1/31/2021

Basic Thinking Tools - Practical Applications

By – Vijay Agwan

Part 2 :
Overview of Welding Processes –
to get the Analytical Insight

Webinar of IIW-India Mumbai Br.

Saturday, 30th January 2021:: 10.00 to 17.00 Hrs 1

Basic Thinking Tools - Practical Applications Overview of Welding

What is covered in this module ?

1. Surface Properties of the metal.
2. Mechanism of Weld Formation
3. Energy Usage and Issues involved.
4. Handling of the Energy - Basics
5. Properties of Material & Welding
6.Type of Welds generated
7. Fusion Welding Processes
8. Solid Phase Welding Processes

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What is the technical purpose of Welding ??

Generating Continuity of Material
Two chosen surfaces to be joined, however surgically clean they may be,
are discontinuous, because of the presence of surface oxides, which are
metallurgically bonded to that surface.
So, any welding process being used, for generating the continuity, has to
effectively remove these surface oxides, without changing the shape, size
and functional properties of the sub-assemblies significantly.
This is achieved by application of heat and/or mechanical pressure, to
melt and/or drive away the molten oxides and get metal to metal contact.
The joint must have continuity with PM mechanically and metallurgically.

Surface Texture Properties of Metals Metal Surface under magnification

All Metallic materials are made up of polycrystalline structure
Poly-crystal is a material made up of an aggregate of many small
single crystals (also called crystallites or grains).

Polycrystalline
Pyrite form
(Grain)

All surfaces of metals are covered with their Oxides

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Defect – Free Welding ??

First Principle of Welding

Do not weld the materials !

(Because they just do not like to go through the torture !!)

Unless, you are convinced that the required shape, size and
performance properties of the final intended assembly can not be
produced by any other process, more economically and/or technically.
This means Welding is problematic and some Defects are to be
tolerated within acceptable limits.

Defect is a rejectable discontinuity.

Basic Thinking Tools - Practical Applications Mechanism of Weld Formation

 Joining of two metallic assemblies / parts at the intended

surface area, so as to obtain the metallic continuity by
various means, but without any non-metallic material
and/or metal compounds trapped in between and without
causing damage to the parts.

 To get this metallic continuity at the intended area only,

use of heat and /or pressure is made, in a systematic
way, which is called a Welding Process.

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Basic Thinking Tools - Practical Applications Mechanism of Weld Formation

1. Remove the always existing Oxide Layer from the intended area
of joining;
2. Do not allow the ever present atmospheric oxygen to reach those
activated surfaces;
3. Bring those activated surfaces in contact with each other, so as
to allow them to form a metallic joint, by sharing the available
orbiting electrons and fulfill their need of valance electrons.

All the welding processes are used mainly to remove the thin film of
the surface oxides from both parts, at given area to be joined.
Question : Where does this removed oxide go?

Basic Thinking Tools - Practical Applications Mechanism of Weld Formation

1. Depending on the mechanism of weld joint formation at the intended

area, the Melting of the interface & its adjacent material may or may
not take place.
2. Even if the melting takes place, the molten material may not become
part of the final weld, due applied force and the resulting bond so
produced is in Solid Phase.
3. If the melting does not take place at all, then the bond is obviously in
the Solid Phase.
4. Weld joints in Solid Phase, are possible in a variety of Dissimilar
Metals.
5. In molten phase, only a few combinations are possible due to
chemical compatibility issues.

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Basic Thinking Tools - Practical Applications Energy Use and Issues arising

1. Removal of oxide can be achieved by use of Heat

alone, Mechanical Force alone or Both together
simultaneously, on the intended area.

1. But, Thermal Conductivity of metals makes the heat

move in to the assembly, which causes most of the
problems in welding like Distortion and HAZ.

