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Information System
An information system is a computer based system which is an integrated set of
different components for collection, process, storage and transmission of data.
Simply, it us a system which processes supplied/collected data and generates
information that can be used for decision making at different levels for the
betterment of an organization. The types of information system are:
Transaction processing system: it processes data resulting from business
transactions, updates operational database such as sales and inventory processing
and accounting systems.
System Analyst
System analyst is a people who is involved in analyzing, designing, implementing
and evaluating computer based information to support the decision making and
operation of an organization.
The roles of system analyst area as follows:
Change event
Investigator and event
Architect
Psychologist
Motivator
Defining and prioritizing the requirements
Analysis and evaluation
Designing system
The characteristics of system analyst are as follows:
Knowledge of organizations
Knowledge of computer system
Good inter-personal relation
Communication skills
Analytical skill
Waterfall model
it is a oldest type of model for software engineering. The fundamental processes of
waterfall model are as follows:
Requirement analysis and definition: it is the first stage of waterfall model. In this
stage, the developer should identify the actual requirements of the given problem.
System design: in this stage the systems design process partition the requirements
to either hardware or software systems.
Implementation and unit system: During this stage, the system design is realized
and tested as a complete system to ensure that the software requirements have been
met.
Operation and maintenance: in this stage, the system is installed to the desire
location. The maintenance involves correcting errors which were not discovered in
earlier stages of the life cycle, improving the implementation of system units and
enhancing the system's service as new requirements are discovered.
Prototyping model
It is the iterative process of system development which is more appropriate for
developing new system where there is no clear idea of requirements, inputs and
outputs.
Identify the user needs: the system analyst interviews the user to obtain an idea of
what is required from the system.
Develop a prototype: the system analyst, working uses one or more prototyping
tools to develop a prototype.
Determine if prototype is acceptable: the analyst educates the user in prototype use
and provides an opportunity from becoming familiar with the system.
Use the prototype: the prototype becomes the operational system.
Spiral system
SDLC
SDLC consists of a set of development activities that have a prescribed order. It is
the development of software in chronological order.
The different phases of SDLC are as follows:
System study: A system is intended to meet the needs of an organization. Thus the
first step in the design is to specify these needs or requirements. The top manager
of the organization takes the basic decision to use a computer based (information)
system for managing the organization.
System analysis: system analysis is the dissection of a system into its component
pieces to study how those component pieces interact and work. System analysis is
a term that collectively describes the early phases of development. It is defined as
those phases and activities that focus on the business problem, independent of
technology.
Feasibility study: feasibility study is the most important activity in the system
analysis phase. It analyses the proposed system from different aspects so that it
makes us clear that how practical or beneficial the system will be to the
organization. So it tells us whether the system is feasible to design nor not.
Feasibility study
Feasibility study is the most important activity in the system analysis phase. It
analyses the proposed system from different aspects so that it makes us clear that
how practical or beneficial the system will be to the organization. So it tells us
whether the system is feasible to design nor not. Thus it is necessary before system
design.
The different levels of feasibility study are as:
Economical feasibility: it concerns with cost effectiveness of the system. The main
objective of economical feasibility is to calculate approximate cost-both the
development cost and the operational cost and the benefits from the system.
Technical feasibility: it concerns with the availability of the hardware, software
and the support equipment for the complete development of the system.
System testing
It is an investigation conducted to provide stakeholders with information about the
quality of the product or service under test. System testing also provides an
objective, independent view of the software to allow the business to appreciate and
understand the risks of software implementation.
White box testing: white box testing of software is predicted on close
examination of procedural details. Logical path through the software and
collaborations between components are tested by providing test case that exercises
specific sets of conditions or loops. It is used when the tester has access it the
internal data structures and algorithms including the code that implement these.
Black box testing: black box testing treats the software as a black box
–without any knowledge of internal implementation. Black box testing methods
include: equivalence partitioning, boundary value analysis, specification based
testing, etc. it is also called functional testing because it tests whether a system is
functioning or not.
Flowchart
DFD
DFD is the logical diagram to describe the flow of data inside the components of
system. It is easier to understand or grasp when being explained and most
important to all, it is much more precise and less ambiguous than a narrative one.
The main components are: process, data store, data flow, external entities.
ER diagram
The E-R diagram is an overall logical structure of a database that can be expressed
graphically. It was developed to facilitated database design and the simplicity and
pictorial clarity of this diagramming technique have done great help in the
designing part of database. The main components are attributes, entities and
relationship.
