P.B.rahod-Contemporary Public Administration - Ideas and Issues-ABD Publishers (2004)

Contem porary
Public Administration
(IDEAS AND ISSUES)
Dr. P.B. Rathod
rml
~
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Contents
1. Meaning, Nature, Scope and

Importance of Public Administration 1
2. Environmental Influences on
Public Administration 21
3. Relations of Public Administration with
other Social Sciences 41
4. Approaches to the Study of
Public Administration 56
5. Organisation and Its Principles 76
6. Organisation and Its Theories 97
7. Management 122
8. Financial Administration 139
9. Public Relations 155
10. Personnel Administration 166
"This page is Intentionally Left Blank"
1
Meaning, Nature, Scope and
Importance of Public Administration
Background
Public administration, which is concerned primarily with
the execution of government policy, is a branch of political
science. Political Science teaches us that man is a gregariollS
animaL He is wedded to the company of his fellows. He can
fulfil himself only in society.
Gone are the days of Police State. 1 That does not mean
there was no administration. But the scope of administration
was too limited, too narrow and too restricted as the sphere
of the state activity was limited~ In the eighteenth and
nineteenth centuries, the motto was "less government in
business and more business in government." It was said that
"government is the best which governs the least." This is no
longer accepted today. The sphere of state activity has been
continuously expanding and so in the scope of public
administration. Over the years, the scope of public
administration has considerably increased.
2 Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
Modern states are welfare states. 2 The modern state has

a number of activities to undertake, multifarious functions
to perform and various duties to discharge. The activities of
t1:).e state are fast increasing in a response due to the growing
needs, problems and complexities of man's life. The state has
been playing a positive, effective and dynamic role in the life
of man. The activities, duties and functions of modern
welfare state have been fast expanding and increasing in
terms of its laws, policies, decisions and programmes. So, the
need of administration has been felt and realised as an
urgent necessity to implement, enforce and execute the laws,
policies and programmes of a welfare state so as to realise
the goals of such state. So, the scope of public administration
and its importance has been increasing and expanding
correspondingly to the increase of state activities. So, today,
there is no any single activity left untouched or uncovered
either by the state or by public administration. In fact, there
is no aspect of life which public administration does not
touch. If the government of the state makes laws, policies,
plans, decisions and programmes, it is the administrative
machinery which implements, enforces and executes those
plans, policies, laws, decisions and programmes of the state
so that the end of the state i.e. welfare of the people is
achieved and realised. As the state is permanent so also
administration is permanent. Old government may go and
new government may come but administration is always
there as permanentl machinery of the state.
Meaning
Administration is derived from the Latin root "administrate,"
which means "to assist or to direct." Public administration
has been a subject of controversy for the last 50 years.
Defining the subject is not a "rewarding enterprise" in the
Meaning, Nature, Scope and Importance ... 3
sense that there cannot be an all satisfying explanation of the

discipline "public administration."4 An attempt to define
public administration is always fraught with difficulties. The
nature of the subj~ct eludes an accur~te explanation. Although
defining of the term is not rewarding, it is still worth
attempting. Caiden says "No one has yet produced a simple
definition of public administration that is fully acceptable to
both practitioners and scholars." Further, he says that the
subject matter of public administration and its nature is
"indeterminate." In order to learn what public administration
is about, one has to study its contents. It is not easy and
convenient to precisely explain what public administration
is. It is an activity as well as a subject matter of study. Thus,
public administration has a dual character. It is both process
and the subject of study in colleges and universities. Thus,
it is a "subject" matter of study, teaching and research in
colleges and universities. Further, it is regarded as a profession
or practice. As a subject of study public administration
means rather different things to different groups of students.
Public administration is a subject for academics, adminis-
trators and citizens. 5 As an academic subject, public
administration students try to understand how a country's
administration is organised and how it functions. As a field
of study, public administration is mainly concerned with the
means for implementing political values. It may be defined
as the coordination of individual and group effects to carry
out public policy. It is mainly occupied with the routine
work of government.
Professor Ridley considers public administration as a
cross-road science because numerous approaches form a
part of the discipline. 6 He says that public administration
has become a true cross-roads science, so inter-disciplinary
that links with political science and also links with other
disciplines. Paul H. Appleby regards administration as a

broad term involving policy making as well as execution.
Administration according to Professor L.D. White means
"managing the aff~irs, organising the state. Administration
is a process common to all group efforts, public or private,
civil or military." In administrative behaviour, Simon de-
scribes "administration as the art getting things done." To
Prof. Wilson it "is detailed and systematic application of
law." According to dictionary, administration is the manage-
ment of affairs. It is concerned with the implementation of
public policy laid down by men in power and authority.
Bertram M. Gross thinks that administration may convey
the following:
Managin'g An organisation.
Administering The activities of the organisation.
Governing Organised human behaviour.
Guiding An enterprise.
Coordinating An undertaking.
Integrating A group of people.
Running People.
Directing The activities of the people.
Supervising Subordinates.
Controlli~g The use of resources.
From the different perspectives, we can define
administration as a process or function. It is planning,
organising, leading and evaluating of others so as to achieve
specified ends. Administration is the world of the official,
who is concerned with facts, execution, means, accountability
methods, laws and structures. The essence of administration
is concerned with the goals. Public administration fs the
accomplishment of politically determined objectives. Public
administration is one of the aspects of the larger field of
administration. There is an element of inseparability between

government and public administration. We cannot study the
public administration of a country without understanding
its governmental system. There is a fundamental organic
unity between government and public administration which
no specialised study should ignore. In a behavioural sense,
both are people in action?
Public administration is concerned with the past. Its
concern with the past is only in terms of its lessons for the
future. It is creative, all the time it has to dream, imagine
and create, it looks out for opportunities and it acts on all
fronts. It is today a multi-dimensional study. Public
administration is a philosophy in action. Administrative
activity is assessed against three major goal-criteria-efficiency,
economy and effectiveness. Public administration as a
discipline belongs to the biggest family of social sciences.
The other social sciences are psychology social psychology,
sociology, social anthropology, geography, history,
economics, etc. But public administration is a new science
of social or human relations.
In short, the important branches of public administration
consist of maintenance of law and order, regulation and
currency, coinage, maintenance of land records, promotion
of agriculture, education, health, social welfare and services.
Summary of Public Administration

(1) Public administration is an administration in the
public sector.
(2) It is the administration by the state.
(3) Public administration is governmental administration.
(4) It is the administration of the public authorities.
(5) Public administration should be the study of admin-
istration descriptive, theoretical and normative.
(6) It is multi-dimensional in nature.

(7) Public administration is the accomplishment of
politically determined' objectives.
(8) It is concerne<;i or related to the effectiveness, efficiency
and economy with which all the services are provided
to the people by the government.
(9) Public administration is a coherent well-knit and
integrated discipline like other disciplines of social
sciences.
(0) Public administration is a science in the same sense as
political science is a science or economic is treated as a
science in a broader general sense, rather than a 'pure'
or exact science like physics, chemistry or biology.
(11) Public administration is not only a profession but is
also an academic discipline. The subject of public
administration was originally considered to be a
branch of the discipline of political science. It has
now emerged as an independent discipline in several
Jndian universities-which confer graduate and post-
graduate, degree in public administration. The Indian
Institute of Public Administration established in the
year 1954 is engaged in training, study and research
in public administration.
(2) 'Public administration has theories to explain
administrative phenomenon.
(3) Public administration has principles.
(4) Public administration is an independent discipline,
not only independent of the domain of political
science but independent of the other social science
disciplines. Thus, it is an independent and integrated
discipline. 8
Nature of Public Administration
Is it a science? Should we call public administration a
science? Political science has struggled hard to be described

as a science. 9 But it had failed to be pure or exact or hard
or natural or physical science. Public administration is a
growing discipline. As a discipline it belongs to the
biggest family of social sciences. Public administration
can be described as a scientific discipline for the purpose
of study, teaching and research. Public administration is
a social science like economics, sociology, psychology and
the science of management. As in the case of these inexact
social sciences, public administration can safely claim the
status of a social science. All social sciences including
public administration are "inexact" because they deal
with the human element and human behaviours. So, the
task of explaining and predicting a phenomenon is not so
exact. IO
Public administration can be studied systemically and
scientifically. It uses the scientific method in collection,
verification of the data. Data are tabulated, analysed and
compared, to hypothesise and finally hypothesis support or
negated.
Is it an Art?
Public administration is an art. It is not only an art but a
skilful art or a fine art. Talented persons becomes
administrators. The profession of public administration is
learnt as an art. With the rich experience of practice and
discipline, public administration is scientific in nature. It is
a systematic practice. Public administration has been
recognised and practised as an art. As a matter of fact, public
administration may be called as the highest of 'Arts' as
politics was claimed by Aristotle to be the highest or
supreme or the master science. II Thus, public administration
is really a fine and supreme art.
Scope of Public Administration
Several definitions of Public Admin.istration have, however,

created problems. The:re are many scholars who take wider
or broader view of the scope of public administration. But
there are other scholars who have taken the narrow view
about the scope of public administration.
Thus, when comes to the scope of public administration
one really is faced with the problem as to whether the scope
of the subject is wide or narrow. There are wide varying
different views. According to one view the subject includes
all governmental activities, whereas other view is that it
concerns merely with the implementation of the policies and
not their formulation. The first view very much widens the
scope of the subject and the second very much narrows it
down but makes it more scientific. It does not keep it
ambiguous.
The very word scope means the subject matter or
boundary or jurisdiction of a subject. The study of public
administration is ever widening. The scope of public
administration is wide enough. It is a wider term. Public
administration has its own scope or boundary. The scope of
public administration is wide or extensive. Its scope has
immensely increased. Its scope has considerably widened
public administration is a very complex and complicated
affair and day-by-day its complexity is very much increasing.
The scope of the public administration has been broadening
and widening or increasing day by day. Its scope goes on
increasing due to the emergence of the new problems in
public administration. Thus, the scope of public
administration is wide and comprehensive. 13
Some writers confine the scope of public administration
to integral view. Others confine to managerial view.
Meaning, Nature, Scope and Importance .,. 9
Luther Gulick confines the scope of public administration

to his 'POSDCORB'. In other words he has given
'POSDCORB' idea of public administration. Each letter
covers one aspect of administration.
(1) P-stands for planning-It means public administra-

tion must plan and prepare outlines for policies to be
followed.
(2) O-from 0 he means-Organising-making arrange-
ments to carryout the work. It means specifying
duties of all departments.
(3) S-denotes staffing-It should decide the strength of
the staff in each department.
(4) D-indicates Directing-It means giving proper and
continuous directions, instructions, guidance for all
those responsible for planning and organisation.
(5) Co-conveys-co-ordinating-Without co-ordination
there is bound to be chaos and disorder. Public
administration ensure co-ordination of activities of
different departments.
(6) R-implies-Reporting-It should act as an agency to
report to the executive honestly, obediently and
regularly the position and working of departments
under their control.
(7) B-stands for-Budgeting-It denotes that public
administration should help in the preparation of the
budget and thus maintain financial stability.
Professor Pfiffner divides the scope of public admini~

tration into two categories:
(1) Principles of Public Administration.

