Power conversion system
x Regenerative energy recapture system
A. Drive to rotate wheels, electric motor
Electric motor is used to rotate wheels of electric vehicle.
There are two type of electric motor used for rotating wheels
of electric vehicle.
a) Cage induction motor
Cage induction motor is used for electric propulsion
system in electric vehicle due to its reliability, low
maintenance, less cost, and its ability to run in
different environment condition.
Squirrel cage IM is associated with some problem
like at maximum speed the breakdown torque is
reached. IM never run above its rating because if we
run IM above its rated current it can stop, efficiency
of IM reduce at high speed as compared to permanent
magnet brushless motor.
b) PM brushless motor
PM brushless motor is most suitable motor for
propulsion system of electric vehicle. There are many
reason to use PM brushless motor like its high power
density, high efficiency due to no copper loss in rotor
winding and capability to dissipate heat efficiently in
atmosphere.
There are some problems with PM brushless motor
like its constant PM limits their incremental speed
range.
To achieve extend speed range of PM motor the
conduction angle of power converter can be
controlled at above the base speed.
Torque

To improve efficiency of IM drives, a next generation 0º

10º
control techniques has been proposed by different 3º
50º

researchers [2] [3]. 8º

The breakdown torque problem at maximum speed of

IM can be overcome by using multiphase pole
changing method [4] [5]. Speed

Overall cost of electric vehicle will increase due to

additional cost of inverter used for converting DC Fig. 3. PM brushless motor characteristics [6]
supply to run IM.
If PM brushless modified as hybrid PM brushless motor by
adding field winding then its speed can be increase four to five
time over base speed of motor.
IM and PM brushless motor both are suitable for electric
vehicle and performance of electric vehicle like speed range of
electric vehicle can be improved if the advantage of both the
motor is used in a single electric vehicle, this type of work was
done by GM. GM use IM for front wheels and for rare wheels
GM used two PM brushless motor for propulsion system.
From table it can conclude that IM is best motor for electric
vehicle and after IM, PM brushless motor is most suitable for
electric propulsion system. A general formula is given here for
calculating efficiency of motor that is fitted in all type of
electric motor.
Fig. 1 Inverter fed six phase pole changing pole changing IM
drive [4]. TW
Efficiency = (1)
TW  K CT  K iW  KW W 3
2

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Table1. Comparison of IM and PM brushless motor R3

+

Electric motor Induction PM brushless Ra

-
motor motor R2
C
+
Vc
Vo

(IM) (PM)

Comparing Properties
Efficiency Low High
controllability high Low
reliability high Low
Power density low High
Overall cost of vehicle High (due low
to inverter
cost)
B. Energy source
Energy storing device is a key component of electric vehicle.
It is most sensitive component. Selection of energy storing
device should take care about some vital features like its
lifecycle, power density, energy density, capacity, and state of
charge (SOC).
It is found in literature that battery SOC should be maintained
in between 20% to 80%. If SOC reaches to 0% then its
electrodes will get short-circuited and finally burn out and if it
is above 80% then battery could get overcharged. Both of the
cases should be kept in mind while assembling it in an electric
vehicle because it may directly affect performance of energy
storing device.
Basically there are two types of energy sources.
1. Main energy source
There are so many sources which can be used as
main energy source but generally electric vehicle
used fuel cell as a main energy source.
Fuel cell converts chemical energy into electrical
energy. Fuel cell are formed using two electrode
having electrolyte in between them. Efficiency of
fuel cell is approximate 40-60% [7]. Loss of about
40% energy is dissipated as heat, researcher are
proposing some method to save this energy.[8]
Reaction of oxygen and hydrogen (in case of - )
takes so much time to react, which results in a low
current, and so low power is generated from fuel cell.
Ec-Va
-
Fig. 4. Dynamic model of fuel cell.
Fuel cell has an advantage in comparison that its efficiency is
high at low current.
2. Auxiliary Energy Source
Battery and ultra-capacitor is used as auxiliary energy
source in electric vehicle.
Battery converts chemical energy into electrical
energy with the help of its active material present in
it and electrical energy to chemical energy with the
help of oxidation and reduction at electrodes of
battery. Battery has capability to store electric charge
and whenever need energy it can also supply energy.
Recapturing of regenerative energy is also a key
factor while selecting battery.
There are some batteries used in electric vehicle like,
Lead acid, Nickel-cadmium, Nickel-metal hybrid and
Lithium-ion. All these batteries have different
characteristics and battery can be selected according
to vehicle parameter like, acceleration and maximum
speed. Selection of battery should be very carefully
because it can also be explosive during high current
drawn from battery. In case of overcharging of lead-
acid battery, when cell temperature increases there
will be formation of hydrogen as result of electrolysis
of water. Hydrogen is very ignitable and due to
temperature rise it may burnout out battery.
Perfect control of battery voltage is required at the
time of charging, if voltage of battery is too high then
it can burnout battery; if too low then it will not store
charged. Researchers are working to design controller
for voltage control of lithium-ion battery [9]
Rd
Rb