Basic Thinking Tools - Practical Applications Energy Use and Issues arising

1. Chemical : Oxy-Acetylene Flame

2. Electrical : All types of Arc Welding, Resistance Welding

3. Mechanical : Forge Welding, Explosive Welding, Friction

and Friction Stir

4. Beams: Electron & Laser Beams

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Basic Thinking Tools - Practical Applications Energy Use and Issues arising

Heat Loss in Assembly

The Main Cause of Problems for Welding

The draining of heat into the assembly depends on Heat Sink

effect experienced by the intended area – a root cause of majority of
quality issues in welding technology – the famous HAZ: i.e. :
1. Thermal Conductivity, :–Not changeable at all
2. Area of Cross Section and volume surrounding it,
3. Soaking Time available for Heat to flow into material.
4. Temperature difference between heat source & parts

Basic Thinking Tools - Practical Applications Energy Use and Issues arising

Total Heat Input, Heat for Welding, Heat Loss :

Thermal Efficiency of Welding Process
 Of the 4 factors responsible for Heat Loss, First two factors –
Conductivity & Size - can never be changed in a given assembly.

 Soaking Time is a dependent parameter, as ‘till the welding is

completed’ is a governing factor for assembly to get exposed to the
heat source.

 Therefore, we are left with only one factor – Temperature

Difference – as a variable, to control the Heating Rate and
Soaking Time together, for the required Heat Input in Welding.

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Basic Thinking Tools - Practical Applications Handling of the Energy - Basics

Handling Mechanical, Electrical & Thermal Energies

Mechanical Electrical Thermal Hydro /Pneu Source of Energy
MATERIAL FLOW CURRENT FLOW HEAT FLOW LIQUID / GAS FLOW For doing the work
PRESSURE VOLTAGE TEMPERATURE PRESSURE Potential Energy
CHARGE
QUANTITY (kg) ENERGY (KCAL) QUANTITY (ltr)
(COLOUMBS)
X-SECTION X-SECTION X-SECTION X-SECTION Of the path of flow
BREAK DOWN
THERMAL
YIELD POINT POTENTIAL / VISCOSITY
CONDUCTIVITY
CONDUCTIVITY
RESISTANCE RESISTANCE RESISTANCE RESISTANCE Resistance = ρ* L/A
MASS ENERGY ENERGY MASS
DISLOCATIONS JOINTS JOINTS COUPLINGS ρ = Specific Resistance
L = Length of Conductor
STRENGTH A = Area of Conductor
VOLTAGE DROP HEAT LOSS FLUID LOSS
CHANGES In the path of energy flow.
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Basic Thinking Tools - Practical Applications Properties of Material & Welding

Some Important Welding Data on Materials : Electrical & Thermal Properties

Thermal
Material Electrical Conductivity M. P. of Metals M. P. of Oxides
Conductivity
Name σ x 106[S/m] at 20 °C BTU (hr-ft) Deg. Celsius Deg. Celsius

Copper 59.60 223 1084 1235

Aluminum 35.00 124 660 2000
Zinc 16.90 67 419.5 1975

CS (0.5 to1.5 % C) 10.00 31 - 21 1425 - 1540 1350 - 1368

Tin 9.17 66.8 232 1080

Lead 4.55 35.3 327 888
Titanium 2.38 21.9 1670 1900
Stainless steel 1.45 7 - 26 1510 2000 ++
Chromium 7.90 93.9 1860 2435
Nickel 14.30 90.9 1453 1955

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Basic Thinking Tools - Practical Applications Properties of Material & Welding

SPECIAL PROPERTY OF CARBON STEELS

Basic Thinking Tools - Practical Applications Type of Welds generated

Two Types of Metallurgical Bonds in Weld Joints

There are TWO types of Metallurgical Bonds possible in the Weld
Joints depending on the process used : ONE

Fusion (in Liquid Phase) Bond : (Using only Heat)

 Obtained in All Arc Processes, EBW, LASER, & RW (Sheet)

 Melting happens at edges of both parts and the filler metal
 Molten metals become the part of weld joints & gives HAZ
 HAZ is significant and is a matter of concern always.
 Chemistry &/or Properties of Weld Metals is/are different.

