Durability of Concrete With Recycled Aggregates

Achieving Concrete Durability:
Beliefs, Myths and Reality
Dr K Sivakumar PhD (Dundee)

https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2693-1527
Deputy General Manager (Civil)
L&T Construction, Chennai
Sensitivity: LNT Construction General Business

Outline
• Primer on CONCRETE STRUCTURES
• Embodied CO2
• Concrete Durability
• Carbonation-induced corrosion
• Mitigation measures
• Design for Service Life (BS8500-1)
• Challenges in practice
Courtesy: Sources both known and unknown gratefully acknowledged.
KHRI - IITM Webinar Series on Quality Construction 25 April 2020

Outline
• Embodied CO2

Hoover Dam

Belgium's Sart Canal bridge

330 MW Srinagar HEP

Chennai Metro
Precast Concrete
❑ High early strength required > 18 N/mm² at 24 hours – demoulding and lifting
❑ Moulds need to be used on a daily basis
❑ Large number of moulds means unwanted congestion
Doha Metro Gold Line

IIT Hyderabad

Longest subsea tunnel 53 km, Norway
Three tunnels
Ryfast Tunnel: 14.3 km; Rogfast Tunnel: 25.5 km; Eigenes Tunnel: 3.7 km

Outline
• Embodied CO2

CONCRETE: Excellent material...
Second only to water in consumption.
Over 2 billion tonnes of cement produced per annum.
Cement production to reach 10 billion tonnes by 2025.

....with some challenges.
CO2 emissions are on the rise
durability issues

EMBODIED CO2 OF MATERIALS
Energy consumed in the process from ‘cradle-
to-grave
CIRCULAR DRIVEN ECONOMY
• Manufacture of Portland cement
• Sourcing of raw materials
• Production of clinker
• Grinding of clinker
also includes
Electrical energy consumed
➢100 kWh/ tonne of clinker

EMBODIED CO2 VALUES OF CEMENT
Source: British Cement Association, 2009.

EMBODIED CO2 VALUES OF CONCRETE
Jones et. al., CONCRETE, July 2010, pp.51-52.

Outline
• Embodied CO2

Hi-vis CONCRETE, Invisible STEEL

Sensitivity: LNT Construction General Business 18
Concrete – Quality & Alkalinity
Zone of poorest
quality concrete As-cast surface
Zone of poorer Migration of moisture

quality concrete
to surface leads to
poorer quality concrete
in coverzone
HEARTCRETE COVERCRETE
Zone of generally
uniform quality concrete
Source: Phil BAMFORTH

P V Narasimha Rao Elevated Expressway
Courtesy: STUP Consultants

Delhi: Jor Bagh flyover
Exposure condition?? KHRI - IITM Webinar Series on Quality Construction 25 April 2020
Materials conforming to Codes Inherent variation in materials

Pores in Concrete

Transport in Concrete

Transport Phenomena in Concrete

Transport Mechanisms
Source: Peter CLAISSE, Transport Properties of Concrete.

Degradation of Structural Concrete
Depassivation Age of the
component, t
Atmospheric action
CO2 O2 H2O
Cracking
Initiation period Propagation period

(pH < 9)
c Carbonated layer Spalling
Failure of the
reinforcement
Corrosion (pH > 12) structure
Grade of degradation

Products of Corrosion: ACI 222
Products of corrosion occupy 7 times the volume of steel

31
CHLORIDE-INDUCED STEEL CORROSION
Chloride Resistance of Concrete, June 2009.

Cement, Concrete and Aggregates Australia

PRIMARY CHLORIDE TRANSPORT MECHANISM



PRESENCE OF UNSOUND PARTICLES SCOSS

PRESENCE OF UNSOUND PARTICLES

SCOSS

Rebar in the bottom of the cantilever slab SCOSS

Cracks in Foundation
Shrinkage
Concrete
Shrinkage cracks in a poured concrete foundation can be
diagonal or vertical and are usually uniform in width.
Sometimes these cracks have a V-shape (less frequent), with
the top of the crack looking larger and the crack getting smaller
as it travels towards to floor and diminishing or stopping
before reaching the bottom of the foundation wall. If the crack
reaches the bottom, the crack might damage the building's
footings, and the crack might have a significant impact on the
foundation structure.
Shrinkage cracks should not be ongoing nor of structural
significance, though they may invite water entry through the
wall. In poured concrete foundations, shrinkage cracks are
usually due to conditions at original construction: poor
concrete mix, rapid curing or possibly other states. In any case,
concrete shrinkage causes the concrete to develop internal
SOURCE: Flexomeric stresses. Unless control joints were included in the wall or floor
slab design, these stresses would cause the wall or floor is
likely to crack in a classic "concrete shrinkage pattern" as the
concrete cures.
Cracks in Foundation Concrete
Hairline
Hairline cracks may develop in concrete foundations as the
concrete cures. Hairline cracks do not cause problems with the
stability of the foundation but do cause leakage problems. If
the cracks appear shortly after pouring the concrete
foundation, concrete may have been mixed poorly or poured
too quickly. In poured concrete foundations, hairline crack
frequently appear in the center of the walls because the wall
corners have greater stability.
SOURCE: Flexomeric