Case diagram
UML
Unified Modelling Language is a standardized general purpose modelling language
in the field of object-oriented software engineering. The standard is managed, and
was created by, the object management group. UML includes a set of graphic
notation techniques to create visual models of object-oriented software.
System flowchart
System flowchart describes the internal architecture of a system that describes how
data are moved inside the internal components of a system. Program flowchart
describes to solve the application types of real world problem.
Chapter-2 Database
Advantages of database
Sharing data
Reduced data redundancy
Data backup and recovery
Inconsistency avoided
Created by:-Keshab Balayar
Data integrity
Data security
Data independence
Multiple user interfaces
Process complex query
Area
Id Name
code
15 N1 Alex
16 I1 Martin
17 N1 Melman
18 J1 Gloria
Field and record: A column in a table is called field and it contains specific piece of information
within a record.
A row in a table is called record and it contains information about person, event, etc. Another
name of record is tuple.
Data dictionary: A data dictionary is a file which contains meta-data that is data about data. It
also called information system catalogue. It keeps all the data information about the database
system such as location, size of the database, tables, records, fields, user information, recovery
system, etc.
DDL: DDL is used by the database designers and programmers to specify the content and
structure of the table. It is used to define the physical characteristics of records. It includes
commands that manipulate the structure of objects such as views, tables, and indexes, etc.
DML: DML is related with manipulation of records such as retrieval, sorting, display and
deletion of records of data. It helps user to use query and display reports of the table. So it
provides technique for processing the database.
Primary key: the field or fields that contain the unique value can be set as primary key. It does
not permit duplicate or null values.
Network architecture
Transmission media
A transmission media is defined as the means of communication between two
networking devices that helps to transfer data from sender to receiver and vice
versa.
Transmission media is broadly classified into two groups.
Wired or Guided Media or Bound Transmission Media: Bound transmission media
are the cables that are tangible or have physical existence and are limited by the
physical geography. Popular bound transmission media in use are twisted pair
cable, co-axial cable and fiber optical cable. Each of them has its own
characteristics like transmission speed, effect of noise, physical appearance, cost
etc.
Wireless or Unguided Media or Unbound Transmission Media: Unbound
transmission media are the ways of transmitting data without using any cables.
These media are not bounded by physical geography. This type of transmission is
called Wireless communication. Nowadays wireless communication is becoming
popular. Wireless LANs are being installed in office and college campuses. This
transmission uses Microwave, Radio wave, Infra red are some of popular unbound
transmission media.
Created by:-Keshab Balayar
Switching system
It provides a path between the two devices in a network. The process of
transferring data blocks from one node to another node is called data switching.
Types of switching system are as follows:
Circuit switching: It is the most familiar technique used to build a communication
network. Used in ordinary telephone lines and it allows communications
equipment and circuits to be shared among users. Each user has the sole access to a
circuit during network use.
Message switching: Message switching is a network switching technique in which
data is routed in its entirety from the source node to the destination node, one hope
at a time. During message routing, every intermediate switch in the network stores
the whole message. If the entire network's resources are engaged or the network
becomes blocked, the message-switched network stores and delays the message
until ample resources become available for effective transmission of the message.
Packet switching: A network technology that breaks up a message into small
packets for transmission, unlike circuit switching, which requires the establishment
of a dedicated point to point connections each packet in a packed switched network
contains a destination address. Thus all packets in a single message do not have to
follow the same path. Packet can arrive out of order. Destination computer
reassembles the packets into their proper sequence.
Advantages of OOP:
We can eliminate redundant codes by using inheritance feature of OOP.
It is very easy for managing complex and large size problems.
The most important is the reusability of codes by using the features inheritance.
It takes very less time for the development and maintaining the software.
It is efficient for testing and implementation of the system.
It follows bottom up approach.
It can be implemented in the field of OODBMS, OOAD and different fields of
engineering.
OOP has several disadvantages which made it unpopular in the early years.
Size: Object oriented programs are much larger than other programs. In the early days of
computing, space on hard drives, floppy drives and in memory was at a premium. Today
we do not have these restrictions.
Effort: Object oriented programs require a lot of work to create. Specifically, a great deal
of planning goes into an object oriented program well before a single piece of code is
ever written. Initially, this early effort was felt by many to be a waste of time. In addition,
because the programs were larger (see above) coders spent more time actually writing the
program.
Speed: Object oriented programs are slower than other programs, partially because of
their size. Other aspects of Object Oriented Programs also demand more system
resources, thus slowing the program down.
Object: An object is any entity, thing or organization that exits in real world. It
consists of two fundamentals characteristics: its attributes and behaviors. For
example: a dog is an object having attributes such as color, weight, age, etc. and
behaviors such as barking, wagging tail, etc. In OOP, attributes are represented by
data and behaviors are represented by functions.