(2) Sphere of Public Administration.
Under the first category public administration studies

the following topics:
(1) Organisation: This is the institutional structure of
public administration. It refers to the static pattern of
administration which may be called the anatomy of
administration.
(2) Management of personnel: This is the dynamic
aspect of public administration. It is a process of leading, co-
ordinating, directing, controlling individuals in an
organisation to achieve public policy.
(3) Method and procedure: This is how of administration,
its techniques and process of working.
(4) Material and supply: This refers to the tools of public
administration like pencils, paper, ink, furniture, pen, cabin,
tag, card-board and so on. Through these materials the
administrative work is carried out.
(5) Public finance: This is the fuel or oil of the engine
of public administration. Without finance or money no
administrative work can be performed.
(6) Administrative accountability: This includes the
internal control as well as the external, responsibility of
public administration to the legislature, the judiciary and the
executive. Public administ.ration is always subject to law.B
The administrators are never above law. They are always
responsible to the people and to the courts.
(7) General administration: This includes direction,
supervision and control over administration.
(8) The sphere of Public Administration: According to
Professor Walker the subject matter or the scope of Public
Administration has two aspects:
Theoretical or administrative theory: It implies that
(i)
public administration is concerned only with administration.
This theory includes or covers the topics like organisation,

personnel, corporations, management leadership, decision-
making, public relations, planning etc.
(ii) Practical or applied administration: According to
this theory, public administration has nothing to do with the
theory of administration, but its scope is confined to
application of administrative decisions. It is technically
known as theory of applied administration. Applied
administration deals with the following topics.
(a) Political administration: It includes or covers the topics
such as the relationship between the political and permanent
executives i.e., ministers and the secretaries relationships.
(b) Legislative administration: It covers delegated legislation,
preparatory work done by the officials in drafting of bills for
enactments.
(c) Financial administration: It includes the whole of
financial administration i.e., preparation, enactment and
execution of the budget.
(d) Defensive administration: This covers the study of
defence or military administration.
(e) Educational administration: It covers all aspects of
educational administration.
(f) Social administration: It covers all the social activities
connected with food, housing, social security etc.
(g) Economic administration: It is concerned with the
protection and encouragement of industries, agriculture,
foreign trade, commerce, public enterprises, import, export
and so on.
(h) Foreign administration: It covers the conduct of foreign
or external affairs such as foreign ministry, diplomacy,
international law, international relations, international
organisation and co-operation.
(i) Imperial administration: This includes the domination

of the one nation over the other nation. It studies the
domination of one country over the other country.
DQmination of the strong nation over the weqker nations.
Domination of one nation over the other nation by force,
revolt, might, war etc.,
(j) Local administration: It is concerned with the activities
of the local bodies. It covers the local administration such as
village panchayat, Block Samitis, Zilla Panchayats etc.,
(k) Health administration: This covers all aspects relating
to health administration.
(1) Revenue administration: This covers all topics relating
to revenue administration.
(m) Police administration: It covers such topics such as
maintenance of law and order, internal security, peace etc.
(n) National administration: It includes the whole aspects
of national administration. It also includes the study of
administrative systems in different' countries and under
different philosophies of government.
Apart from these the scope of public administration also
includes-methods and approaches, theories of Public
Administration, Public Administration and other social
sciences. Thus, is the scope or subject matter of Public
Administration.
Importance of Public Administration
Public administration is the marshalling of men, materials

and money in a joint endeavour to achieve the ends of public
policy. It works not for profit but for public welfare. It
preserves national integrity and protects it from both external
invasion and internal disturbance. It is also an agent of
economic and social change.1 4 It engineers the orderly
transformation of a traditional developing, society into a

modern, developed society. It works in a particular
environment. Public administration must cater to the public
interest. It is hedg~d in legal safeguards. Government officials
function within a framework of general and specific laws
which circumscribe their freedom of action. Their actions
have a wider impact. Further, public administration is
subject to external financial control. It cannot collect and
spend money as it pleases. It is subject to the appropriation
act which the legislature has to pass.
The importance of Public Administration may be studied
under four heads:
(1) It is an Instrument of Providing Services
Public administration is a subject of growing importance in

modern times. It occupies a central place in our modern
society. Hence, its study as an aspect of governmental
activity and an academic discipline is worthwhile.1 5
Public administration protects the life and property of
the people. It defends the nation against external enemies. 16
It provides a number of services for the people such as
education, public health, social security etc. It holds a very
important place in the life of the people. It is government in
action. It has very important place in the life of the people.
From cradle to grave we are concerned with the public
administration. Its contents are more positive in nature. It is
engaging to meet the needs of human life. It is, therefore, a
creative factor. Its motto being the welfare of man. From
morning till evening we use the services of public
administration. Public administration is a pivotal importance
in developing countries like India. A country's progress is
thus, largely determined by the quality of its public
administration. I? In the final analysis, administration is a
moral act and administrator is moral agent. Administration

is a human necessity and good administration is a blessing
to humanity. It is the well wisher of the public.
(2) It is as the Basis of Government
Professor Appleby says without administration government
would be a discussion club. It maintains stability of social
institutions. It is a stabilising force in society. It maintains
social unity and harmony by solving social problems. Public
administration is a permanent force in the life of the nation.
It is possible for a state to exist without a legislature, or an
independent judiciary, but it is difficult for it to exist without
administration. It is independent of the executive and
legislature in its day-to-day working. Administration is
there under all situations. There would be no existence
without administration.
In the past society was simple. Man lived in huts. Man
has advanced today. He lives in multistoreyed building.
Science has done wonders and brought about a revolutionary
change in the field of society. The world has become too
complicated. In every direction, the range of public
administration is being extended. Public administration is a
great stabilising force in the society. Administrators are the
stabilisers of society and guardians of tradition. 1s Public
administration today not only protects us from internal and
external dangers, but also protect us from disease, insecurity,
scarcity, calamities, epidemics and war.
(3) Its Role in a Democracy
In a democracy, the importance of public administration is
all the more great. The ideals of democracy i.e. the welfare
of the people, sovereignty of the people, progress, prosperity
and protection of common men can be obtained only through
impartial, honest and efficient administration. Democracy

stands for the liberty and equality. If the nations have
democratic ideology or philosophy, the system of
administration is also democratic in nahue. If democracy is
defined as the government of the people, by the people and
for the people, the system of administration must be
democratic to uphold democratic ideals of liberty, equality
and fraternity. Democracy has replaced the previous forms
of government like aristocracy, feudalism, monarchy,
autocracy and despotism. It has become the best alternative
to all the previous forms of government. It is the only
alternative, possible and available form of government.
Democracy is a government by discussion and criticism.
Though, the people do not directly govern in democracy, but
they elect their representatives to govern. Through their
representatives, they express their grievances. To realise the
ideal of democracy i.e. liberty and equality, an administrative
system is all the more important.
Though, democracy is criticised as a rule by average
men, the fools, the idiots and an unscientific dogma, still
democracy is the only alternative from of government. If the
government is democratic, the administrator must be of
democractic outlook, must follow democratic norms and
amicable means and methods to implement the laws, policies
and decisions of the government. An administrator must be
above selfish interest, corruption, nepotism, favouritism etc.
For the successful accomplishment of the goals and
ideals of democracy, an administrator, must be a man of
integrity, honesty, devotion, dedication, high morale,
discipline, high standards and efficiency so as to execute the
policies and decisions of the government. He should be
above communal, sectional, caste and regional feelings. He
should respect the rule of law, liberty, equality and fraternity,
which are the ideals of democracy. He should keep in mind

the ends of the state and devise the means to achieve the
same.
Administratio!1 should have broad based approval in
which there should not be any place for the domination of
any single individual or community. It should have the
national image, serving always in the interests of the general
public. Though, in democracy, policies and decisions are
made in accordance with the wishes and aspirations of the
people, but people's hopes will be dupes, if there is no
democratic system of administration. There should be proper
balance to be maintained between policy formulation and
policy implementation. The success or failure of democracy,
depends on the type of administrative system, a country
has. 19
From what has been said above, it is clear that public
administration is a great social force in the life of the nation.
Ramsay Muir to remark that in England the minister is a tool
in the hands of the permanent executive.
"While governments may come and governments may
go, ministries may rise and ministries may fall, the
administration of a country goes on forever. No revolution
can change it and no upheaval can uproot it." Systems of
government may come and go, constitutions can be made
and unmade but administration goes on forever.
(4) It is an Instrument of Public Policy
Public policy is an important branch of the study of public
administration. In a democracy, the policies are decided by
the political leadership, but the effective execution depends
upon the competence and the dedication of administrators.
Public administration plays greater role not only in the
management of men and material but also in policy enforcing.
Public administration is responsible for the proper execution

of policies. It is concerned with the essence of policy framed
by the executive. Public administration is there to implement
the policies. Determination or frpming of the policy is the
function of the minister. The minister and the civil servants
are concerned with the execution of the policies. 2o Therefore,
public administration is an instrument of implementing the
policies of the government. These are, the civil servants who
translate laws into action. Administrative problems today
have become too difficult, complex and complicated that
ministers being ignorant to understand those problems.
Ministers are not scholars, specialists and experts in
administrative, legal and technical matters or problems.
They are amateur, unfamiliar, unschooled, untrained and
unversed, to understand those problems. Hence, they have
to depend more and more upon the permanent officials.
(5) An Instrument of Social and Economic Development
Public administration is the key instrument of social and
economic development. In order to play their role in a
meaningful way, the civil servants have to develop greater
skills and capabilities in dealing with the citizens. Public
administration acts as an instrument of socio-economic
development. Public administration today is not only the
protector of its citizens from internal disorder and the
external dangers, but it has become our helper, servant,
educator, manufacturer, distributor in different directions. It
oils the machinery of politics.
(6) Its Importance as a Subject of Study
Public administration is a subject of growing importance. It
is emerging as a new subject or discipline. Its study has
become more and more inter-disciplinary. As an academic
subject or discipline it is being studied and taught in most

of the Indian and foreign universities. In some universities
there is a separate department in public administration. Its
study cannot be ignored by the students 9f public
administration. It is said that lithe students of today are the
administrators of tomorrow. 2111
The study of public administration prepares them into
better administrators. Public administration is a universal
and interesting subject. That is why, at B.A. and M.A. level
the students are offering it in greater and greater number.
Notes and References
1. International Encyclopaedia of Social Sciences, Vol. 5-6, 1968-72,
pp. 22. In the past police state were concerned only with the
maintenance or law and order and the collection of revenue.
2. Fred, W. Riggs, Administration in Developing Countries, The
Thfory of Prismatic Society, Boston, Houghton Miffin Co., 1964.
p.73.
Modern states are positive and they not only to maintain the
law and order but also, to look after health, education, social
security, food, shelter, clothing etc.
3. J.M. Pfiffner and Presthus, Public Administration (New York,
The Ronald Press Company, 1960), p. 3.
Like state, administration is permanent only the changes
occurs in the systems of government. Old government may be
replaced by a new government. Therefore, government is
temporary where as public administration is the permanent
machinery of the state.
4. F.e. Nosher, "Research in Public Administration", Public
Administration Review, 16, Summer, 1956.
5. L.D. White, Introduction to the Study of Public Administrations,
fourth ed., 1955. p. 1.
6. Administrative Action, Prentice Hall, New Delhi.
Public administration is a cross road and interdisciplinary
subject because it is related or connected with other social
sciences.
7. Simon, Smithburg and Thompson, Public Administration

Government. Public Administration is concerned with the welfare
of the people. They are on the operating line.
8. Gladden, Student Guide to Public Administration, Vol. t Stapless
Press London, 1972, p. 3. Public Administration unites and
integrates all social sciences including physical sciences.
9. Stephen, P. Robbins, The Administrative Process Integrating
Theory and Practice, Prentice-Hall, New Delhi, 1970.
Science means a systematic study of knowledge. It is a
systematic and scientific study of knowledge.
10. F.F. Ridley, The Study of Government-Political Science and
Public Administration.
Like all other social sciences public administration is
inaccurate, and not exact because public administration deals
with human beings. So the prediction of human behaviour is
very difficult.
11. Aristotle said, "Political science is supreme science. n Not in the
sense that it includes all other social sciences, but in the sense
it gives preference to all other social sciences which deals with
human society.
12. RJ.S. Baker, Administrative Theory and Public Administration,
Hutchinson, London.
13. Ordway Tead, The Art of Administration, McGraw Hill, N.Y.
1951. p. 10l.
Public administration is not above and over the law. It
cannot cross the law also. It has to work within the framework
of law.
14. Simon, Smithburg and Thompson, Public Administration.
It is said that public administration is the vehicle of change i.e.
social, political, economic, technological etc.
15. Ordway Tead, The Art of Administratwn, McGraw Hill, N.Y.
1951, p. 101.
Public administration is an academic subject which is being
studied in the various colleges and also in the universities
(India and Foreign).
16. Paul, H. Appleby, Policy Administration, Oxford and IBH
Publishing Co., New Delhi, 1970, p. 24.
Public administration protects the nation and its people

from both the internal and external dangers.
17. Keith Henderson, Emerging Synthesis in American Public
Administration, Asia Publishing House, New Delhi, 1966, p. 4
18. Stephen. P. Robbins, Adininistrative Process, p. 15.
Administrators are the defenders and protectors of the
society's traditions, cultures, customs, folkways etc.
19. Central Government Administration, 1972, p. 3.
The image, improvement of the nation depends upon the
quality of administration. The success and failure of democracy
also depends upon it.
20. Gullick Luther, The Elements of Administration, Sir, Isaac Pitman
and Sons Ltd., London, 1956, p. 16.
For example, policy drafting is the job of the government,
while implementing is the job of administrators or civil servants.
21. Arthur, W. Macamahon, article entitled Approaches to
U
Administratiorl, (ed.) , Allied Publishers, New Delhi, 1964, p. 19.