Pattern/Map Cracking
SOURCE: https://www.nachi.org
ASR Cracks aggregates containing reactive silica

Delayed ettringite formation DEF

Structure and behaviour of concrete is complex.
Outline
• Primer on CONCRETE
• Embodied CO2

Concrete Resistance
Typical chemical and
physical composition of:
Concrete Performance Portland cement (PC)
Pulverized-fuel ash (PFA)
Ground granulated blastfurnace slag (GBS)
Metakaolin (MK)
Condensed silica fume (CSF)
Limestone (LS)
Physical Properties
Cement Paste Quality

Mean particle
size, µm 20 10 15 1 <1 5
Particle Shape KHRI

Angular - IITM
Sphere Webinar
Angular SeriesSphere
Angular on Quality
AngularConstruction 25 April 2020

Concrete Resistance
Testing pH of Concrete.
Jennifer A. Grubb, Hemant S. Limaye and Ashok M. Kakade. Concrete International, April 2007, pp. 78-83.
Concrete Resistance
Concrete Resistance

Concrete Degradation: Carbonation
Carbonation-induced corrosion in a school building at Dundee after

34 years.
❑ reaction with carbon dioxide in the environment
❑ ingress of chloride ions

Transport Mechanisms
Source: Peter CLAISSE, Transport Properties of Concrete.

TEST FOR CARBONATION
Waxed trowelled face
Left and right faces divided
= into 8 equal sections.
=
1 6 5 centre points on left and
right face measured.
2 7
3 8 Mean of 10 readings reported
4 9 If single reading is >4mm from

10 mean, this is discarded and
5
= mean recalculated, as per CEN
test method
=
Waxed bottom face

Transport Mechanisms: Aggregate Effect
Source: Tore Myrland JENSEN, Diffusion tight concrete – Preliminary study

CARBONATION EXPOSURE CLASSES
Corrosion induced by carbonation (XC classes)
XC1 Dry or permanently Reinforced and prestressed concrete surfaces inside
wet enclosed structures except areas of structures with high
humidity
Reinforced and prestressed concrete surfaces
permanently submerged in non-aggressive water
XC2 Wet, rarely dry Reinforced and prestressed concrete completely buried
in soil classed as AC-1 and with a hydraulic gradient not
greater than 5
XC3 and Moderate humidity or External reinforced and prestressed concrete surfaces
XC4 cyclic wet and dry sheltered from, or exposed to, direct rain
Reinforced and prestressed concrete surfaces subject to
high humidity (e.g. poorly ventilated bathrooms, kitchens)
Reinforced and prestressed concrete surfaces exposed
to alternate wetting and drying
Interior concrete surfaces of pedestrian subways not
subject to de-icing salts, voided superstructures or
cellular abutments
Reinforced or prestressed concrete beneath
waterproofing
X - Exposure; C - Carbonation
SIMULATED CARBONATION EXPOSURE
Simulated natural carbonation sheltered exposure
CO2 350 ± 50 ppm, RH 55% ± 5%, Temperature 20° C ± 2° C
Humidity / CO2 controllor / monitor unit
dehumidification
CO2
monitor
Temperature Relative
Specimens monitor humidity
monitor

LOCATION OF EXPOSURE SITES
Rel at i ve H um i di t y, %
Locat i on
Coordi nat es and Al t i t i ude Dundee,
Dundee
Angus
56.0°N 3.1°W 60m
Tem perat ure, °C

M e an Annual Dai l y Te m p
M a x / M i n Annua l Da i l y Te m p
100 30
Tot al Annual Pr e c i pi t at i on
75
M e a n m ont hl y da i l y t e m p 20
M e a n m ont hl y R. H. 50
8.5°C 10
Mont h 25 14.5°C / 3.0°C
665 mm
0 0
J F MAMJ J A S O N D
Copenhagen, Denmark
55.7°N 12.5°E 34m
100 30
75
20
Dundee 50
DENMARK 25
0
5.5°C
16.5°C / -5.0°C
10
0
690 mm -5
UK J F MA MJ J A S O N D
Ringwood, Hampshire
Ringwood 100
50.8°N 1.8°W 42m
30
75
20
50
11.0°C
10
25 18.5°C / 4.5°C
580 mm
0 0
J F MA M J J A S O N D
M adr i d, Spai n
40. 5° N 4. 7° W 121m
SPAIN 100
75
30
20
50
14. 0° C 10
25 24. 0° C / 5. 5° C
444 m m
0 0
J F MAMJ J A S O N D