Conceptualization:
Means of connectivity or how individuals and their associates are connecting and to what
like infrastructure, location, and network availability.
Intensity of connectivity, or how sophisticated are the usage like mere access, retrieval,
interactivity, innovative contributions.
Purpose of connectivity or why individuals and their associates are connecting like the
reasons why individuals are online and use the internet and ICT's.
Lack of connectivity which means that why individuals and their associates are not
connecting.
Cyber law
Cyber law is a type of law which rules in the internet to prevent internet related
crime.
Computer Crime
Computer crime has been defined broadly as a criminal act that has been
committed using a computer as the primary tool.
Text
Graphics or images
Audio
Video
Animation
Hypermedia
components of AI
Search: this intelligence is used to search solution of particular problem like
possibilities of moves on chess playing game. Searching is very important and
needs to be very fast and must search with accuracy. So AI based system is useful
for particular problem oriented search easily.
Pattern recognization: it is used to recognize some type of figures, images or audio
sounds. Its application is used for the authentication like face detection, iris
detection, voice recognization, etc.
Logic generate: as the name suggest, AI is intelligence with creating logic in
different problems. Logic in terms of predicate basis or whatever, this system
creates logic for solving the any kind of related problems as per the AI related
system and software.
Common sense and reasoning: the main goal of AI is to produce good reasoning
power and produce logic. This reasoning power and logic made machines like
human.
Ethical aspect of AI
AI can be used for good or bad. This is why it's important to think about what AI
is, and how we want it to be used.
Some ethical aspects of AI are:
AI builders have an obligation not to exploit people's ignorance and make them
think. AI is human.
Robots are not really your friends. They may be harmful for individuals. So
developers should be ethical. Use of AI must obey the social norms and values.
Use of AI should be under the intellectual property rights.
Chapter-4 Contemporary Technology
e-Commerce and e-business
E-commerce refers to online transactions, buying and selling of goods and/or
services over the internet.
E-business covers online transactions, but also extends to all internets based
interactions with business partners, suppliers and customers.
Advantages of e-commerce:
a. It makes buying selling procedure faster, as well as easy to find products.
b. It makes buying/selling possible 24/7.
c. There are no theoretical geographical limitations hence more reach to
customers.
Created by:-Keshab Balayar
d. It reduces operational costs and provides better quality of services.
e. It does not require physical company set ups.
f. It is easy to start and manage a business.
Disadvantages of e-commerce:
a. Any one, good or bad can easily start a business. And there are many bad sites
which eat up customer's money.
b. There is no guarantee of product quality.
c. Mechanical failures can cause unpredictable effects on the total processes.
d. As there is minimum chance of direct customer to company interactions,
customer loyalty is always on a check.
e. There are many hackers who look for opportunities and thus an ecommerce site,
service payment gateways all are always prone attack.
E-learning
E-learning is a new concept of delivering digital contents in learner oriented
environment using information and communication te4chnology (ICT). Delivery of
the digital content is the main characteristic of e-learning.
Advantages of e-learning:
It maintains the consistency of content.
It is easy for customization.
There is no any geographical limitation for learning.
It is quite favorable for learner as it can happen at any time and anywhere.
It reduces or eliminates travel costs to attend learning events.
It reduces or eliminates need for classroom/instructor infrastructure.
Disadvantages of e-learning:
E-governance
E-governance is the application of electronic means to improve the interaction
between government and citizens; and to increase the administrative effectiveness
and efficiency in the internal government operations.
Despite the government of Nepal has positively giving attention towards the
development of ICTs and subsequent implementing e-governance, a number of
issues has yet addressed. Some of the challenges for successful implementation of
e-governance are presented as:
Information transparency
Legal issues
Resources availability
Infrastructure including connectivity in rural area
Capacity and awareness
Political will and government action
Advantages of E-governance
Virtual reality
Virtual reality is a new computational paradigm that redefines the interface
between human and computer becomes a significant and universal technology and
subsequently penetrates applications for education and learning.
E-medicine
E-medicine refers to an approach that provides medical services whenever and
wherever required using information and communication technology.
With the help of this approach, even small number of doctors can provide medical
service to large number of people scattered in different locations. The people of
rural areas who are unable to get service of doctors can be benefitted from this
approach. The patients share his/her medical problems to the doctors. This
approach is now getting more popularity among the doctors too. They can post
their experiences and issues in the online discussion forum. Without good facility
of information and communication technology, e-medicine cannot be effective.
This is the problem facing in the developing countries like Nepal.