2
Environmental Influences on
Introduction
Public administration has its own set of environment. An
administrative system is surrounded by political, social,
economic, legal, technical sets of environment.IAs public
employee whether chief secretary or chowkidar (watchman)
operates or performs his public duties functioning in different
sets of environment. The nearest set of environment in which
a public servant functions is the environment of
administration i.e., the administrators group, employee'S
groups, administrative rules and regulations administrative
patterns of behaviour and the administrative culture. The
role of an administrator is, thus, performed in an inseparable
environmental setting of which the employee himself is part
as contributor to that administrative system.
An administrative system is not exclusive.2 It depends on
the other sub-systems of the society for the performance of
various functions. The sub-systems of the society are political,
legal, economic, cultural, technological and social systems.

There is complete interdependence of all these systems. All
these systems are the sub-systems of the bigger social
systems.
1. Social Environment and Public Administration
Social system is a comprehensive term which includes in its
fold· many other sub-systems like economic system, political
system etc. It also includes administrative system. Social
change social reform etc. can be brought about by the social
policies. Social policies have to be implemented by
administrators. Many social problems are the challenges to
the administrator. So administrator has to face all those
emerging challenges social problems like poverty, beggary,
untouchability, unemployment, racial discrimination, dowry
system, prostitution, delinquency and other anti-social
activities require proper policies to be framed by the
government. Society is suffering from moral degradation to
degeneration. All these policies should be effectively
implemented by efficient administration. Social conflicts or
quarrels or disputes arise in society due to the scarcity of
resources. Social conflicts will be increasing. Resources are
not sufficient and adequate. The administrator should have
sufficient knowledge of such conflicts and he should seek the
means to resolve or manage those conflicts. Social conflicts
arise due to the social political, economical, technological
changes in the environment. Administrator has to see that
sO.<:iety is not attacked by evils like casteism, communalism,
regionalism, sectionalism, linguism, separatism, terrorism
and so on. Society is crisis-ridden. These are all the setious
or severe problems. Society requires a new brand of
administrator "to deal with these problems." The quality of
administrator should be high. Implementation of laws and
Environmental Influences on Public Administration 23
policies with regard to social problems is a great task before

the administrative machinery.3
The problems of society in every country whether
qemocratic or communistic are too complex an<;l complicated.
Every person has to lie in society as a civilised member. But
due to the developments made in science and technology
and growing population, society has been facing many
problems. Society is getting divided into haves and havenots,
poor and rich, landlords and landless, workers and capitalists.
To remove all these social evils and the ills, administrator
needs to be a man of integrity and character. All people are
not equal with regard to the resources, facilities and other
opportunities. Most of the people are poor who are unable
to make their both ends meet. The gap or the gulf between
rich and poor is increasing. It is the administrators duty to
reduce such a gap. Poor people are not in a position to get
their basic minimums. They are illiterate and ignorant about
the politica set-up, economic set-up, social set-up and
administrative-set-up. Social conflicts or quarrels are
increasing day-by-day. There is no peace and harmony in the
members of the society. The people are forced to engage in
anti-social activities like theft, rapism, looting, demons-
trations, murdering and so on. 4 All this they do because, they
(both men and women) have been facing the problems of
poverty, hungry, unemployment and so on. Sometimes
some people are forced to commit crimes knowingly or
unknowingly due to the pressing of time and circumstances.
Womens are suffering from the evil practices of the society
like Devadasi system i.e, dedication of the girls and women's
to god and godesses, divorce, dowry and other problems.
All these various evils, issues and problems of the society
require the passing of proper laws and formulation of
proper policies by government. That is why, in many
democratic countries like India, the government has

formulated many plans and launched many progammes for
the welfare of the people.
Indian society can be described as a "Prismatic Society"
having the "said" pattern of administration. The Indian
society could be divided into numerous classes on the basis
of the following criteria.
(1) Economic basis.
(2) Caste or communal or religious basis.
(3) Professional basis.
As a matter of fact, there are three major categories or
classes of people distinguished on the basis of annual income
i.e.,
(1) Upper Class.
(2) Middle Class.
(3) Lower Class.
Unfortunately the caste criteria identifies classes of lower
grade and upper grade as well i.e., the upper caste also belongs
to the upper classes and the lower caste or communities are
poorer as well. The social stratification scheme in India is
responsible for the economic exploitation of the lower caste
people and kept them subdued for centuries together.
Harijans, scheduled castes, scheduled tribes, farm labourers
from down trodden communities still live like "bonded
labour".
Previously higher caste and upper caste people were
those who occupied positions of honour, respect and prestige
in society as well as in government. But now with the change
in the policies of the Government of India people from lower
castes or lower communities of Indian society have also
started entering the All India competitive examinations.
Thanks to the quota system for the SC/ST, there is an

enormous impact on a fraction of people belonging to these
classes. The reservation policy of the Government of India
has resulted in class mobility particularly in the case of
people belonging to the SC and ST. Now-a-days in every
profession we can find workers belonging to the down
trodden classes. 5
The administrative system in India has been tremendously
influenced because of the changing character and complexion
of the classes in Indian society land reform administration
and reVenl.le administration have been tremendously
influenced the changing class structure. The Government of
India has come out with immediate legislative measures to
protect the landless peasants against the zamindars, jagirdars
and other rich peasants.6
In India Dowry Prohibition Act has been passed and
anti-poverty programmes have been launched towards the
goal of welfare state. Some sort of social policy or social
legislation has been passed and introduced. Still the problems
are not completely solved. Whether it is social law, a social
policy or social legislation it should be effectively and timely
implemented. The implementation of social legislation or
social policy or law is the job of administration. The problems
of society can only be solved by the administrative system
of the country. Public administration should be concerned
with discrimination against women, blacks, untouchables
and tribals in matter of recruitment and promotion7 .
Administrators should act as guide philosopher, teacher and
friends of the people. Administrators needs to be result-
oriented rather than routine process and procedure-oriented.
Public administration needs to be dynamic honour.
Unless and until there is an efficient, honest, non-corrupt
and well-trained administrative machinery to implement
social policies, plans, programmes and laws there is no social

justice or social welfare. So the ideals of social justice or
social welfare can be realised only when there is good
administration. 8
Many sociologists like Weber, Simon, comte have
contributed a lot to the study of public administration.
Public administration owes much to sociology which has
broadened and expanded the scope of public administration.
That is why, we give utmost importance to inter-disciplinary
approach which is an off-shoot of behaviouralism.
2. Political Environment and Public Administration

An administrative system is very close to a political system.
It is an almost extension of it. An administrative system is
completely dependent upon the political-system. Therefore,
political-factor influences the structure and functioning of an
administrative system to a larger extent.
The political-influence on public administration is very
great. No aspect of public administration can be studied
without political influence. Politics influences almost every
aspect of public administration. The whole field of public
administration operates in the political environment.
Politics influences the administration through the
following ways or methods:
(1) Planning.
(2) Policy making.
(3) Budgeting.
(4) Administrative rules, regulations and codes.
The administrative rules are framed by the ministers or

the political executive, constituent assemblies, state legisla-
tive assemblies, operate on political considerations. All
programmes, projects and works are executed by the perma-

nent bureaucrats under the strict supervision of a political
supervisor. Every aspect of public administration is influ-
enced by politics. It is not exaggeration to say that All II
public administration is politicised." 9 Public administrators,

their activities and actions are politically directed and con-
trolled.
Political-process and administrative process although
distinct, different but still they are inter-related, inter-linked,
inter-connected and inter-woven.
What is politics?
Politics is a word of everyday use. The question is what is
politics?
The answer ranging from the most simple to the most
complex. Politics is the art of possible. Every thing is possible
in politics. Every thing is possible through politics. Nothing
is impossible in politics. Politics a dirty game or business.
It is self-seeking behaviour, hypocrisy or conspiracy. Politics
is a dirty game which gentleman should not play.
Accordingly, people often distrust and dislike politicians.
Politics is the study of the state government and
administration. Struggle for the capture of the state power
is the whole process of politics.
Politics is the study of power. Politics is behaviourat
empirical and politics is defined in the content of power
relations. Politics as a struggle to acquire power, reaction
power and expand power. Politics as the study of power. lO
Power is the central theme. Politics is a very complex of
interaction by which power is acquired, transferred and
exercised. Power is the central topics of politics. Power is the
heart of politics. Power is the capacity to secure the dominance
of ones values or goals. Prof. Lord Action's famous saying
"Power corrupts and absolute or all power corrupts

absolutely." Power resides in some person or office. The net
work of interactions by which power is acquired, transferred
and exercised upon others is called p9litics. Politics is a set
of power-relationships as said by Harold Lasswell, Kaplan,
Russel, Morgenthau etc. These writers regarded that politics
is concerned with how to acquire power and how to maintain
it? What is the basis of power, its forms and scope? What
is the object of power and how is it lost? Politics is nothing
but a continuous struggle for power in the society. For
example, Harold Lasswell defined politics as power-oriented
or power perspective. It is concerned with the acquisition
and retention of power. Harold Lasswell put the position of
power in his book Politics in a Dramatic Way "who gets what,
when and how". Politics is a process by which power and
influence is acquired and exercised.
Politics is the struggle for the control of the public policy.
Policy-making is the concern of politics.
Simon defines politics in terms of decision-making
process.
Politics is the art of manipulating the things. Politics has
a mischievous definition. It is the" art of governing mankind
by deceiving them". It is a negative colour or aspect of
politics.
At its worse politics is the struggle for power, glory and
riches. It is a dirty politics, bloody politics, third rate third
class politics and achieving the goal either by hook or crook.
At its best, politics is the best means for achieving law,
order, justice, equality and happiness. It is both worst and
good. It is more worse than good. In every corner of the
world politics is evident. Public policy formation should be
the concern of politics. It is a practical affair open to all.
Politics is found at all levels. Merkl Dr. Johnson views
politics as the last resort of scoundrels. ll In profit-loss terms

politics is the mandness of many for the benefit of the few.
In the class room, politics means an academic disciplines to
be studied systematically and scientifically both by te~chers
and the students at the various educational institutions,
colleges and universities.
There is a continuous interacts or relations between the
political system and the administrative system. In fact,
politics and administration are inseparable. These two systems
constihlte two fundamental instruments of social and political
change. Administration influences and is influenced by
politics. They are interrelated. The administration is a branch
of politics. They are co-relative. Policy formulation is the job
of politics, where policy enforcing is the job of administration.
The impact of politics on administration is at once direct and
immediate. Government lays down the policies and
administration implements it. Ministers may change but the
civil servants goes on.
3. Cultural Environment and Public Administration
Culture is the most important possession of each society.
There are forces which are acting and counter-acting on our
cultural heritage. Its impact is quite direct on administration. 12
It has good as well as bad impacts. The culture refers the
traditions, flokways, mores, customs of the society. The
culture of a county finds expression through the medium of
languages, art, philosophy, religion, education, science, films,
newspapers, radio, TV, etc.
Administration renders various services to the people.
Prof. Waldo says that administration is a part of the cultural
complex. Developing countries all over the world are facing
common problems like poverty, over-population, ignorance,
diseases and underdevelopment.
Culture is a concept of power. Culture denotes the entire