INDIA Climatic Conditions
Daily Average Relative Humidity % Yearly
Feb Mar Apr May Jun Oct Nov Average
CHENNAI 73 80 73 69 68 83 84 75
BANGALORE 45 52 49 68 77 80 72 68
CALCUTTA 65 70 70 75 82 82 79 77
HYDERABAD 40 45 46 43 66 67 61 60
GUWAHATI 78 78 71 82 86 86 84 83
JAIPUR 40 39 29 39 49 48 43 51
JAMNAGAR 61 63 70 71 72 74 58 70
KOLKATA 66 72 73 79 82 81 79 78
MUMBAI 58 67 72 71 82 77 65 72
NEW DELHI 73 57 38 50 54 66 62 63
TRIVANDRUM 52 46 57 54 66 56 49 61

INDIA Climatic Zones, SP 7: 2005
Corrosion induced by carbonation (XC exposure classes)
Proposed Criteria of Mean monthly Relative

classification SP 7: 2005 maximum humidity
XC classes CLIMATIC ZONES temperature, °C %
X0 No corrosion n.a. n.a.
XC 1 Hot and dry >30 <55
XC 2 Temperate 25 - 30 <75
XC 3 Cold <25 0 - 100
XC 4 Warm and humid >25 >55

Corrosion rates at different levels of RH

59
ACCELERATED CARBONATION EXPOSURE
Dundee Method BS1881-210: 2013
CO2 4% ± 0.5%, RH 55% ± 5%, Temperature 20° C ± 2° C
Prism specimens in tank Overview of test tanks
CO2 gas supply
KHRI
CO2 monitor - IITM Webinar Series on Quality Construction 25 April 2020
/ controller
1 Week Accelerated Carbonation = 1.5 Years Carbonation in Outside, Protected Exposure

Significant increase in chloride migration due to carbonation.

SOLIDIATM Lafarge.
Calcium silicate cement based blocks.

Carbonation-induced Corrosion: Summary
• Concrete loses its alkalinity
• Loss of passivity around the reinforcement
• Corrosion of the reinforcement
• Serviceability in question
• Unwanted repair costs
• Reduction in life of the structure

64
Outline
• Embodied CO2

High Strength Reinforcement 670

Examples of Reinforcement Congestion

Projects Reasoning
Grove at Grand Bay 100 ksi reinforcing steel (rebar) was used in the
Coconut Grove, FL foundations to help mitigate congestion.
Composite 30-inch thick shear wall system was
used to maximize sellable area and mitigate long-
term creep due to the building’s twisting
geometry.
2201 Westlake/Enso Building High strength rebar of 100 ksi yield was used for
Seattle, WA seismic confinement in the core. This reduced
steel quantities, increased boundary element tie
spacing, and dramatically enhanced the
buildability of the core reinforcing bar (rebar).
Millennium Tower Boston Use of high-strength concrete to minimize column
Boston, MA sizes and provide adequate strength for core
shear walls.
Use of high-strength reinforcing steel (rebar)
grade 75 to minimize congestion of reinforcing.
One Thousand Museum Tower Grade 75 steel was used for vertical
1000 Biscayne Blvd, Miami, Florida reinforcement. Grade 100 steel was used in places
Source: Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute of heavy steel congestion.
Connecting Rebars
Traditional Lapping
Mechanical Splicing
IS456:2000 Amendment No.3 August 2007 Page 45, clause 26.2.5.1(a)
Lap splices shall not be used for bars larger than 32 mm. Bars larger than 32 mm shall be
welded (see 12.4) or mechanically spliced.

Moment Bar Coupler
Slip Test - To capture the displacement in the thread under service loads
ISO 15835:2009 by stressing the coupler to 0.6fy. Slip limit is 0.10 mm.
Source: Halfen/Ancon
Moment Bar Coupler

Beam – Column Joint
PREETAM BISWAS SOM

SKIDMORE,
Sensitivity: LNT Construction General OWINGS & MERRILL LLP
Business
Beam – Column Joint

Moment Bar Coupler
IS456:2000 Amendment No.3 August 2007 Sources: Halfen/Ancon

Page 42, clause 26.1.1
Congestion of reinforcement should be avoided during detailing. Various
methods such as………………..
Embedment Lengths – Headed Bars
TERMINATOR (Lenton)
Eliminating embedment lengths and reducing rebar
congestion (up to 60%) at joints.
Sources: Dextra/Lenton
Closely Spaced Bars and Couplers
1-2mm
protruding
Couplers
too close
Torque
check
required
Project site in Hong Kong COURTESY: Gary Connah

Form liners - Durability


Improved properties due to use of Formtex CPF
Near surface characteristics of concrete: intrinsic permeability

Authors: R. K. Dhir, P. C. Hewlett, and Y. N. Chan
Magazine of Concrete Research, Volume 41, Issue 147, June 1989.

