Unit-V

Integration of subsystems and energy management strategies

Q. Explain matching the electric machines and the internal combustion

engine in Electric Hybrid Vehicle.

An Electric Motor (EM) is at the core of HEV drivetrains. The electric energy
path of HEV consists of an energy storage unit (such as batteries,
supercapacitors or fuel cells), a power processing unit (such as DC-AC
converters) and an EM. In Figure 1 a schematic of hybrid propulsion system is
shown. Most EMs used in HEV or EV drivetrains have speed limit of 12000
rpm due to following reasons: i.e., At very high rpm, the centrifugal force
acting on the rotor increases and it is possible that the rotor might fail
mechanically. ii. The control algorithms of the EM involve determination of
rotor position and this becomes very difficult at high rotor rpm. The
performance of EM is measured by following quantities: i. Torque and Power
Capability ii. Constant Power Speed Ratio (CPSR)
Peak Torque and Power The EM capability curves for torque and power define
the peak operating capability curve of the HEV.

In Figure 2 a typical torque versus speed characteristics of an EM is shown.

There are three curves shown in Figure 2 namely:

Continuous rating: The EM can be operated within its continuous rated region.

Intermittent overload operation: The EM can operate in this region for short
duration (typically <1~2s).

From Figure 2 it can be seen that: i. the peak output is about 2.5 times the
continuous or rated output ii. the intermittent output is about 1.5 times the
continuous or rated output The various operating regions show in Figure 2 is: i.
the region the flat torque region is known as the constant torque operating
region. In this region the DC-AC converter has sufficient voltage from the dc
sources to inject required current into the EM. ii. when the machine speed
increases and reaches the point A, the induced emf in the stator winding
increases and the EM enters the constant power regime and flux weakening
control is used.

Q. Explain the matching of propulsion motor in Electric hybrid vehicle.

Matching the propulsion motor in an electric hybrid vehicle is a critical aspect

of the vehicle's design and performance. The propulsion motor is responsible for
converting electrical energy (typically from a battery or a generator) into
mechanical power to drive the vehicle. The selection and matching of the
propulsion motor involves several key considerations:

Power and Torque Requirements: The first step in matching the propulsion
motor is to determine the power and torque requirements of the vehicle. This
involves understanding the desired performance characteristics, such as
acceleration, top speed, and gradeability (the ability to climb steep hills). The
motor must be able to provide sufficient power and torque to meet these
requirements.
Energy Source: The energy source for the electric hybrid vehicle plays a
significant role in motor selection. Hybrid vehicles can have various energy
sources, including batteries, fuel cells, and internal combustion engines. The
motor must be compatible with the energy source and its voltage and current
capabilities.

Motor Type: There are different types of electric motors used in hybrid
vehicles, including:

a. Brushless DC (BLDC) Motors: These are commonly used for their efficiency
and control capabilities.

b. Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motors (PMSM): PMSM motors are known

for their high efficiency and power density.

c. Induction Motors: These are less common but can be suitable for specific
applications.

The choice of motor type depends on factors like efficiency, power density, and
cost.

Motor Sizing: Once the power and torque requirements are known, the motor's
physical size and weight must be considered. The motor should fit within the
vehicle's available space and be lightweight to ensure efficient operation and not
compromise the vehicle's overall performance.

Inverter and Control System: The motor is often paired with an inverter and a
sophisticated control system. These components are responsible for regulating
the motor's speed and power output. The inverter must be capable of handling
the motor's voltage and current requirements.

Efficiency and Regeneration: Hybrid vehicles often employ regenerative

braking to recover energy during deceleration. The motor should be capable of
operating in generator mode efficiently to capture and store energy back into the
energy storage system, such as a battery.

Cooling and Thermal Management: The motor generates heat during operation,
and it's essential to have a cooling system in place to manage the motor's
temperature. Overheating can lead to reduced performance and decreased motor
lifespan.

Cost and Manufacturing Considerations: The cost of the motor and related
components, as well as the ease of manufacturing and integration into the
vehicle, are significant factors. Cost-effectiveness and ease of production are
critical for commercial viability.

Q. Explain sizing power electronics in electric hybrid vehicle.

Sizing power electronics in an electric hybrid vehicle is a crucial part of the

vehicle's design and operation. Power electronics play a significant role in
managing the electrical energy flow between the various components of a
hybrid system, such as the battery, propulsion motor, and internal combustion
engine (if present). Sizing power electronics involves selecting and configuring
components like inverters, converters, and controllers to ensure efficient energy
management.
In Figure 4 a schematic for the HEV drivetrain consisting of on board energy
storage system, power processing unit and the EM is shown. The power
electronics is an electrical element in much the same manner that a gearbox
processes mechanical power to match the ICE to the road requirements.