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Basic Thinking Tools - Practical Applications Type of Welds generated

Two Types of Metallurgical Bonds in Weld Joints

There are TWO types of Metallurgical Bonds possible in the Weld

Joints depending on the process used : TWO

Solid Phase Bond (Forge Welds) : (Using Heat and Mech. Force)

 Melting may or may not happens at edges of both parts.

 Filler metal not required as Welds are Autogenous.
 Molten metal, if any, is forced out and does not become the part of weld.
 Properties of joints are very close to parent metal.
 HAZ formed are extremely small and are mostly insignificant .
 A wide range of Dissimilar Metals can be welded.

Power Density & Processes

Comparison of Welding Processes : Power Density

S
I ENE- ENE-
. AVG MAX
I min kVA kVA HEAT SOURCE DIA OF RGY kW/ RGY kW/
N PROCESS OCV Max TEMP. AREA mm
AREA
mm2 mm2
kW/
. kA min max
mm2 mm2
kA From To

1 Gas Welding ## ## ## ## ## 3200 15 - 25 314 ## ## ##

Resistance
2 10 10 100 100 1000 ### 4 - 10 20 5 50 100
Welding

3 SMAW 50 0.08 0.3 4 15 6000 - 8000 10 - 18 177 0.023 0.085 0.1

4 GTAW / GMAW 50 0.1 0.5 5 20 10000 - 15000 8 -12 79 0.063 0.253 0.5

5 PLASMA 50 0.24 0.6 12 30 20000 - 30000 4 - 6 20 0.600 1.500 2

6 EBW ## ## ## 2 100 ### 0.4 - 0.8 0.01 - 0.6 200 250 1000

0.0004 -
7 LASER ## ## ## 0.5 30 ### 0.02 - 0.06 1250 10000 10000
0.0036

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Fusion Welding Processes

Welding Processes – Fusion Welds – Susceptible to various types of defects

Fusion Welding – Heat Sources

Filler Metal Needed Filler Metal (May Filler Metal EBW May Need
for E’slag & ESSC be Needed) Needed Filler Metal

Electric resistance Chemical reaction Electric arc Power beams

Laser
Spot, Seam and Oxyfuel gas MMAW Electron beam
Embossed sheet welding GMAW
Projection welding GTAW
FCAW
Electroslag Thermit welding SAW
ESSC PAW
Major Group
Processing Tonnage of
Processes for Industry 4.0 marked Blue Steel all over the world!

Solid Phase Welding Processes

Welding Processes – Solid Phase Welds – Very few typical defects

Solid Phase Welding : Pressure & Heat
Electric Resistance Friction Welding Stud Welding

> Solid Projection Continuous Rotation Capacitor Discharge

Welding, Stored Energy-Inertia
> Upset Butt Welding
& Flash Butt Welding
Ultrasonic Welding Arc Stud Welding

Special Processes Friction Stir Welding Explosive Welding

Cold Welding Mainly developed for Very Large sizes of

Diffusion Welding and used for Aluminium Thick Clad Plates
Forge Welding Alloys
Hot Pressure Welding
Roll Welding Processes for Industry 4.0 marked Blue

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Summary of Part 2 :
1. Removal of Oxide Film is the aim of welding processes.
2. It is accomplished by use of heat and/or mechanical force.
3. Energy intensity & rate of heating decide the total Heat Input and HAZ
4. Whenever there is a use of mechanical force in the welding process, the joint
is always in solid phase: Exceptions Resistance Spot, Seam & Sheet
Projection Welding.

Thanks for your Patient Listening.

Let the ideas sink in!
Vijay Agwan :: Cell > +917506946938 :: Phone :: (+91-22) 25423920
Email > Vijay_agwan@yahoo.com
(vijay[underscore]agwan[at]yahoo.com)

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