Effectiveness of Coatings/Barriers

Kwai Chung Port, Hong Kong. COURTESY: Flexcrete

Caisson requirements of early protection from chlorides and curing.
Hess’s South Arne Oil field, Denmark. COURTESY: Flexcrete

Supposedly 2 mm of cementitious coating is equivalent to a 70 mm cover.

Egginton Bridge in Derbyshire, UK. COURTESY: Flexcrete

After 12 years, re-alkalisation noticed under the coating.
Reference: Mott MacDonald Technical Report
Outline
• Embodied CO2

Service Life
What is service life?
Structure meets the working requirements for which it is
intended
▪ Structural loads
▪ Environmental loads
▪ Number of years
In UK, HA design bridges for 120 years

How is service life defined/understood……
Design service life is the intended period for which the

structure is to be used with anticipated maintenance but
without major repair.
❖ Technical service life: until unacceptable deterioration.
❖ Functional service life: structure is obsolete due to change in
requirements.
❖ Economic service life: replacement becomes economically attractive.
Gro Markeset, Steen Rostam and Oskar Klinghoffer. Guide for the use of stainless steel
reinforcement in concrete structures, NonCor Project 04118.
How service life design is specified in standards……
❑Maximum w/c ratio
❑Minimum cover to reinforcement
❑Cement type

How service limit state is defined in standards……
ISO 2394
“as a state which corresponds to conditions beyond which specified service
requirements for a structure or structural elements are no longer met.”
fib MC-2010
“Limit states associated with durability” – any condition that makes the
building owner feel uncomfortable. eg. Corrosion in concrete structures.

How service limit state is defined in standards……
“Limit states associated with durability” – any condition that makes the
building owner feel uncomfortable. eg. Corrosion in concrete structures.
Steiner Helland: Design for service life: implementation of fib Model Code 2010
rules in the operational code ISO 16204.

How many years is service life……

How to specify loads for service life……
Environmental loads change with location and time.

How to ensure/prolong service life……
Bahrain: Sitra causeway project; 120 years; BS5400;
First 40 years maintenance free
Reinforcement type Crack width Cover
MAXIMUM MINIMUM
Stainless steel (1.4462) 0.25 45

Carbon steel 0.10 75

Service Life Components (Tuutti’s model)
tp depends on:
• availability of O2
• availability of H2O
Degree of Corrosion
Significant Level of Damage • OH- concentration
ti depends on:
• cover depth
• w/c ratio Rate of
• curing regime Corrosion
• cement type
• environment temperature
Propagation
Initiation Period (ti) Period (tp)
Design Life = ti + tp
ti = 35 years tp = 15 years
For SL of 50 years
Service Life Components (Tutti’s model)
Tiruchirappalli: M40; w/c 0.5; Moderate; Fe550D bars;
Recommended Cover 50 mm; 50 years SL.
ALTERNATE OPTIONS
Option 1: SS bars (-30 mm cover)
Option 2: increase concrete grade (-5 mm cover/grade)
Option 3: decrease w/c (-10 mm cover)
Option 4: anti-carbonation coatings (-10 mm cover; 10

years life)
Service Life Components (Tutti’s model)
Surathkal: M40; w/c 0.5; Extreme; Fe550D bars;
Recommended Cover 70 mm; 50 years SL.
ALTERNATE OPTIONS
Option 1: SS bars (-30 mm cover)
Option 2: increase concrete grade (-5 mm cover/grade)
Option 3: decrease w/c (-10 mm cover)
Option 4: anti-carbonation coatings (-10 mm cover; 10

years life)
MMFX2 Steel: Revised Corrosion Stages
Normal rebar
Microcomposite Multistructural Formable Steel: C <0.15% ; Cr 8-10%