complex of beliefs and ways of doing things in a society.
Administrative system is always cultural denotes the entire
complex of beliefs and ,ways of doing things in a society.
Administrative system is always cultural bound. It is a part
of cultural complex. Administration system has a philosophy
of its own. Culture affects the administration. It affects social
change. Administration is bound by people's culture.
To a social thinker culture is a dynamic concept. It is the
influencing instrument. The various developmental policies
and programmes of the government have a cultural
dimensions. Culture and administration acts as an instrument
of social change. Administration keeps the fabric of the
society intact. Administration should be culturally sensitive.
Culture acts as an instrument of modernisation and social
change.
Indian culture (norms, values etc) and

public administration
Indian culture is a composite one. "Social Justice" and
"equality" are new values in Indian Society.1 3 And these
values and norms have influenced the administrative system
to a great extent. The other new values of modern India are:
(1) Secularism.
(2) The economic upliftment of scheduled castes and
tribes.
(3) Socio-economic justice.
(4) Respect for women recently advocated value.
(5) Women's emancipation.
(6) Women's equality with men.
(7) Women's education.
(8) Women's empowerment.
It was considered natural and proper for men to be born

unequal and enjoy unequal rights and privileges. These
inequalities were given birth to the system of "Dharma and
Karma". Inequalities were natural. Thi~ type of inequalities
in due course of time give birth to caste system and untouch-
ability. The caste system broken up the unity of Indian life
and it was a great obstacle of the nation development. It
continues to be a powerful force still.
Women's upliftment, Dowry buming and
Judicial administration
The social context of public administration is very wide.
Every activity of a public administration is directed towards
citizens who are members of a social group like the family,
neighbourhood, or they are directed towards social
organisation or institutions. Public administration in India is
continuously and regularly involved in providing "social
justice" and "social equality" to the under-privileged and
disadvantaged sections of society. Women are the most
exploited segment of society after bonded labourers. Women
upliftment is, thus, a major function of public administration
in India 14 •
After independence the Indian government has
introduced the following measures to bring women at par
with their menfolk in almost all walks of life.
(1) Equal right of inheritance in the property of the
father.
(2) Equal pay for similar work.
(3) Equal opportunity for employment.
Until and unless women are educationally at par with
men, there cannot be social equality.
Similarly, women are being subjected to severe hardships
because of dowry. Dowry-burning cases are increasing.

Women are subjected to harassment by their in-laws. Dowry
has become a grave problem. Dowry system is horrible. It
is an evil. Edu<;:ated and cultured girls have fallen victims _
due to the dowry system. Weddings of unsuitable boys and
girls are arranged. Dowry system spoiled the whole society.
Now-a-days children marriages are arranged for the sake
of dowry. Whether the boys and girls are good or bad,
matching each other or not, parents of the bridegroom are
not much concerned, but in reality they are much concerned
for dowry. The young boys do not know whether they are
getting suitable bride or not. They obey their parents. The
caste system in India has increased. Modern age is material
age. Money is very important factor with the consequence
moneyed people purchase the best boys of the caste. As such
beauty, culture and modesty of girls are given no
consideration. Several young girls are married to old men
for want of dowry. Thousands of girls remain unmarried
as their parents or gauradians have no money to pay in
dowry. Dowry system has become a great liability to their
parents. If a daughter is born in a family, parents are not
happy. It is due to dowry system. If the families of
bridegrooms are not satisfied with the dowry that they
received as a result, the quarrel between bride and
bridegroom starts. As a result the sweet relations turn in
to bitter criticism and hatred, that often end into divorce.
It is due to dowry system several brides are committed
suicide and have burnt themselves. Dowry destroyed the
married life. 15
The plan to root out dowry
If this problem is solved many other problems of females
would be solved by themsevles. People must be properly
educated to eradicate the dowry system. All the educated

boys and girls must work together to root out the evil
system. For ending dowry, education to girls is essential.
Women would be well educate9., self-reliant and thus would
be able to choose the life partner by herself.
In 1961, Anti-Dowry Act was passed by the government
but that also had no serious effect on the society. Raja
Rammohan Roy condemned the system of "Sati" (committing
suicide by burning on the pyre of her husband) and M.K.
Gandhi struggled hard to eradicate untouchability and
caste ism prevalent in India. Severe punishment i.e., life
imprisonment and non bailable arrest warrants for suspects
are recommended in this regard. Those culprits whose
involvement is proved should not go unpunished. Bride
burning amounts to committing murder, suicide.
The judicial administration needs reform. All burning
cases do not require human evidence to prove the
involvement of the in-laws. Witness should be sufficient to
punish the culprits. Women judges in every district should
be appointed to hear cases of crimes against women like
rape, assault and bride-burning.
Social evils as Bigamy or Polygamy and
Public administration has not been successful as yet in
eradicating social evils like bigamy and polygamy. In
Himachal Pradesh, many cases have been reported in the
press against government officers, members of the legislative
assemblies and teachers of colleges and universities who are
leading very secretive relations with more than one wife.
Law is ineffective in Himachal Pradesh with regard to those
who lead lives with two wives without the consent of the
first. There are many MLAs, Ministers and even lAS officers,.
who live with their second wife as "friends" and go scot free.
Public administration has, therefore, a special responsi-
bilities towards women who are denied their basic rights by
their husbands. Bigamy and polygamy have created most
unwanted domestic relations. 16 Such government servants
who keep more than one wife need to be warned and they
should get the consent of the first wife to marry the second
one. Social evils need to be eradicated not only at the social
level, but also· at the political level and administrative level.
Public administration can do much for society in the
eradication of these evils.
4. Economic Environment and Public Administration
Economics covers almost every aspect of human life. The
money transactions, capital exchange taxation policies, the
saving capacity of common men, purchase capacity of all
these have a bearing on public administration of a country.
To Proferssor Fred. W. Riggs economic productivity is the
most obvious characteristic which has influenced public
administration. In other words, production and consumption
of material goods affect the nature and characteristics of
public administration of the country. The mode of prodution
and production relations determine almost every human
activity.
Public administration is influenced by the "mode of
production" and "production relations" without doubt.
Indian planning commission and economics of
The level of economic activity can be influenced by money
and finance. Economic growth and development is
considerably influenced by the finances made available to
the states for the purposes of fund projecting etc. Availability
of finances is one of the most important potential factor to

influence the economy of the country. The policy of planning,
resource mobilisation and resource utilisation are, thus, the
function of public administratton.
The political life i.e., the influential members of the
cabinet, the permanent secretaries, the personal staff of the
prime-minister and his secretariat are the makers of policies
for the planning of the economic growth and development
of the country.
Capital formation is the most significant outcome of the
entire activity of the planning and the financial system. The
purpose of the financial system is maximisation of production.
Planning in India was intended to promote a rapid rise in
the standard of living of the people increasing of production,
offering opportunities to all for employment in the service
of the community.
In India the "Mixed economy" model is practised. That
means encouraging both the private as well as public sectors
of the Indian economy. As an instrument of development
central planning is accepted in order to bring about a
socialistic pattern of society.
The pattern of distribution of income and wealth in
India has not yet been restructured by the planning
commission. There is still a wide disparity between the rich
and the poor sections of the society.17 It means acceleration
of economic inequalities. Planning process is unable to
control population explosion. Family planning and welfare
programmes have failed. The per capita income comes
down because of the rise in population despite the rise in
national income. Administration will lead to plan success.
Planning is incomplete without strong public administration
to implement plans and projects. The public sector 'cannot
improve without improving public administration.
Budgets and the economic context of

The organisation and administration of national finances
re-quire budgets as'lnstrument of policy and control. It is the
most convenient and advantageous method of administering
national finances. Budgets provide a co-ordinated map of
public policy. The budget is planned by career officials.
The Finance Ministry and particularly the Bureau of
Budget, thus, perform economic policy functions. Economic
policy making is essentially a function of the Council of
Ministers where the prime minister and the finance minister
play an active role. The Bureau of Budget under the broad
guidelines or instructions of the prime minister and the
cabinet prepares a blueprint of the entire economic policy.
The budget department consisting of public administrators,
can thus provide a major thrust to the entire economic
structure of the country.
Public administrators, thus, influence the following
aspects of the country's administrative system while
formulating the budget:
(1) Economic policy function.
(2) Budget planning function.
(3) Purchasing policy.
(4) Taxation policy.
(5) Accounting system.
(6) Efficiency Audit.
(7) Personnel control.
(8) Organisational change.
It is never wrong to say that budget is the heart of public
administration. Budget is a major instrument of adminis-
tration. It is no exaggeration to say that budget is the
principal of economic aspects of public administration. It is
the instrument of administering the "mixed economy"

enterprises in India through fiscal policies.
The budget is formulated in close co-operation with the
finance ministry .imd planning commission. It constitutes a
plan of public production and a design for income re-
distribution. It reflects the dominant, political ideologies, party
compromises and electional promises. It is an administrative
device for improving administration and public policy making.
It informs the public about the economy, new governmental
programmes, debt management, economic objective and
resource allocation between public and private sectors. I8
Performance budgeting made the method of legislative
scrutiny easier, more convenient and quicker.
It is necessary that public administration plays a direct
and continuous role in shaping and carrying out public
policies. Public administrators remain in the political,
administrative system with permanent tenure. They have
expertise, continuity and a representative equality.
Thus public administrators perform a key role in the
budgetary process of a country.
The economic context of public administration is thus
socio-economic planning, taxation policy' of the government,
to bridge a gap between the rich and the poor.
The other economic context of public administration is
the investment patterns in public sector, import and export
policies to encourage external trade etc.
Lastly, budgeting is a process intended to influence
almost every aspect of human life. Public administration has
more to do with the policies of a government including
planning, programming and budgeting is commonly felt.
Constitutional Environment and Public Administration
The administration of a country operates in the context of
socio-political and constitutional framework. Some aspects

of administrative behaviour can be best understood if one
has the thorough knowledge of social environment. Certain
subiects of administration are the products of so<;ial milieu.
The legal and constitutional framework under which public
administration functions do not give a total picture of actual
reality of functioning of administration. The various problems
like corruption, inefficiency, lack of integrity, low morale,
lack of code of conduct, lack of discipline, lack of honesty,
devotion and dedication in administration can be better
understood in the context of how the society is.
The constitution whether written or unwritten provides
a broad framework for the administrative machinery in
terms of its structure, powers and functions. So the
administration has to carry out its functions in accordance
with the constitutional provisions. The constitution is the
basis and foundation for administration.1 9 Whatever is
enshrined and embodied in the constitution, has to be
translated into reality. This is done by administration.
Any administrative system has to function within the
framework of the constitution. The constitution is supreme
and sovereign. It is the supreme law of the land. It implies
freedom from control of any kind either external or internal.
Democracy emphasises liberty, Justice, equality and fraternity.
These are four pillars of the Indian constitution. The
Fundamental Rights and the Directive Principles of the State
Policy are the guidelines of administration. Thus, the
administration is always subject to the constitution, its laws,
its rules and its regulations. Administrator has to work with
a missionary zeal and spirit. He is bound by rules and
regulations. 2o
Administration is responsible to the legislature, executive
and judiciary and to the public at large. It is responsible to
law and the people. It is not above and over the law and the
people. Thus, constitutional aspect provides a broad frame
work for the structure, organisation and functions of the
administrative m,achinery. The government has the
responsibility of formulating policies and the administration
has the responsibility of implementing those policies for
public welfare. 21 This is in short the constitutional
environment of public administration.
1. William.. L. Morrow, Public Administration Politics, Policy and
the Political System, Random House, 1975-89, pp. 3-6.
2. Pfiffner and Sherwood, Administrative Organisation, Prentice-
Hall, New Jersey, 1960, p. 77.
Public administration is not an independent system. It
depends upon other systems of the society.
3. Pfiffner and Sherwood, op. cit., p. 311.
4. Delbert C. Miller and William Form, Industrial Psychology,
Harper, New York, 1951, p. 229.
Poverty is the root cause of all the ills and evils. Hence,
government should launch or formulate proper plans and
policies to root it out.
5. William L. Morrow, op. cit., p. 80.
6. F.W. Riggs, The Ecology of Public Administration, Asia, New
Delhi, 1961, pp. 4-5.
7. B. Kumar, Planning, Poverty and Economic Development, p.113.
8. L.M.Bhole, Financial Markets and Institutions Growth Structure
Innovations, Tata McGraw, 1982, p. 3.
9. Fourth Five Year Plan, 1969-74, Planning Commission
Government of India pp. 2-3.
Now-a-days politics and administration are admixtured. It
is very difficult to divorce one from the other. It is very difficult
to say from where politics starts and administration ends.
10. B. Kumar, Planning, Poverty and Economic Development, Deep
and Deep Publications, New Delhi, 1984, p. 53.
We cannot think of politics without power. Power and