The figure 5b shows that most of the hybrid propulsion systems such as Toyota
Hybrid System, Honda IMA, etc. are clustered along the 100A trend line.
Virtually all power electronics inverters for hybrid propulsion use IGBT device
technology. Power semiconductor device range in voltage withstanding
capability from 2kV to 6.5kV and current magnitudes from 3kA to 4.5kA.
Thyristors have the highest kVA rating but are generally slow switching. The
gate turn off thyristor (GTO) is capable of handling 3kA at 4.5kV but can
switch at only 700Hz. The IGBTs have made enormous progress in both the
voltage and current ratings, with some IGBTs being capable of handling 6.5kV
and 3.5kA and have switching frequency up to 100kHz.
Q. Explain the parameters to be considered for the selection of energy
storage in Electric Hybrid vehicle.

Selecting the right energy storage system (ESS) is a critical decision in

designing an electric hybrid vehicle (EHV). The ESS is responsible for storing
and delivering electrical energy to power the vehicle's electric motor(s) and
auxiliary systems. Several parameters and factors must be considered when
choosing an ESS for an EHV:
Energy Density: Energy density refers to the amount of energy that can be
stored in a given volume or weight of the ESS. Higher energy density allows for
more energy to be stored in a smaller and lighter package, which is essential for
optimizing vehicle weight and space utilization.

Power Density: Power density is the rate at which the energy can be delivered
from the ESS. A high power density is crucial for providing the necessary
power for acceleration and other high-demand situations. It determines the
vehicle's performance capabilities.

Cycle Life: The ESS's cycle life represents how many charge and discharge
cycles it can undergo before its capacity significantly degrades. A longer cycle
life is desirable to ensure the ESS's longevity and reduce the need for
replacement.

State of Charge (SoC) Range: The SoC range defines how much of the ESS's
total capacity can be utilized safely. A wider SoC range can improve the EHV's
energy management and efficiency.

Charge/Discharge Rate: Higher charge/discharge rates allow for faster

recharging and more rapid acceleration.

Voltage: The ESS voltage should match the requirements of the electric motor
and power electronics. Incompatibility can lead to inefficiencies and the need
for additional conversion steps.

Thermal Performance: The ESS should be able to operate within a suitable

temperature range. Effective thermal management systems, including cooling
and heating, may be necessary to maintain optimal performance and prolong the
ESS's life.

Weight: Minimizing weight is essential for fuel efficiency and overall vehicle
performance. Lightweight ESS materials and packaging are crucial.
Cost: The cost of the ESS is a significant factor in the overall vehicle cost.
Balancing performance with cost is essential for commercial viability.

Safety: The ESS should be designed with safety in mind, including protection
against thermal runaway, short circuits, and other potential hazards. Safety
standards and regulations must be adhered to.

Environmental Impact: Consider the environmental impact of the ESS

materials and production processes, including the recycling or disposal of the
ESS at the end of its life cycle.

Charging Infrastructure: Consider the availability of charging infrastructure

for recharging the ESS. This includes the type of charger and the time required
for a full charge.

Q. What is function of control system in Hybrid Electric vehicle.

The major functions of the control system are:

i. to maximize the fuel efficiency

ii. to minimize the exhaust emissions.

The fuel efficiency and emissions are mutually conflicting and some of the
reasons why this happens are:

i. when more energy is extracted by the ICE (thereby increasing the ICE
efficiency) , the exhaust temperature goes down. At lower temperatures, the
chemical reactions associated with the combustion of unburned hydrocarbons
may not occur.

ii. Increase in compression ratio, which enhances fuel economy, also raises

temperature in ICE. Increased temperature increases both CO and oxides of

nitrogen represented by NOx.

The minor functions of the control system are component monitoring and
protection such as:

i. battery state of charge (SOC) monitoring

ii. Battery temperature monitoring

iii. EM overheating

iv. ICE overheating

The battery merits special attention to avoid failure and to assure long life. The
control system generally provides a fail safe mode in the event of failures. This
gives a limphome capability that helps the manufacturer to retain some
credibility with the customers. One of the functions of control systems, which is
minor in cost but valuable in practice, is onboard diagnostics (OBD).