fib Model Code 65, Final Draft - Volume 1
5.1.13.2 Carbonation progress
The propagation of the carbonation front from the concrete surface may be described by Eq.
(5.1-141);
𝑥𝑐 𝑡 = 2. 𝑘𝑒 . 𝑘𝑐 . 𝑅𝑁𝐴𝐶 ,𝑂 −1 . 𝐶𝑠. 𝑡. 𝑊(𝑡) (5.1-141)
with
𝑥𝑐 (𝑡) carbonation depth at the time t in [mm]
t time in [years]
𝑘𝑒 environmental function [-]
𝑘𝑐 execution transfer parameter [-]
𝐶𝑠 CO2-concentration in the air in [kg/m³]
𝑊(𝑡) weather function [-]
𝑅𝑁𝐴𝐶 ,𝑂 .−1 inverse effective carbonation resistance of concrete in
[(mm²/years)/(kg/m³)]
𝑅𝑁𝐴𝐶 ,0 .−1 = 𝑘𝑡 𝑅𝐴𝐶𝐶,0 −1 + 𝜀𝑡
with
𝑅𝐴𝐶𝐶,0 .−1 inverse carbonation resistance of dry concrete, determined at a certain time
tO using the accelerated carbonation test ACC in [(mm²/years)/(kg/m³)]
𝑅𝑁𝐴𝐶 ,0 .−1 inverse carbonation resistance of dry concrete (65% RH) determined at a
certain time tO using the normal carbonation test NAC in [(mm²/years)/(kg/m³)]
𝑘𝑡 regression parameter for the test effect of the ACC test [-]
𝜀𝑡 error term for inaccuracies which occur conditionally when using the ACC test
method in [(mm²/years)/(kg/m³)]

Square root relationship, CD vs Time
For a service life of 100 years minimum required cover is
10 mm ?
For a service life of 50 years minimum required cover is
7 mm ?

Concrete Society TR 54

Service Life/Durability Models

IS Codal Provisions

ACI Codal Provisions
Note: Please always refer to the latest version to get the prevailing limits.

BS 8500 Concrete – Complementary
British Standard to BS EN 206
Part1: Method of specifying and guidance for the specifier
Durability exposure classes related to the environment:
▪ Corrosion induced by carbonation, XC classes
▪ Corrosion induced by chlorides from sea water, XS classes
▪ Corrosion induced by chlorides other than from sea water, XD classes
▪ Freeze-thaw attack, XF classes
▪ Chemical attack, XA classes
▪ Chemical attack from sea water, XAS class
X refers to ‘Exposure’

BS 8500
BS 8500 is the British Standard for specifying and producing concrete. It is the
complementary British Standard to BS EN 206.
BS 8500 is in two parts.
Part 1 covers specification and gives guidance to the specifier.
Part 2 covers the constituent materials in concrete and contains the information required by the concrete producer.
BS 8500-1:2015+A2:2019
The specifier is offered five approaches to the specification of concrete, with the
standard describing the correct way of compiling specifications for designated, designed,
prescribed, standardized prescribed, and proprietary concretes.
This part of BS 8500 gives detailed guidance for the specifier, including advice on
exposure classes for durability, aggregate classes, intended working life and consistence
etc., presented as a series of tables with accompanying explanatory text.
The latest amendment to BS8500 allows the use of ternary cements, i.e. blends of three
types of cementitious binder: Portland cement, limestone fines and one of ground
granulated blastfurnace slag (ggbs), fly ash and pozzalana.
BS 8500
Part 2 covers the constituent materials in concrete and contains the information required
by the concrete producer.
BS 8500-2:2015+A2:2019
BS 8500-2:2015 is intended for use by producers of concrete.
This part of BS 8500 specifies a number of basic requirements for concrete and its
constituent materials, and gives specific requirements relating to the types of concrete
listed in BS 8500-1. It also specifies requirements relating to delivery, conformity testing,
production control and transport.
This Standard gives UK national provisions where required or permitted by BS EN 206, and
also covers materials, methods of testing and procedures that are outside the scope of BS
EN 206, but within UK national experience.
The requirements in this part of BS 8500 are given for defined materials with an
established or accepted adequate performance in UK conditions.

BS 8500 (2015) – Design for Carbonation
50 years life PERFORMANCE-BASED SPECIFICATION
XC1 – Mild; XC2 – Moderate; XC3/4 – Severe/Extreme

CONCEPT OF TRADE OFF
- between cover, strength, w/c and concrete quality
Specification available for concrete cover up to 80 mm.
IVB-V Portland cement with 36% to 55% fly ash
Up to 80% ggbs is allowed
BS 8500 (2015) – Design for Carbonation
100 years life PERFORMANCE-BASED SPECIFICATION
XC1 – Mild; XC2 – Moderate; XC3/4 – Severe/Extreme

CONCEPT OF TRADE OFF
- between cover, strength, w/c and concrete quality
Specification available for concrete cover up to 80 mm.
IVB-V Portland cement with 36% to 55% fly ash; Up to 80% ggbs is allowed
BS 8500 (2015) – Salient Observations
Carbonation/XC Classes
OPC ~ 30% fly ash ~ 50% ggbs: Concrete cube strength
Chlorides/XS Classes
Cement type and w/c ratio

BS 8500 (2015) – Cover to reinforcement
Scope of the standard: ordinary carbon steel reinforcement; prestressing steel.
▪ BS EN 1992-1-1: Safe transmission of bond forces.
▪ BS EN 1992-1-2: Fire protection
▪ Additional protection: reduction in cover
▪ Stainless steel: reduction in cover
Recommended cover in Tables A4 and A5 are only for durability.
Recommendation aligns with requirements of BS 6349-1-4 for maritime works.