politics are interrelated. Power is the heart and soul of politics.
11. Mainstream, 16 Nov. 1974, p. 33.
Politics is a very dirty game and the gentlemen shy from it.
12. Economic Survey, Government of India, 1984-85. p. 29.
For example, culture and administration. are inter-dependent.
13. Robert Pres thus, Public Administration. Liberty, equality,
fraternity, and justice are the new values of Indian democracy
and society.
14. Gerald Caiden, The Dynamics of Public Administration, Holt
Rinehart, 1971, p. 188.
Women's empowerment in all fields is the need of the hour
i.e., political, economic, social etc.,
15. Daniel, E. Griffiths, Administrative Theory, Prentice-Hall, Indian
Edition, 1987, p. 27.
16. Bigamy-A Person who has married more than one wife is
known as bigamy and a person who has married more than
two is called as polygamy.
17. Paul, A. Appleby, Policy and Administration, Oxford and IBH
Publishing Co., 1948, 1970. Indian ed., pp. 27-29.
Equal distribution of wealth among all sections of the
society is the only solution to remove the povery.
18. B. Gay Peters, The Politics of Bureaucracy, A Comparative
Perspective.
19. Henry Fayol-Constitution is the Law of the land. It is supreme.
We cannot violate the rules of the constitution and the courts.
20. Terry and 0 Donnell, Principles of Management, 1976.
Administration is accountable to all these organs of the
government besides public.
21. Wallace, S. Sayre, "Comments on Waldos paper" in James C.
Charlesworth, I, pp. 29, 30.
Government formulates the plans, policies and it is the
administrative machinery which implements them.
3
Relations of Public Administration
with other Social Sciences
We cannot understand public administration without the

knowledge of the allied sciences. To understand the proper
role of public administration in society, a student should
study its relationship to other social sciences. Public
administration is a social science like other social sciences
and it deals with one aspect of human behaviour i.e.,
administrative, just as other social sciences deals with certain
other aspects of human behaviour. As such it is closely
related to other social sciences as much as other social
sciences are related to it. Not only this, public administration
scores over other social sciences because of its relationship
with pure sciences like statistics, technology, biology etc. If
various social sciences are studied in isolation, their
understanding will be incomplete, one sided and faulty.!
Many of the problems are of the common concern of all
the social sciences each approaching th~m from its own
point of view. We shall discuss here briefly the relationship
of public administration with certain specific subjects.
Public Administration and Political Science
Public administration is very closely related to the study of

political science. In fact, public administration originated in
political science. 2 One depends upon the other. There is
inter-relationship between politics and administration. The
relationship between the two is very intimate. Both are
complementary and compatible. They are interdependent.
The fact is that, public administration is a part or branch of
political science. Politics and administration are inter-
dependent. It is still a fact that an understanding of politics
/I
is the key to an understanding of public administration. 3 In

fact, they go together. They go hand-in-hand or side-by-side.
Politics and administration are the two sides of the same
coin. Most of the authoritative writers on the subject have
found it difficult to make distinction between politics and
administration. The close relationship is also evident from
the fact that no nation can afford to think of successful of
implementation of policies by public administrator as is
framed by the politician unless both work together. Both in
the national and international fields policies and their
execution must go hand-in-hand. Both the politicians and
public administrators come very close and near to each other
may that be national regional or local leveL Politics and
administration are the two parts of the same thing.4 One part
representing political science which deals with the theory of
state and government, other part representing public
administration deals with government in action. Both are
supportive to each other. There is much give and take
between the two. In fact, they are inseparable. It is realised
that the theories of political science and public administration
cannot be very much differentiated from each other. A
public administrator cannot success in his life 'tUlless he has
Relaions of Public Administration with other. .. 43
thorough knowledge of politics and political problems with

which he is confronted. International politics, i.e., diplomacy
is a part of politics is also now under the influence of public
administration. Politicians and administrators meet both in
organisation, management etc. In the field of constitutional
law and local administration also political science and public
administration come nearer to each other. In fact, there is
always a fusion of principles of constitution and
administration. Similarly local government always draws
greater co-operation and collaboration of politicians and
administrators.
Prof. Pfiffner rightly said that in some cases politics and
administration are so interrelated that a clear distinction is
very difficult. No clear-cut lines of distinction can be drawn
to say that here politics ends, administration begins. Hence,
political science and public administration meets so closely.
However, some writers made a sharp distinction between
politics and administration. They developed the dichotomy
between politics and administration. To them both subjects
are different, distinct and separate. Political system formulates
the policies and administrative system implements the
policies. Woodrow Wilson made a dogmatic distinction
between politics and administration in the 1880s. He was the
first writer who draw aline of distinction between politics
and administration. In his Article on the 'study of
Administration' he said administration lies out side the
sphere of politics. Politics is the concern of the politicians,
while administration is the concern of administrators.
Administrative questions are not political questions.
Prof. Goodnow in 1900 made a technical distinction
between politics and administration by saying, "Politics is
the expression of the will of the state and administration is
the enforcement or execution of that will." Willoughby had
tried to give administration a more separate status by calling

it as the fourth branch of government, the other three being
legislative, executive and judicial. Herbert Simon said policy
making is the ,heart of politics, while policy enforcing is th~
heart of administration. Politics is concerned with laying
down of the policies, administration is concerned with
enforcing of these policies efficiently and economically.s
Thus, the important writers who made the distinction between
politics and administration are Wilson, Goodnow,
Willoughby and Simon.
Among the modern writers Pfiffner's enumeration of the
points of distinction between political and administrative
officers is very interesting. These are:
Sl. No. Political Officers Administrative Officers
1. Amateur Professional
2. Non-technical Technical
3. Partisan Non-partisan
4. Temporary Permanent
5. More public contacts Less public contacts
6. More legislative contacts Less legislative contacts
7. More policy formulating Less policy formulating
8. More co-ordination More performance
9. Influenced by popular Influenced by Technical
opinion data collected from
study and research
But this kind of distinction or difference between the

duties of the political officers and administrative officers is
one of degree rather than a kind. If we look to the top
administrators we will find that most of what they do is
political in nature. Although policy making is the function of
the ministers and the legislatures, yet most of the groundwork
Relaions of Public Administration with other... 45
is done by the administrators behind the curtain or scenes. In

1920s the earlier assumption that politics and administration
were separate began to be questioned. The dogma of
difference between politics imd administration has been
rejected or refuted. Public administration is a part of political
process. Administrators act politically. Pfiffner while rejecting
the dichotomy of politics and administration remarked that
they cannot be always separated and isolated. Luther Gulick
questioned the wisdom of taking administration out of
politics. In the sense neither politics can be taken out of
administration nor administration out of politics. Prof.
Appleby in his book Policy Making and Administration observes
that government operates through the political processes. He
destroys the myth that politics can some how be taken out of
public administration and establish the idea that politics and
administration are intimately linked or connected.
Prof. Dwight Waldo includes that the separation between
politics and administration has become an outdated concept.
There is no wall of separation between politics and
administration. Scholars like Herring, Dimock, Friedricks,
Charles Merriam, H.A. Simon, Kingslay and Waldo declare
that politics and administration dichotomy is misleading
distinction. However, dichotomy between public
administration and political science started fading with the
realisation that policy formulation and its implementation
cannot be separated.
But of late, this dichotomy between politics and
administration has ended in happy re-union. Policy science
closed the gap between politics and administration. It will,
thus, be observed that there is very close relationship
between the two, but all the same these cannot be merged
in one another, both have their separate existence, entities
and are being studied accordingly.
Though there is much differences between the two

subjects which indicates that public administration has an
identity of its own. But it has been said that complete
politics-administration dichotomy is not.good. It has already
done some harm. Though there are some differences in the
spheres of activities of the two, yet it is in the interest of both
the subjects that no extreme view should be taken. It will be
better if some healthy traditions are developed between the
politician and the administrator.
Public Administration and Economics
The close relationship between economics and public

administration was fully realised by Greek political thinkers
who believed that economics was an art of collecting finances
for the state. In our modern times the concept of welfare state
is becoming more and more popular, both these subjects are
corning still closer and nearer to each other. For the
advancement of the people-administrative and the economic
activities must keep in close touch with each other. American
War of Independence, French Revolution or Russian
Revolution though primarily political happenings, took place
only with economic background. Poverty and employment,
though economic in nature, have a very close relationship
with government and state policies.
Thus, public administration is affected, influenced and
guided by economic considerations alone. Machiavelli and
Marx are of the opinion that public administration by and
large is influenced and affected by economics and economic
considerations.
Public administration has much in common with
economic. s During the eighteenth century and the early years
of the nineteenth centuries the scope of public administration
was confined only to the maintenance of law and order and

the administration of justice. But the Industrial Revolution
and the numerous problems that followed on account of it,
compelled. the state to interfere in the economic and indu~trial
fields. Laws were framed to regulate hours of work, condition
of service etc. of the workers. As such it is being realised that
those who are entering government services must have a
background of economics. The problems of financial
administration e.g. budgeting, execution of the budget,
accounts and audit, banking, insurance, commerce, revenue,
posts, telegraphs and railways all these have a special bearing
on public administration. 6 The topics of public finance,
banking and currency and financial administration are of
common interest to both the administrator and the economist.
Economic administration has recently included in the
syllabus of public administration. Not only that, public
administration has borrowed a great deal of techniques and
terminology from business administration. The new economic
developments have influenced the structure and methods of
public administration. Thus, public administration is deeply
indebted to economics for many of its principles and practices.
We, in India, have taken to planning as a means to
establish socialistic pattern of society. It implies that whatever
we plan be must implemented most efficiently. Now, who
has implemented the programmes as outlined in the five
year plans? This is the take of administrators. If our
administrators and administration fails, our planning fails?
The economic functions of public administration are
increasing every day. The administration has been called
upon to run factories, handle agriculture, banking and
insurance. One of the foremost duties of an administrator
today is to understand fully the economic problems of the
country.
Differences
Of course, there is a close relationship between economics
and public administration. But it is wrong to belive that the
both have been completely merged with each other. The
differences between them still exist.
Firstly, economics is primarily deals with wealth. It is a
just a part of human life, whereas public administration
deals with all the aspects of human life including his
economic aspect.
Secondly, economists are primarily concerned with the data,
whereas public administration not only interpret the data, but it
also covered with verification, investigation, tabulation etc.
Thirdly, economics measures every human activity in
terms of wealth. It has nothing to do with loyalties,
commitment, dedication and devotion of the people towards
administration and towards nation.
Fourthly, economics sees man as going ahead
economically, but public administration wants a man to see
going ahead not only economically, but also administratively,
culturally and socially.
Fifthly, another difference between the two is that
economics is concerned with the commodities, whereas
public administration deals with the human beings. In other
words, if one deals with prices the other deals with the
values attached to those prices and thus both have altogether
different areas to cover.
In other words, economics and public administration in
spite of their close relationship will continue to maintain
their separate identity.
Public Administration and History