Literature review explains some methods for

increasing reaction rates like, increasing temperature, Rc
increasing electrode area and by using suitable Voc C
Vt
catalysts on the electrode.[7] We can obtain
maximum energy from fuel cell by using equation(2 )
'G
Vmax (2)
2F Fig. 5. Dynamic model of battery.

Ultra-capacitor is a double layer capacitor. Normally,

electrolytic capacitor has capacity in microfarad but capacity
of ultra-capacitor is in thousands of farad, which is very high
in comparison of conventional capacitor. It can charge and
discharge very fast due to its low internal resistance as
compared to conventional battery.

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Ultra-capacitor is used as an auxiliary source of energy in L

electric vehicle. Generally it is used for recapturing of D
regenerative energy. Power density of UC is very high in
comparison of conventional battery but energy density of UC
is very low.
Vi
I(t) S Load
Capacitor
(C)

V(t) C Rp Fig.8. Boost converter circuit diagram.

State space equation of boost converter is shown in equation

(3)(4).
ESR x
E x2
x1  1  D  (3)
L L
x
Fig. 6. Equivalent model of ultra-capacitor 1 x
x2 x1 1  D   2 (4)
Table 2 Comparison of different type of storage system C RC
Voltage gain of boost converter can be given as equation (5).
Source Self- Energy- Efficiency Life cycles
of discharge density (%) V$ 1
(5)
energy (% per (Wh/kg) Vi 1 D
month )
b. Interleaved Boost Converter
Fuel cell NA NA 40-60 NA
Interleaved boost converter used conventional boost
Lithium- 3-5 90 80-90 700 converter implemented a method of that conventional
ion boost converter named Interleaved. In this method
battery many homogeneous boost converter are connected in
Lead- 5 30 50-95 500-1000 parallel having same switching frequency and phase
acid shift.
battery Interleaved method is used to minimize conduction
Ultra- 0.5-1.5 1000- 90 1000000 loss with the help of multi model concept, in multi
capacitor 8500 model concept main input current is distributed into
other model depending upon parameter used in
C. Power converter interleaved circuit.
Making parallel connection for improving current or
Power converters are classified in two categories on the basis
voltage rating is a general method; we should make
of energy source for electric vehicle. Power converter in
parallel connection of power convertor not for power
electric vehicle is a device which is used to step up or step
device.
down the voltage as per requirement.
Interleaved boost converter gives so many
a. Converter for main energy source(Boost converter)
advantages over conventional boost converter
As we know that fuel cell is widely used in electric
including, wide range of operating efficiency,
vehicle as a main energy source. The fuel cell can-not
improved reliability, reduced size, high power
store the power or energy and output voltage of fuel
handling capability, modularity, good transient
cell is limited up to 60V. But we required high
response and less conducted electromagnetic
voltage at dc bus side so that a unidirectional dc-dc
emission. IBC has capability to reduce output ripple
step-up power converter is required. Function of this
current to reduce size of noise filter.
converter are step-up the output voltage of fuel cell
It is found in literature that input current ripple of
up to desired voltage level and restrict the flow of
conventional boost converter is inversely
energy from dc bus to fuel cell. Output voltage can be
proportional to its input inductor value [10].
change with the help of controlling duty cycle (D) of
switch. Circuit diagram of boost converter is shown Vin
'i L TD (6)
in figure (5). L
State space representation of fuel cell is given in Equation (6) concludes that if we are using high value of
equation (3)-(4). inductor weight of converter will increase and if we use less
value of inductor then power ripple will increase results in
more loss.