BS 8500 (2015) – Additional protection
▪ Stainless steel
▪ Coatings
▪ Corrosion inhibitors
Option Code APM
APM1 Enhanced concrete quality
APM2 Controlled permeability formwork
APM3 Surface protection
APM4 Sacrificial layer
APM5 Drainage at site
Recommended read: Concrete Society TR61.

Historical Cover to Reinforcement
RC durability requirements for XS3 Chloride class for a service life not less than 50 years.
Code of Practice/ Concrete made with OPC Concrete made with 40% ggbs
British Standard Cement, w/c Cube Nominal Cement, w/c Cube Nominal
min max strength cover min max strength cover
kg/m³ N/mm² mm kg/m³ N/mm² mm
CP 110-1: 1972 330 0.45 50 50 330 0.45 50 50
BS 6349-1: 1984 400 0.42 40 50 400 0.42 40 50
BS 8110-1: 1985 400 0.45 50 50 400 0.45 50 50
BS 8110-1: 1997 400 0.45 50 50 400 0.45 50 50
BS 6349-1-4: 2000 400 0.40 50 60 360 0.50 37 50

BS 8500-1: 2002 360 0.40 50 60 380 0.40 45 50
BS 8500-1: 2006 380 0.40 50 60 380 0.40 45 50
BS 6349-1-4: 2013 360 0.35 50 90 380 0.35 50 60
BS 8500-1: 2015 380 0.35 55 90 380 0.35 50 60
Source: Chris Clear, BRMCA and Chair of BSI Concrete TCs.

Kattupalli Shipyard and Port

Crusher
Grade OPC GGBFS 12 mm 20 mm water Admixture
Sand
M30 190 190 880 547 528 165 4.67

ggbs: high aluminate levels means higher quantities of Friedel’s
salt. (C3A phase reacts with Cl¯ ions.)
Higher the Cl¯/OH¯ ratio, higher the binding capacity

Statue of Unity

Statue of Unity
Concrete: 210 000 m³
Cement: 22 500 T
Reinforcement: 18 500 T
Structural Steel: 6 500 T
Bronze: 1 800 T (565 macro;6000 micro)
Design process: 13 months
Structural Construction duration: 33 months
steel
Core
walls
Base of
statue

Statue of Unity
Kevadia

Concrete Durability Design
Exposure Conditions
❖ Site location is along the banks of the River Narmadha.
▪ Pollution free - no threat from flooding during monsoon.
❖ No threat of chlorides and sulphates to the superstructure and
foundation.
❖ Concrete is protected from external exposure by bronze cladding.
❖ CFD Analysis: Maximum internal temperature 48°C; No condensation
risk.
❖ Carbonation-induced corrosion is identified as the main durability
mechanism.
▪ Average atmospheric CO₂ concentration is 400 ppm.

Specifications for Durability
IS456:2000
▪ No particular service life specified
▪ Exposure classes not defined as per the durability mechanisms
➢ Environment: Mild/Moderate/Severe/Very severe/Extreme
BS8500
▪ Exposure classes defined
➢ Carbonation XC3/4
▪ Specifications available for service life of 100 years

Structural Concrete grade Nominal cover
Component N/mm² mm
Required Provided Required Provided
Retaining wall M50 M50 40 50

Foundations
Main M50 M60 40 75
Foundations
Auxiliary M50 M60 40 75
Concrete cores M50 M65 40 50

Outline
• Embodied CO2
• Carbonation-induced Corrosion
• Challenges in Practice

cover to rebar
Nominal cover = Minimum cover + ∆c
Cover the rebar at the beginning OR you have to do it later till the end.

Low cover to rebar
Premature onset of corrosion of rebars COURTESY: Flexcrete

Low cover to rebar
Premature onset of corrosion of rebars COURTESY: Flexcrete

Low cover to rebar
2 mm cover deficit could mean a loss of 10 years intended SL.