History is one of the oldest subjects in social sciences and
public administrator is to learn much from what the history

teaches. It is from the study of history that we come to know
what was the system of public administration in the past and
to what extent it was a succ~ss or a failure. s History provides
both example and warning. Kautilya's Arthasastra,
Machiavelli's Prince all tell us something about the
administration of those days.
It is history tells us about the evolution of administration.
The administrative records are very carefully studied,
preserved and researched. Even today all administrative
decisions are fully recorded and preserved for further use.
These are needed for guidance and also for formulation of
policies. 19 These are also needed to set the records right and
maintain links with the past. In public administration
experimental method is not appropriate, but historical method
is very appropriate for it. Biographies form a good part of
history and occupy very importa;"t place in the study of
public administration. A good administrator will always try
to study the past before taking steps for any future activity.
Thus, history supplies very valuable material to the
study of public administration. The study of the
administrative system of any country would not be complete
without a proper knowledge of the historical background.
History is a good guide for future actions. It is a record of
past events, incidents and movements. It not only studies the
past, but also supplies the valuable material for the future.
History informs that how administrative problems were
solved or tackled in the past. Of late, the students of public
administration have started taking to reserach in the historical
past of public administration. History helps us in the
understanding of administrative instit~tions. American
writers have largely concentrated on the writing of recent
administrative history. Books from 1.0. Whites, Jefferson's
etc. are remarkable books on the administrative history of

the USA. A knowledge of the past not only helps us to
understand the present but also supplies basis for the future.
Although it is a sad commentary ilnd fact that history in the
past has been mainly concerned with the record of battles,
warfares and stories of dynasties. lO The historians in the past
did not pay much attention to the social, political and
economic developments of the states. Of late, this approach
has changed and the historians have started taking keen
interest of almost all the aspects of social life.
Differences
But in spite of this both still differ. History deals only with
the past events but public administration deals not only the
past but also the present and future events. History narrates
all events whether they have relevance in public
administration or not. On the other hand public
administration is not concerned with such events as wars,
dynasties which have nothing to do with administration still
another difference history is all theory, but public
administration is all practice.
Public Administration and Statistics

Public administration in these days is very much depending
on mathematics and statistics. It is an important source of
administrative investigation. To Zendroff-statistics is one of
the social sciences. Statistics is a means through which
administrative conditions can be easily obtained. Statistics
also provides material for inductive studies without which
administrative investigator would often be helpless. Today
each government collects statistical data and information
about political, economical and social conditions of the
people and keeps that in a very systematic manner.
Though figures, data and statistics are essential in public

administration and help the administrators in taking
decisions, yet differences between two exists. Figures collected
are pnly a means to an end and these are not en.d in them-
selves. Figures are useless unless there is a mind and brain
to use it. Public administration is an end in itself and it is
not merely means to an end.
Public Administration and Sociology
Sociology is the study of society. It is the web of social

relationships. It studies the social structure and different
aspects of social life. Public administration deals with the
administrative aspect of the society, and thus both are
closely related. Sociology is the study of human behaviour
in a group. It studies various types of groups and how they
influence human instincts and activity.ll Sociology provides
to administration very useful information about the groups,
how they function and how they influence social life. Some
of the recent studies of sociology in the field of status, class,
power, occupation, family, caste, etc. are of special interest
to public administration. Max Webers treatise on
"bureaucracy" is a valuable contribution to the study of
public administration. His study has proved of immense
value in studying power relationships in an organisation.
Modern administrators have to face a lot of trade-union
activities. Strikes, lock-outs and demonstrations are the order
of the day. The administrators must know how to deal with
mobs and crowds and this is a matter that is related to the
field of sociology. The administrators are concerned with the
problems of organisation. Sociology, while dealing with
associations. And institutions, also lays emphasis on the need
of organisation. The concept of power, authority, etc. relate
to the field of sociology as well as to public administration. 12

Lastly, public administration has to be studied in the
environmental context and for this the knowledge of sociology
can be of cmctal significance.
Public Administration and Psychology
Public administration draws heavily from psychology.

Psychology deals with the human behaviour. In other words,
psychology studies human behaviour. Psychology deals
with the personal system as sociology deals with the social
system. Psychology is the study of mind. It attempts to
determine how far the conduct is rational instinctive or
traditional. As Barker writers "if our forefathers thought
biologically, we think psychologically" P Administration
also studies the human behaviour. Behaviour is caused. It is
motivated. It is goal directed. Motives are the internal
determinants of behaviour. Motives are of two types:
(1) Primary and Secondary
Primary motive is one which is unlearned and it is fully
resist to change. Safety is an example of such a motive.
Secondary motives are not internal or innate. But they are
acquired through learning and socialisation. Power is an
example of secondary motive.
An administrator must be a psychologist. Today much
emphasis is laid on the human aspect of public administration.
This human aspect involves deep knowledge of psychology.
Today it is the top most quality of an administrator that he
must be capable of understanding human behaviour in
different situations. Psychological approach must be adopted
in matter of communications, morale, recruitment, promotion,
etc. An administrator to be successful, must encourage team
work. Team work is possible only when team-spirit is

created among the subordinates. Now if an administrator
has to create team-spirit among his employees, he must have
a sound knowledge of psychplogy.14 In the industrial field,
the psychological research, the psychological methods and
intelligence tests are being used for several purposes.
Intelligence tests are used particularly in relation to
recruitment to different public services. They help in finding
out the right type of candidates. A large number of books
and research articles have been written by eminent
psychologists in India and abroad.
Prof. Maslow identifies five important needs of a man:
(1) Psychological Needs
This need is at the lowest level. It is a basic need. It motivates
human beings to seek food, clothing and shelter.
(2) Safety Needs
At the second level are the safety needs. This includes the
need for emotional security as well as physical safety.
(3) Belonging and Social Needs
Maslow calls the third level of needs the belongingness and
love needs.
(4) Esteem and States Needs
At the fourth level is the need fer esteem I.e., status, respect,
admiration.
(5) Self-Actualisation and Fulfilment Needs

At the fifth level is the need for self-actualisation. Maslow
characterises the self achtalised person as one who has an·
exceptional, extraordinary, rare ability.
He refers that the first four needs are deficit needs. When
the need for safety and food are satisfied, one is driven to
seek love, friendship and company. When the drive for love
is fulfilled or satisfied the individual begins to seek esteem.
Only the fifth. need is permanent i.e. self actualisationY'
1. Dimock and Dimock, Public Administration, p. 47.

All social sciences are related to each other in one way or
the other. Many of the social problems of the society cannot
be solved without studying all social science subjects.
2. See A. Lepawsky, AdministratIOn, p. 50.
Public administration is the part and parcel of political
science. We cannot understand them in isolation.
3. "Trends in the theory of Public Administration", Public
Administration Review, 10 (1950), p. 161.
Politics is the base or the source to understand, Public
Administra tion.
4. Pfiffner, J.M., Public Administration, p. 9.
Political science and public administration are the two parts
of the same coin. One part studies about the state, government
etc. and the other part studies about the public policy, planning,
decision-making, etc.
5. Urwick, The Elements of Administration, p. 118.
Politics formulates the polices and the administrations
implements it.
6. Simon, Smithburg and Thompson, Public Administration, p. 4.
7. Vishnoo Bhagwan and Vidya Bhushan, P"ilblic Administration,
p.40.
8. Wilson, The Study of Administration, p. 497.
9. Appleby, Morality and Administration, p.68.
History is a guide for the future. The pas'! knowledge of
history is necessary to understand the present and also to predict
the future.
10. Simon, Herbert, A., Administrative Behaviour: A Study of Decision-
making Processes in Administrative Organisations, New York, 1947,
Ch. IX,
Relaions of Public Administration with other ... 55
11. Herbert Simon's article entitled, "The Criterion of Efficiency"

in Ideas and Issues in Public Administration, McGraw Hill, 1953,
pp.414-415.
12. Caiden Gerald, The Dynamics of Public Administration, Op. Cit.
p.123.
The concepts like legitimacy influence, power and authority
are studied both in sociology and in public administration.
13. Rumki Basu, Public Administration, Concepts and Theories. This
statement is taken from the above book, pp. 115-120.
14. Shukla, M.e., Business Organisation and Management, p. 359.
Without team work or the team spirit the organisation cannot
achieve its goals or targets.
15. M.G. Chagla, Hindustan Times, dated 14-2-58.
4
Approaches to the Study of
Meaning
By an approach we mean the point of view from which a
particular subject is shldied. 1 Since the emergence of public
administration as a separate field of study, various prominent
thinkers, writers and scholars have been developed. Several
approaches to study public administration systematically
and scientifically. Most of these approaches ensure 'efficient
and effective administration.' The approaches adopted to
study public administration is to describe explain and predict
the behaviour, subject matter, areas and boundaries of the
discipline. The administrative organisations and behaviour
of the people can be described from various angles and
perspectives. Public administrators are those who perform
such functions as required by the people's government. This
is purely "Public Administration Approach" to public
administration.
Let us now discuss what others say about approaching
the study of public administration. Prof. E.N. Gladden says,
Approaches to the Study of Public Administration 57
there are many text-books on public administration, but no

one with an accepted approach. Gladden accepts the
historical, process-oriented, legal and activities-oriented
approaches to be currently available in the literature of
public administration chapter we shall briefly examine the
following important approaches.
Classical Approach
This is one of the important approach to the study of public
classical administration. This approach is historical,
prescriptive normative, and ideological. It is also called as
efficiency-oriented, value-oriented and value-directed. The
stress was on the essence of value and norms relating to
administration. Administration was approached from ethical
and valuational standards. Traditional approach to
administration was confined to formal relationships of the
organisation. It deals with the formal aspect of the
organisation. 2
This approach was developed by some writers such as
Frank. J. Goodnow, Taylor, Henry Fayol, L.D. White, W.F.
Willoughby, Luther Gulick, J.D. Mooney and Urwick. These
writers or scholars viewed public administration as non-
political and technological organisation. It is based on certain
scientific principles such as hierarchy, span of control, unity
of command and communication. They believed that public
administration has nothing to do with politics and policy
making. Its main business is to carry out politically
determined policies effectively and efficiently. These thinkers
holds the view that politics should be separated from
administration. The advocates of this approach assert that
administration is separate from politics. They laid emphasis
on the dichotomy between politics and administration. So
politics and administration are dichotomous. Traditionalists
make sharp distinction between politics and administration.

A line of distinction is drawn between politics and
administration. Politics is concerned with the question "what
is to be done?" A~ministration is concerned with the question
"How to do things?" So, policy making is the field of politics
and policy enforcing is the field of administration.
But this politics and administration distinction or
dichotomy has been criticised, condemned and rejected by
the students of public administration. Administrator has to
take part in policy formulation. The theory of delegated
legislation disapproves the distinction between politics and
administration. Thus, the old distinction between politics
and administration of "you-go-your way and I-will-go-
mine" has been rejected as out of date impracticable concept.
There is an inter-mingling of politics and administration.
They are mutually inter-dependent, complementary and
contributory to each other. 3
Criticisms
However, the classical theorists are criticised on the ground
that these principles are not applicable to all organisations.
These principles have neither empirical validity nor universal
applicability. Simon called these principles as precepts or
proverbs. These principles lack the behavioural sensitivity.
Simon dubbed these principles as sayings. No principles are
precise. "They are footless and baseless", said Simon. The
principles developed by the classical thinkers tends to be
prescriptive rather than descriptive. The classical approach
gives too much importance to the formal aspect rather than
informal aspect of administrative organisations. It neglects
or ignores the human aspects of work. This approach is,
therefore, one sided and fails to give us the complete picture
of how an organisation functions actually.
Ecological Approach
Ecology is a branch of biology. The word ecology is borrowed

from biology. In biology the term. ecology means the scientific
study of the living things i.e. plants, animals, and people in
relation to each other and their environment.
The term ecology suggests the relations and
interdependence between living organisms and their
environment. 4 Ecology refers to the mutual relations between
organism and their environment. Ecology deals with the
organic life on the earth. It explains the interaction between
the living organism and its environment. Animals, plants
and men are conditioned by their environment.
The study of the public administration includes ecology.
The ecological approach is based on the view that an
administrative system may not act as an independent variable
in all situations. This approach is very useful to the study
of public administration. The main advocates, proponents or
contributors to the ecological approach to public
administration are John A. Gaus, Robert A. Dahl and F.W.
Riggs. But the most notable contribution to the ecology was
made by F. W. Riggs. Riggs was prominent among the
advocates of the ecological approach to the study of public
administration. Riggs wrote a book known as The Ecology of
Public Administration in 1961. Riggs was an administrative
ecologist. Riggs in his book stressed the relationship between
public administration and its environment. Riggs was one of
the sophisticated advocates of the ecological perspective. His
main ecological emphasis is not on physical or biological
aspect but rather on the human social system itself.5
Riggs said that the fusion or mixture of old and new
produces a hybid which differs from its parents. Where old
and new, bullockcart and motor car, yvooden plough and
tractor co-exists, Riggs call "Prismatic. 6 " Man is the product