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If interleaved boost converter used in electric vehicle then 2Vin

increased weight of converter will not be accepted; to 'i L T (0.5  D) for D<0.5 (9)
eliminate this problem less value of inductor and a capacitor L
with low equivalent series resistance must be used [11]. 2Vin
Circuit diagram of IBC is shown in figure (9). 'i L T ( D  0.5) for D>0.5 (10)
L
L1
When we use a passive loss less clamping circuit arrangement
then leakage energy of coupled inductor can be recapture and
D1
deduct voltage stress on the power electronics devices seen
[15].
L2
D2
Ripple rejection network reduce ripple from input current with
the help of adding two capacitors, two inductors and coupled
inductor without increase in losses [17].

V
C R
S1 S2

Fig. 9. Circuit diagram of interleaved boost converter.

For calculating circuit parameter of interleaved boost

converter we have two equations (7) (8)
Vin
L M (7)
F'i L
Fig. 11. Ripple rejection circuit with interleaved boost
I converter.
C M (8) With the help of ripple rejection network we can reduce ripple
F 'V c about 96% [17].
Reliability of any device explains about its state when
operating at different load and condition. Reliability can be
achieved by focusing on such factor like temperature, power
loss of device. Temperature is key factor for reliability of a
device which includes all type of losses. If we are able to
check reliability of temperature then our work is somehow
complete. Junction temperature of any device can be find with
the help of equation (11)
T j Tb  T jb Pd (11)
Tb Ta  T ba Pd (12)
Fig.10. Efficiency comparison of interleaved boost converter
with conventional boost converter.

Improvement of Interleaved boost converter

Researchers are switching toward interleaved boost converter
for making it widely accepted for different type of application
like electric vehicle and photovoltaic system.
Coupled inductor method is used to improve voltage gain of
converter If electric vehicle is powered with low voltage
energy source like Li-ion battery or fuel cell then requirement
of high voltage gain is increased Although magnetic coupled Fig.12 Reliability comparison of conventional boost and
converters such as forward fly-back[12][13] and full bridge interleaved boost converter.
converter[14] can also obtain high voltage gain with the help
of turns ratio of high frequency transformer, however leakage Reliability of interleaved boost converter can be
inductance of transformer can result in incremental voltage checked from figure, interleaved boost converter is
stress and switching loss. With solution to this problem of more reliable than conventional boost converter
high voltage gain can be obtain from interleaved boost
converter by connecting two coupled inductor in both forward c. Converter for auxiliary energy source (Buck-boost)
and fly-back and switch capacitor to get high conversion As we know that fuel cell can not store the energy
ratio[16]. and fuel cell generates the rated power. If vehicle
running at light load condition, overloading condition
and regenerative braking, in all the transient

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condition there is a requirement of the device which x

1 x
can make energy to storable form in case of under
loading condition and can also deliver energy to the
vehicle in case of overloading condition. This
function can be done by using either battery or ultra-
capacitor, so that we required a power converter
which step-up or step down the voltage and also
allow flow of energy from dc bus to energy storage
device or vice-versa. A bidirectional dc-dc power
converter is used for this type function. A bi-
directional dc-dc power converter step-up the output
voltage of battery or ultra-capacitor in case of
overloading condition and step down the dc bus
voltage up to voltage level of battery or ultra-
capacitor in case of light load and regenerative
braking condition. Buck-boost converter is used to
step up and step down of input voltage according to
requirement of output voltage. In case of electric
vehicle, if power flow is from source to load then it
will work as boost converter and if power flow from
load to source(regenerative breaking) then it will
work as buck converter. Voltage gain equation of
buck-boost converter can be given as shown in
equation (13)
V$ D boost switch. External loop provide difference
 (13)
Vi 1 D
Main drawback of buck-boost converter is that switch does not
have a terminal at ground resulting in complication of circuit
and polarity of output voltage is opposite to input voltage [18].
Circuit diagram of buck boost converter is shown in figure
(13).
S D
E
Load
L Capacitor
(C)
Fig. 13 Buck-boost converter circuit.[18]
Voltage gain
Boost converter
Buck-boost converter
Duty ratio
Fig.14 graph between duty ratio and voltage gain of
boost and buck-boost converter
State space equation of buck-boost converter is
shown in equation (14) (15).
x
E x
x2  x 2  1 1  D  (15)
RC C
Modified buck-boost converter
Researcher are moving toward modification of all
type of converter for improving basic characteristics
of converter like, voltage stress, cost, switches loss
etc. Some of modified buck-boost converters are
explained below.
Non-inverting-buck-boost converter is a
unidirectional cascade buck-boost converter. First
model of NIBB includes two switches and two
diodes. It has ability to work as buck converter, boost
converter and buck-boost converter [19]. For more
details and explanation visit [20]
Bi-directional non inverting buck-boost converter is
future version of NIBB; BDNIBB is formed by
replacing both diodes with two MOSFET. It is
observed from literature review that BDNIBB is most
suitable candidate for mobile application such as
electric vehicle and portable batteries [21][22][23]
PWM generators produces two signal for buck and
between reference and measured signal value and
forms reference for the current loop. Internal loop
provide difference between reference and inductor
current. Output of PWM generator is decided into
two signals first one is for buck and other one is for
boost leg[20][24][25].
Conventionally it is found that if we are using (n)
number of cell connected in series, then total number
of switch used in that converter is (2n-1) [26]
So if combination of buck-boost and cuk converter is
used then only (n number of switch will be required
for (n) number of cell connected in series without
harming its basic characteristics like voltage stress,
losses [26].
Reduction in number of switch will lead to reduction
of loss and overall cost of the converter will also
reduce. Figure (15) shows combination of buck-boost
and cuk converter.
S1 D1
L1
S2
D2
C
S3 D3
L2
S4
D4
Fig.15 Circuit diagram of combination of buck-
x1 u  2 1  D  (14) boost and cuk converter.
L L