Durability Testing
What, When, How to do in a construction site?
▪ Type of test
▪ Strength testing: Compression test using either cubes or cylinders
▪ Durability testing: Destructive, Non-destructive??
▪ Frequency of testing
▪ Strength testing usually at 28 days.
▪ High replacement of OPC: 56 days, 90 days.
▪ Durability testing: Later the better- 56 days, 90 days??
▪ Number of Samples
▪ Strength testing: Number of samples 3 x 150 mm cubes
▪ Durability testing: Has to be agreed??
Durability Testing
What, When, How to do in a construction site?
▪ Variability in test results
▪ Acceptance criteria
▪ Implication on cost
▪ Contention in accepting test results, construction progress can be
derailed.
▪ Which test to adopt
▪ Test equipment availability
▪ Interpretation of test results
▪ More Staff, Higher Cost
▪ Should be decided and included in the technical specifications
Risk of unfair penalties for the contractor.

Durability Testing
TEST METHODS AND PARAMETERS


NDT: Electrical Resistivity
Characteristics
• Measures resistance to flow of ions
• Geometry independent material property (Ω m)
• Resistivity is a function of:
- Mobility of ions
- Ion-ion interaction
- Ion-solid interaction
- Concentration of ions
Potential Uses
• Indicator of concrete permeation / interconnected porosity
• Potential occurrence of reinforcement corrosion (permitted
as NDT in BS 1881-201:1986)

NDT: Bulk Electrical Resistivity

NDT: Bulk Electrical Resistivity
OPC 43 70% ggbs 10% sf

Application in New Panama Canal Project

Expansion of the Panama Canal – Third set of locks
The project involves the construction of a new canal which,

complementing the existing one, will allow the transit of larger
ships, increasing commercial traffic in response to developments
and the continued expansion of the shipping transport market.
The new Panama Canal, built by the European consortium led by

the Salini Impregilo Group, celebrates its first year with a record
number of transits: more than 1,500 New Panamax ships have
sailed through the Canal, exceeding all expectations for the first 12
months of activity.
Expansion of the Panama Canal – Third set of locks
▪ The project specifications required a 100-year service life.
▪ A maximum of 1000 Coulombs in Rapid Chloride Permeability

Test (RCPT) as per ASTM 1202.
▪ The authors (Andrade et. al.) from their research work have
benchmarked a 200Ωm obtained from a resistivity test as
equivalent to 1000 coulombs.
▪ Resistivity test has been used for durability study and for
continuous monitoring of the structure.
Test for Chlorides
K. D. Stanish, R. D. Hooton and M. D. A. Thomas. “Testing the Chloride

Penetration Resistance of Concrete: A Literature Review”, FHWA Contract
DTFH61-97-R-00022 “Prediction of Chloride Penetration in Concrete”.

Test for Chlorides
K. D. Stanish, R. D. Hooton and M. D. A. Thomas. “Testing the Chloride Penetration Resistance of Concrete:
A Literature Review”, FHWA Contract DTFH61-97-R-00022 “Prediction of Chloride Penetration in Concrete”.
Continuous Monitoring – Feasible, but, cost?

Durability Testing: Change in Materials?
Liverpool, UK: Building demolished and C&D Waste Recycled

Durability Testing: Change in Materials?
The New
Indian Express
20 November 2019

Cover: Important & Essential

Reinforcement Detailing and Cover

Aluminium Rebars: Durable Solution?
Can withstand carbonation and chlorides

Cover depth can be reduced
No maintenance
Infinite service life
Real Durability Threats

Have we understood durability?
Thermal stresses in a bridge

M. J. Nigel Priestley, “Design of Concrete Bridges for Temperature Gradients”, ACI
Journal, May 1978, pp.209-217.

Cracking of concrete under strain induced loads

N. D. Vitharana, M. J. Nigel Priestley, and John A. Dean, “Behaviour of Reinforced Concrete
Reservoir Wall Elements under Applied and Thermally-Induced Loadings”, ACI Structural
Journal, May - June 1998, pp. 238-248.
2010 2020

For DURABLE QUALITY CONSTRUCTION
Pre-pour 5Cs
i. C – design sufficient Cover
designer
ii. C – avoid rebar Congestion
iii. C – ensure Ca(OH)2 concrete technologist
iv. C – provide Cover blocks
v. C – Check everything before pour execution

During pour 1C
Compaction
Compaction
Compaction Compaction
Compaction

Post-pour 1C
Curing Curing
Curing Curing
Curing
7Cs
i. Cover - design sufficiently
ii. Congestion - avoid or reduce
iii. Calcium hydroxide - ensure sufficient
iv. Cover blocks - provide and tie
v. Checks before pour

vi. Compaction
vii. Curing
ICI Handbook on Concrete Durability
CONSTRUCTION

Summary
• Concrete ingredients: variable in nature and behavior
• Durability design is important and required for defined SL.
• INDIA: primarily carbonation and chlorides
❑ BS8500-1 as a guidance document
❑ ICI Handbook on Concrete Durability
• Specific durability tests
• Ensure proper cover
• Additional protective measures
• Encourage responsible use of SCMs
• Durability conscious technical specification
Further reading: A humble suggestion
Dr Adam Neville CBE FREng (1923 – 2016)
formerly Principal and Vice Chancellor (1978-87),University of Dundee, UK.