of his environment and so are his institutions social,
political, economic and others. Riggs views administrative
process as a system having an environment w.:ith which it
interacts and in which it operates. Administrative system
acts, interacts and operates in an environment. Riggs has
been primarily interested in analysing the interaction between
the administrative sub-system on the one hand and the
political, social, cultural and economic sub-systems of the
society on the other. This speaks of his basic orientation
which is termed as ecological. Riggs has developed his well-
known models of (1) fused, (2) prismatic, (3) refracted (Later
changed to defracted) societies. The other well known
models of Riggs are (4) agraria (5) industria, and (6)
transitia.
Riggs selected certain "Functional Requisites" that have
universal applicability. He said these requisites are performed
in the undifferentiated and in the differentiated, in the
simples and in the amplex societies. Riggs identifies five
functional\ requisites for any society. These are:
(1) Economic (Fiscal systems).
(2) Social (Family, caste, sects).
(3) Symbolic (Consensus and equality).
(4) Communicational (i.e., literacy, newspaper,
circulation, common language, Radio, TV, linguistic,
sectional and religious homogeneity).
(5) Political (Changes in the political regime and
personality of political leaders).
He has applied these functional requisites to the ~tudy
of administrative sub-system.
Further Rigg's said the administrative ecology consists
of ten basic dimensions namely:
(1)Economic dimension
(2)Communication dimension
(3)Socio-cultural dimension
(4)Political dimension
(5)Modernisation dimension
(6)Democratisation dimension
(7)Political stability dimension
(8)Cultural integrity dimension
(9)Ethnic diversity dimension
(10) Ideological systemic dimension.
To sum up
The ecological approach is scientific and empirical. It is
applicable to real situations. This approach is inter-disciplinary
or pan-disciplinary. Its orientation is cross-cultural. It is
therefore very useful in the study of comparative public
administration.
System Approach
According to Oxford Dictionary "A system is a group of
parts or things working together in a regular relation?" A
system is a unified whole-having a number of inter-
dependent parts and its has identifiable boundaries. It has
been defined as a complex whole, a set of connecting things
or parts. Thus, system includes sub-systems, sub-parts, sub-
sets or sub-collections.
System approach was developed systematically,
scientifically and empirically only after Second World War.
Then onwards it was systematically and scientifically studied.
A system approach is a sub-approach of behavioural
approaches. What is central to a concept of system is the
behavioural dimension. It is the behaviour which attracts
attention rather than the structure or instihltion. A system
can be formally defined as a set of interacting elements in

a state of mutual dependence. The system parts are mutually
dependent in the sense, a change in one part leads to the
change in other parts of _the system.
All systems are denoted by specific boundaries and are
I composed of elements which are mutually dependent in the
sense, that a change in one part of the system unavoidably

changes some other part of the system. In simple words, a
\System is a collection of inter-related parts. A system parts
are constantly in a state of interaction which is dynamic and
ever-changing. 8
The system are of various types:
(1) Ecological system.
(2) Biological system.
(3) Personality system.
(4) Social system.
(5) International political systems.
(6) International ecological systems.
(7) International social systems.
Further, the system model or approach is abstract9 (in
that symbols stands for reality), the system model is holisticlO
(in that struchlre is unimportant). The system model is
pragmatic l l (related to the practical world).
While advocating the system approach to the study of
public administration, Ira Sharkansky says that her book
focuses on the following aspects:
(1) As Environment
(2) Inputs.
(3) Outputs.
(4) A conversion process that transforms (converts) inputs
into outputs.
(5) Feedback.
(6) Boundaries.
All these features interact with one another.
Human Relations Approach

This approach views management as a complex of inter-
personal relationships. It lays greater emphasis on human
behaviour rather than on the formal structure of the
organisation. 12 The proponent of this school argue that the
study of management must be centred on inter-personal
relations. The scholars of this school have a heavy orientation
to social psychology. Their primary focus is the individual
as a socio-psychological being and what motivates him. In
this school are those who emphasise human relations as an
art that the manager should"advantageously understand and
practice. Some behaviouralists focus attention on the manager
as a leader and sometimes equate management to leadership.
The thinkers of human relations school gave emphasis
to informal organisation. The human relations school
challenged the separateness of science and art. Another
contribution of human relations school is the study of
management by case study method. Some important thinkers
of this humanistic school are Robert K. Merton, Alex Bavels,
Davis, A.H. Maslow, D. Cartwright, Sayles and Argyros.
Humanists gave greater emphasis to the study of major
psychological processes such as perception, learning and
motivation, which put together leads to total development
of personality.13 The concept of leadership also has been
given importance by the humanists.
Decision-making Approach
Herbert A. Simon was the chief advocate of this approach.
It is the most important activity of administration. He

declared that decision-making should be studied since the
deciding comes before the doing. Simon criticised the
traditionalists and lebelled the "Principles"14" as "Proverbs".
He recommended an empirical approach in administration.
Many advocates of decision-making school concentrate
on rational approach to decision. It lays emphasis on the
study of human psychology and behavioural patterns. This
approach also gives importance to "empirical behavioural
patterns". This approach also gives importance to "empirical
case studies" .15
Herbert Simon does not subscribe to the assumption that
man is totally rational while making decisional choices. Man
is intendedly rational and therefore is generally unable to
achieve the maximum utility out of his decisions. Further,
man is only a 'satisficing' man and not a maximising man.
He stops deciding at a point when a particular action or
choice seems to satisfy him. 16 Simon observed that all
decisional processes have three activities or stages viz.,
(1) Intelligence activity, (2) Design activity, (3) Choice activity.
Development Administration Approach

Development administration is also a new branch of public
administration. Development administration was pro-
pounded by Prof. Weidner. Now, many scholars in public
administration are showing much interest in the study of
development administration.
Development administration is closely related to compara-
tive administration. Comparative administration focuses
mainly on development administration. Like comparative
administration, development administration is also empiri- .
cal. 17 Again like comparative administration, development
administration gives more attention to ecological factors.
Thus, there is much overlapping between the two branches

of public administration.
It is also often argued that development administration
is something completely different from non-development
administration. Some scholars argue that development
administration is related with developing countries and it
has no relevance to developed countries. It is a wrong
conception. Even developed countries do perform certain
development functions. The concept of new public
administration developed in the USA is essentially related
to development administration.
Comparative Public Administration Approach
Comparative administration is a new branch of public
administration. It has become popular in the USA American
scholars contributed a lot to comparative administration. In
1887, a young American Political Scientist Woodrow Wilson
stressed the need for comparative study of public
administration. Later on Robert A. Dahl emphasised the
utility of comparative administration in 1947. Riggs is an
eminent scholar in the field of comparative administration.
Comparative administration is given impetus with the
emergence of new nations in Asia, Africa and Latin America. IS
Comparative administration seeks to compare the adminis-
trative structures of different nations with different cultural
settings. Comparative administration is nothing but the
study of administration comparative basis. The main
advocates of this approach believe that public administration
is conditioned by the environment in which it operates. The
social, political, economic and cultural environment of one
nation differs from that of another.
Comparative administration studies can be conducted at
three analytical levels.
(1) Macro, (2) Middle-range, and (3) Micro.
Macro studies focus on the comparisons of whole

administrative systems in their proper ecological contexts.
For instance, a macro study would involve a comparison of
the administrative systems of India and the USA. It will
comprise detailed analyses of all important aspects and parts
of the administrative systems of the two nations. Generally
the relationship between an administrative system and its
external environment is highlighted in the macro level
studies. The middle-range studies are on certain important
parts of an administrative system that are sufficiently large
in size and scope of functioning. For instance, a comparison
of the structure of higher bureaucracy of two or more
nations, or a comparison of local government in different
countries will form a part of middle-range studies.
Micro studies relate to comparisons of an individual
organisation with its counterparts in other settings. A micro-
study might relate to an analysis of a small part of an
administrative system, such as the recruitment or training
system in two or more administrative organisations. 19 Micro
studies are more feasible to be undertaken and a large
number of such studies have been conducted by scholars of
public administration. In the contemporary comparative
public administration, all the three types of studies co-exist.
Structural-Functional Approach
This is the another important approach to the study of public

administration. This approach studies public administration in
terms of its structure and functions. This approach is empirical
in nature. The important followers of this approach are
Almond, David Apter, Talcott Parsons, Robert Merton, F.W.
Riggs, W.F. Willoughby and L.o. White. The structural firmsis
of structures-functional approach signifies in simple terms, the

study and analysis of structures and their functioning.
The term structure may by defined as a pattern i.e. an
observable uniformity, in terms of which actipn or operation
takes place. A structure is not only composed of people and
things alone and exclusively but it is inclusive of actions. 2o
Riggs that states a structure "does not include all actions but
only those actions which are related to the goals." Riggs cites
the example of Bureau as a structure. Structures are forms
with area dimensions, occupying a space composed of
whether animate or inanimae entitles or persons. All social
structures perform some social functions. The governmental
structures perform clearly demarcated or assigned functions.
Functions involve a pattern of interdependence between two
or more structures, a relationship between variables. It refers
to any consequences of a structure, they affect other structures
or the total system of which they are a part."
Simply speaking, structural-functional anaysis consists of
nothing more complicated than empirical questions. The
concepts of structure and functions fall into a peculiar set of
concepts. What is function from One point of view is a structure
from another. In the case of structural functional analysis, One
determines the important structures and the other determines
important functions of those structures. It is difficult to pre-
sume that particular structures with more or less similar
features will perform the same functions. These are termed
"misconceptions" by F.W. Riggs. A social stnicture may
perform more than One function, and like wise, a function may
be performed by more than one structure. There are still some
"requisites" and "pre-requisites" for the survival of health of
society conforming to structures and functions. 21
In public administration structural functional analysis
is most commonly applied with particular reference to
bureaucratic or administrative structures i.e., the civil services,

federal services, national! state administrative machinery.
Structures of Administrative System
The most commonly available' structures in public adminis-
tration are ministries or departments at the federal national
as well as the state level. At the national level, the important
form of organisational structures are commission-s, boards or
authorities: commissions, boards and authorities are also
formed at the state level. Commissions may be formed for
more than one state. In India below state level, we have
corporations for urban areas and district administrative
systems. There are Zilla Parishads, Panchayat Samitis, Co-
operative Societies and Village Panchayats. All these form
the public administrative system. Functional analysis has
been adopted in public administration from sociology and
biology. Even in political science students have borrowed
structural-functional analysis from sociology. Structural
functional analysis which influence and are, in tum, influ-
enced by the environment. For Almond there is a "legitimate
force" present throughout a political system which binds it
together. A political system can, thus, be characterised by
comprehensiveness, interdependence and existence of bound-
aries. Interaction, which takes place, is not between indi-
vidual, but the roles the individuals adopt. These are the
basic units of structural-functional analysis. This is in brief
structural-functional approach and political machines.
Thus, Prof. Goodnow, Prof. Wilson, Prof. Willoughby,
Prof. LD. White all these university professors had introduced
a new approach in public administration which could be
described as structural organisational approach.
Functional Context of Administrative Organisation
That in all types of societies the administrative structures
and functions exhibit some "requisites" and "pre-requisites"

which are necessary for the very existence and survival of
these societies has already been pointed out. The whole
~tructural-functional approach in public admiJ),istration rests
on this belief. Assistance of this assumption makes research
easier i.e., all structures exhibit certain requisites. F.W. Riggs
has identified five functional requisites for any society-
economic, social, communicational, symbolic and political.
The same set of functional requisites applies to an
administrative sub-system.
The structural-functional approach in social sciences,
particularly in public administration was generally drawn
from the biological science with the efforts of Henderson,
Cannon, Talcott Parsons and Marion Levy. Waldo first
suggested it in 1955.
Administrative systems considered as system. In the
administrative organisations the policy process or decision-
making process, the policy structures automatically get
transformed into "systems".22
Behavioural Approach
It is one of the important methodological approach to the
study of public administration. This is a new approach to the
study of public administration. This approach has been
developed, invented and introduced by American scholars,
writers and political scientists. Thanks to the American
political scientists who by their sincere attempts and efforts
have contributed to the development of behavioural approach
in recent times. 23
This approach was developed and enunciated by Robert,
A. Dahl, Miss M.P. Follett, Barnard, Simon and others. The
behavioural approach is mainly concerned with the scientific
study of human behaviour in various social settings.24
This approach developed as a protest against the