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D. Controlling of electric vehicle LAB Lead acid battery

Controlling of electric vehicle is burning topic for research, FC Fuel cell
researcher are doing so many type of research for UC Ultra-capacitor
improvement of control of electric vehicle. Electric vehicle IBC Interleaved boost converter
required some control like SOC of energy storage system, D Duty cycle
motor speed, recapturing of regenerative energy, voltage M Modulation index
control and switch control of power converter. If SOC of ∆ Change in output voltage
battery will not control then storage system of electric vehicle Junction temperature
can burn out either by over-charging or under charging. Motor Body temperature
speed control also required to accelerate vehicle, research are Junction to case thermal resistance
moving towards speed and acceleration control of electric Power dissipation
vehicle [27]. Ambient temperature
Speed and acceleration loop of electric vehicle can be Thermal resistance between case and ambient
controlled using PI controller.[27] Gibbs energy
1 F Frequency
Rv ( s) K p ,v  (1  ) (16)
Iron loss coefficient
sTi ,v
Windage loss coefficient
1 Input current ripple
Ra ( s ) K p ,a  (1  ) (17)
sTi ,a T Total time
n Number of switch
Recapturing of regenerative energy will help to charge ultra- L Inductance
capacitor and ultra-capacitor will help to power during C Capacitance
acceleration. Energy manager also required to deal with W Angular speed
different load condition because energy management direct x
affect energy consumed by electric vehicle. Researcher had X1 Inductor current
done so many researches for energy management. [28][29]. x

III. CONCLUSION X2 Output voltage

This paper presents step by step comparative study of all
component used in electric vehicle included, electric
motor, power converter and energy storage system.
Reviewing of all component it is found that if AC motor
used then IM is best motor for propulsion system of
electric vehicle but its cost increases due to requirement of
inverter, in case of DC motor it is not required. After IM,
PM synchronous motor is best candidate for electric
propulsion system as shown in table [1]. Interleaved power
converter is best power converter for electric vehicle due
to its power handling capacity. Lithium-ion batteries is
most suitable for electric vehicle with respect to all other
battery used in electric vehicle when use as main source. It
is well known that energy density of battery is directly
proportional to distance travelled by electric vehicle as
shown in table[2]. Energy density of LIB is more than
other general battery that is why it should be used in
electric vehicle as primary energy storage device. Ultra-
capacitor is used as an auxiliary source of energy which
will help in recapturing regenerative energy. There are so
many type of control circuitry to control speed and voltage
of electric vehicle but somehow some problem are facing
by automakers like quick acceleration and distance range
of electric vehicle , which will be presented in future work.
List of abbreviations and symbols
IC Internal combustion
IM Induction motor
PM Permanent magnet
GM General motors
SOC State of charge
LIB lithium ion battery
Rv Transfer function of PI controller for velocity
Ra Transfer function of PI controller for acceleration
K p ,v Proportional constant of PI controller for velocity
K p .a Proportional constant of PI controller for acceleration
Ti , v Integral time delay for velocity
Ti ,a Integral time delay for acceleration
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