Larsen & Toubro is an Indian
multinational engaged in
technology, engineering,
construction, manufacturing and
financial services with over USD 21
billion in revenue. It operates in
over 30 countries worldwide. A
strong, customer–focused approach
and the constant quest for top-class
quality have enabled L&T to attain
and sustain leadership in its major
lines of business for eight decades.
2019 ACI Excellence in Concrete Construction Award


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Achieving Concrete Durability:

Beliefs, Myths and Reality

Dr K Sivakumar PhD (Dundee)

Sensitivity: LNT Construction General Business

KHRI - IITM Webinar Series on Quality Construction 25 April 2020

KHRI - IITM Webinar Series on Quality Construction 25 April 2020

KHRI - IITM Webinar Series on Quality Construction 25 April 2020

KHRI - IITM Webinar Series on Quality Construction 25 April 2020

KHRI - IITM Webinar Series on Quality Construction 25 April 2020

KHRI - IITM Webinar Series on Quality Construction 25 April 2020

KHRI - IITM Webinar Series on Quality Construction 25 April 2020

KHRI - IITM Webinar Series on Quality Construction 25 April 2020

KHRI - IITM Webinar Series on Quality Construction 25 April 2020

Over 2 billion tonnes of cement produced per annum.

Cement production to reach 10 billion tonnes by 2025.

KHRI - IITM Webinar Series on Quality Construction 25 April 2020

KHRI - IITM Webinar Series on Quality Construction 25 April 2020

KHRI - IITM Webinar Series on Quality Construction 25 April 2020

KHRI - IITM Webinar Series on Quality Construction 25 April 2020

Jones et. al., CONCRETE, July 2010, pp.51-52.

KHRI - IITM Webinar Series on Quality Construction 25 April 2020

KHRI - IITM Webinar Series on Quality Construction 25 April 2020

Zone of poorer Migration of moisture

Source: Phil BAMFORTH

KHRI - IITM Webinar Series on Quality Construction 25 April 2020

Courtesy: STUP Consultants

KHRI - IITM Webinar Series on Quality Construction 25 April 2020

KHRI - IITM Webinar Series on Quality Construction 25 April 2020

KHRI - IITM Webinar Series on Quality Construction 25 April 2020

KHRI - IITM Webinar Series on Quality Construction 25 April 2020

Source: Peter CLAISSE, Transport Properties of Concrete.

Initiation period Propagation period

KHRI - IITM Webinar Series on Quality Construction 25 April 2020

Products of corrosion occupy 7 times the volume of steel

Chloride Resistance of Concrete, June 2009.

KHRI - IITM Webinar Series on Quality Construction 25 April 2020

Chloride Resistance of Concrete, June 2009.

KHRI - IITM Webinar Series on Quality Construction 25 April 2020

KHRI - IITM Webinar Series on Quality Construction 25 April 2020

PRESENCE OF UNSOUND PARTICLES SCOSS

KHRI - IITM Webinar Series on Quality Construction 25 April 2020

PRESENCE OF UNSOUND PARTICLES

KHRI - IITM Webinar Series on Quality Construction 25 April 2020

Rebar in the bottom of the cantilever slab SCOSS

KHRI - IITM Webinar Series on Quality Construction 25 April 2020

KHRI - IITM Webinar Series on Quality Construction 25 April 2020

KHRI - IITM Webinar Series on Quality Construction 25 April 2020

ASR Cracks aggregates containing reactive silica

Delayed ettringite formation DEF

KHRI - IITM Webinar Series on Quality Construction 25 April 2020

Cement Paste Quality

Particle Shape KHRI

Sensitivity: LNT Construction General Business

KHRI - IITM Webinar Series on Quality Construction 25 April 2020

Carbonation-induced corrosion in a school building at Dundee after

KHRI - IITM Webinar Series on Quality Construction 25 April 2020

Source: Peter CLAISSE, Transport Properties of Concrete.

3 8 Mean of 10 readings reported

4 9 If single reading is >4mm from

KHRI - IITM Webinar Series on Quality Construction 25 April 2020

Source: Tore Myrland JENSEN, Diffusion tight concrete – Preliminary study

KHRI - IITM Webinar Series on Quality Construction 25 April 2020

KHRI - IITM Webinar Series on Quality Construction 25 April 2020

Tem perat ure, °C