In Figure 1, a simple HEV drivetrain is shown. For the HEV drivetrain shown in
Figure 1, the complexity of the control system used in HEV may be appreciated
by considering the various operational modes (Table 1) and the interplay
between many components. The switching from one mode to another must be as
smooth. As the HEV’s operation mode changes, several parameters of the ICE
that have to be controlled are:

i. Ignition timing

ii. Tuned intake manifold

iii. Camshaft angle for exhaust valves

iv. Camshaft angle for intake valves

v. Fuel injector settings which includes

a. Timing of injection

b. Fuel flow rate

Q. Draw and Explain Electronics Control Unit (ECU)

Typical control architecture of HEV is shown in Figure 3. In Figure 3 it can be

seen that there are multiple ECUs such as:

i. Hybrid ECU

ii. ICE ECU

iii. EM ECU

iv. Transmission ECU

v. Power Electronics ECU

vi. Battery ECU or Battery Management System

A brief description of each of the ECUs is given below.

Hybrid ECU: The Hybrid ECU is in command of all other ECUs and selects
the operational mode based on the driver’s input. The hybrid ECU is
responsible for system wide energy management. Typically the goal of control
is to minimize the fuel consumption. For each litre of petrol, the hybrid ECU
tries to provide maximum mileage. To do this, the hybrid ECU allows or
prohibits ICE shutoff. The hybrid ECU commands
 the amount of torque and power from the motor and ICE
 the amount and timing of power generation to charge battery.

ICE EMU: This controls the various ICE parameters .

EM ECU: The EM ECU is responsible for switching of the EM from motoring
mode to the generator mode and also controls the motor to deliver the torque
demanded by the hybrid ECU. The EM ECU consists of various control
strategies such as Constant Torque Control, Field Weakening Control, etc.

Transmission ECU: The transmission ECU provides the correct gear ratio to
control the torques and angular speeds of the EM and the ICE.

Power Electronics ECU: Having power from a battery is only the first step.
The power must be delivered to the EM, in the motoring mode, at the voltage
and current needed. For regenerative braking, the power must be accepted from
the EM. The function of the power electronic ECU is to receive commands from
hybrid ECU, to control inverter energy flow both ways, that is, charge and
discharge, to control switching of EM between motor and generator modes and
to control switching of EM between motor and generator modes.

Battery ECU or Battery Management System: The battery ECU or the

battery management system (BMS) monitors and measures temperature and
assures cooling is adequate. The BMS avoids the stress of heat and over-
temperature and the effects of excessive charging or discharging are eliminated
or lessened. The BMS is essentially for long battery life and optimum fuel
efficiency.
Q. Draw and explain control area network (CAN)

A typical CAN network in an HEV is shown in Figure 4. The CAN is a fast,

high rate network enabling communication between ECUs. In CAN most data
can be updated every 10ms and the data is checked to assure data reliability.
The control variables connect various ECUs with each other and fall in one of
the three categories:

i. mechanical

ii. electrical

iii. discrete
The control variables falling in the mechanical category are:

 All the variable related to ICE

 Gear ratio
 Rpm of each rotational component

The control variables falling in the electrical category are:

 Currents in the batteries, inverters and EM

 Voltages across EM, inverters and battery terminals
 EM torque

The variables are like yes/no or on/off and HEVs have a few such variables
such as:

 EM mode: motor or generator

 Gear ratio: which of the available gears
 Clutch: engaged or disengaged

Q. Give classification of Electronics Control Unit ( Energy management

strategies)

The hybrid ECU is the heart of the control architecture of any HEV and it is
also known energy management strategy (EMS). The EMS can be classified
into following broad categories:

i. Rule based

ii. Optimization based

The Rule Based strategies consist of following subcategories:

i. Fuzzy based: The fuzzy based control strategies are of three types

a. Predictive,

b. Adaptive
c. Conventional

ii. Deterministic Control: The deterministic controllers are subdivided into

a. State Machine

b. Power follower

c. Thermostat Control

The Optimization based strategies are of following types:

i. Global Optimization: The global optimization methods are:

a. Linear programming methods

b. Dynamic Programming

c. Stochastic Dynamic Programming

d. Genetic Algorithms

ii. Real time Optimization: The real time optimization techniques are of

following types:

a. EFC minimization

b. Robust control

c. Model predictive

d. Decoupling Control

In Figure 1 the classification tree of the various control techniques is shown.