traditional approachs which gave emphasis on descriptive
analysis rather than substantive one. In public administration
the behavioural~sm started in 1930s with the human relations
movement and was later developed by Barnard, Simon and
others. Simon observed that Administrative Behaviour" is
/I
a part of the behavioural science movement and the only

difference lies in the subject matter of the various disciplines.
The behavioural approach in administrative studies is
descriptive and analytical rather than prescriptive. 25 It is
largely concerned with quantification, mathematisation and
formal theory construction. It is inter-disciplinary in character.
It is based on field observation, controlled field experiments
and laboratory studies etc.
The scholars in the field of public administration have
made cross structural cross-national and cross-cultural studies
of administrative behaviour by using scientific research
methods as a result of the impact of behaviouralism. This has
helped in the development of the knowledge of public
administration in a comparative context. In India a number
of scholars have used the behavioural research techniques.
Among them the studies of c.P. Bhambhri, Kuldeep Mathur,
V.A. Pai Panandikar, Ramashray Roy and Shanti Kothari are
quite prominent.
Features of Behavioural Approach
The behavioural approach in administrative studies has
certain features .
.(1) It is behavioral: It is behavioural becomes it studies the
actual behaviour of the persons and social groups rather
than structures, ideological, events and institutions. It stud-
ies the real behaviour of the individual whether political or
administrative. This approach is mainly concerned with the
scientific study of the human behaviour in various social

settings. 26 It is a new approach to the study of public
administration. Organisation is a group of behaving and a
student of public administr.ation should study these
behaviours.
(2) It is positive: Because it studies the things as they are.
It is concerned with the question as they are, but not with
the question "What ought to be" of public administration.
(3) It is Inter-disciplinary: Behaviouralism is essentially an
inter-disciplinary approach.27 The behaviouralists conceive
administration as a study embracing many disciplines espe-
cially sociology, psychology, social psychology, anthropol-
ogy, economics etc. It borrows from other social sciences. It
also takes its source from physical sciences as well-like
statistics, matnematics in terms of theories, methods and
approaches. It cannot be studied in isolation. It embraces
many subjects.
(4) It is empirical: Behavioural approach is descriptive,
factual and, therefore; empiricaL It is based upon observation,
experience and evidence. It studies the facts as they are. It
is concerned with the study of facts. 28
In short, the behaviouralists sought to adopt an integrated
and inter-disciplinary approach, for according to them all
human actions are motivated by social, economic, political
or psychological environment from which they come. It is
empirical and realistic. It also emphasise a scientific approach
to the study of administrative problems and their solution.
Historical Approach
The historical approach is essentially based on the belief that
knowledge of history is absolutely essential for an indepth
study of any subject. For the proper understanding of the
subject the study of public administration of the past in
particular periods is necessary to link up with the present

administrative systems. 29 For example, for the proper
understanding of the background and growth of
administration.in India, a historical perspective is essential..
To understand the evolution of the administrative system in
India, the characteristics of British Indian administration and
cJso the pre-British period have to be stp.died. Whites two
volumes, the Federalists (1948) and the Jeffersons (1951) are
important studies of the federal administration of the USA
during the early years of the Republic. 3D Biographical and
autobiographical studies are also closely related to the
historical approach.31 Several volumes in the rulers of India
series and specialised studies dealing with tenures of
particular governor generals during the British era, are
important to the study of Indian administration of these
periods.
Institutional Approach
The institutional approach is linked to the study of formal
government structure. It deals with various parts and organs
of the state viz. the executive, the legislative sub-system, the
departments the Budgetary system and the personnel.
This approach is described as institutional realism.
Realism implies the attempt to study improvements in
organisation and procedures. In this approach there is
greater concern for the specific parts or organs of particular
governments. There is stress on the laws, rules, codes and
regulations altogether. Institutional realism pays only limited
attention to the universal features of administration. 32
In public administration institutional realism interacts
with what is now-a-days called the scientific movement and
managerial structural relationships. Woodrow Wilson was
the first man who introduced institutional realism in public
administration. Wilson wrote an article entitled "The Study

of Administration" in 1887. In this article Wilson tries to
explain that politics is distinctively separate from public
administration.
Frank. J. Goodnow, a professor of administrative law at
Columbia University earned the title of "Father of Public
Administration" Because of his deep interest in the law of
politics and administration. He was the doyen, the pioneer
in the instruction of the discipline of public administration
in the USA.
This approach is closely connected with legal approach.
This approach is largely based on legal rights and obligations
of government. This approach intended to emphasise formal
relationships and the separation of powers among the three
branches of government. This approach was not very much
concerned with methodological questions. 33
1. S.P. Naidu, T. Apparao and M. Mallikarjumayya, Elements of

Modern Public Administration, pp. 10-15.
2. E.N. Gladden, Approach to Public Administration, Staple Press,
London, 1966, p.20.
3. Robert Presthus, Public Administration, Sixth ed, 1975. p. 7.
4. Fred. W. Riggs, Administration in Developing Countries, Houghton
Mifflin Co., Boston, 1964.
5. See John, D. Montgomery and William J. Siffin (ed) Approaches
to Development, Politics, Administration and Change, McGraw
Hill, New York, 1966.
6. F.W. Riggs, op. cit. Houghton Mifflin, Boston, 1964, and The
Ecology of Public Administration, Asia Publishing House,
Mumbai, 1962.
7. C. West Churchman, The Systems Approach, Dell, New York,
1968.
8. J.M. Gaus, Reflections of Public Administration, University of

Alabama Press, 1947.
9. Herbert Simon, Administrative Behaviour, Macmillan, New York,
1989.
10. Robert Pres thus, Public Administration, Sixth ed, 1975. p. 7.
11. Arthur, W. MacMohan, International Encyclopaedia of Social
Sciences, op. cit., p. 7.
12. Wilson, The Study of Administration. p. 497.
13. The Indian Journal of Public Administration, Jan.-March, 1955,
p. 1.
14. H.A. Simon, Administrative Behaviour, Growell, Collier and
Macmillan, New York, 1947.
Simon termed and described the classical principles of the
organisation as sayings.
15. R.A. Dahl "The Science of Public Administration three
problems", Public Administration Review, (1947), pp. 1-11.
16. International Encyclopaedia of Social Sciences, p. 8.
17. R.K. Sapro Development Administration, p. 7-9.
18. For a detailed discussion see Rumki Basu Book entitled Public
Administration-Concepts and Theories, p. 211-269.
19. Political Science Quarterly, June, 1887.
20. Frank, J. Goodnow, New York, MacMillan, 1900.
21. The entire discussion is based on Ferrel Heady a book Public
Administration-A Comparative Perspective, Marcel Dekker, New
York, 1979, pp. 198-212.
22. For a detailed discussion see Gordan Smith, Public Policy and
Administration, New York, 1980. pp. 1-14.
23. Ibid., p. 30.
24. Gabriel, A. Almond and Sidney Verba, The Civic Culture,
Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1963. p. 8.
25. Robert, A. Dahl, Modern Political Analysis, Prentice Hall of
India, New Delhi 1978, pp. 69-73.
26. Dr. H.R. Mukhi, SBD Publishers Distribvtors 4075, Nai Sarak,
Delhi-11 0006. p. 74-78.
27. Ibid., pp. 80-83.
28. Ibid., pp. 85-89.

29. Hoshiar Singh and Mohinder Singh, Public Administration in
India (Theory and Practice), Sterling Publishers Privated Limited
Bangalore, p. 1-10.
30. Ibid., pp. 15:20.
31. Ibid., pp. 21-23.
32. V.A. Pai Panandikar and 55. Kshirsagar, Bureaucracy and
Development Administration, New Delhi, 1978.
33. T.N. Chaturvedi, "Forward" in A.R. Tyagi (ed.), The Civil
Service i11 a Deve/(lping S(lciety, Delhi, 1960.
5
-Organisation and Its Principles
Meaning and Nature of Organisation

Meaning
Organisation is prior to all administration. The term
organisation is used in three different contexts-The act of
designing the structure, both designing and building; the
structure; the administrative structure itself. But others do
not accept this engineering view or approach to the concept
of organisation. They say organisation not only consists of
a structure. It also embraces human beings.l
Our society is an organised society. We are born and
brought up in an organisation. When we die state must issue
death certificate. Organisation is nothing but a co-operative
effort to achieve the goals. Organisation is as old as human
society itself. The word organisation springs from organism
which means a structure with parts or components. When
two or more people join hands to achieve a common goal
there arises the need for an organisation. Common goal is
Organisation and Its Principles 77
the essence of an organisation. We are living in a world of

organisation. Modern society is a complex structure. The
people who work together is known as organisation. It is a
forum of every hu~an association for the attainment of a
common goal. Weber defined organisation as a corporate
group. Its orders are enforced by the specific individuals.
The focus is on legitimate interation of parts. 2 Grouping is
given top priority. The individuals to whom the functions
are entrusted come later. Organisations are social units,
human groupings deliberately constructed or reconstructed
to seek specific objectives or goals or sub-goals. Organisations
are characterised by division of labour, the presence of one
or more power centres, substitution of personnel-
unsatisfactory person can be removed and others can be
assigned their tasks.
Organisations are social institutions. They are natural
communities. They are called as social systems. Just as
biological structures are composed of all parts in an organic
whole so are organisations composed of human beings. It
refers to the complete body with all its co-related functions.
It is an interaction and inter-relationship of people to achieve
some goals.
Characteristics
Organisation have five important features:
(1) Membership
It comprises a group of persons. Membership may be
voluntary or involuntary. Belongingness is an important
criteria membership as such is an important feature of an
organisation.
(2) Consciously Purposive
They are seems to be consciously purposive i.e., they do
something positive for their members. It is a purposive

creation. That is all organisations have some objectives or set
of objectives.
(3) Fonnal Structure
A third and very important feature of organisation is the
structure. It refers the functions in an organisation.
(4) Elusive
It means ideology or a set of ideas. That ideology affects their
life and structure. Political and religious organisation fall in
this category. But administrative and econpmic organisations
such as public bureaucracies and business organisations are
ideologically neutral as far as their internal affairs are
concerned. However, all organisational life implies some
reasonably value system. 3
(5) Corporate Status
The last, ultimate and final feature of an organisation, may
be described as its corporate statues. Organisations always
have legal status, legally established. Thus, they can be
treated as legal and social bodies or entities.
Nature of Organisation
Organisation as Machine
They have most usefully described as a machine. Its purpose
is to do work. Through its work processes it transforms
inputs. It is nothing but a system of interrelated parts.
Organisation as Structure
It is a formal structur.e of a plan, like the plan of a building
prepared in advance by the architect according to some
principle. It is established and supported by authority.4 It
can be set out on a chart or a diagram. It is normally a set

of dominant work relationships. As a structure an
organisation has three essentials:
0) It has some common goals.
(2) It works in a systematic manner.
(3) It has cluster of posts and positions on these three
factors on which organisation is based.
Organisation as a Process
In this sense, it is an ongoing process. It goes on structuring
or arranging the parts of an organisation. If a person has to
take work from a hundred persons he has to organise them
systematically.5 By organisation, we mean that it has to
divide work and distribute it to each one of them. He has
to make group and sub-groups. As a process several
fundamentals must be considered. In the first place, it
reflects the objectives and the· pans. In the second place it
must reflect the authority. In the third place, it must reflect
its environment. It depends on the situation first, it is staffed
with people.
Organisation as a Need and Responses
The functionalist approach concentrates on needs and
responses to needs. The function of a respons is to fulfil a
need. Needs may be defined in terms of the goals.
Organisation as a whole society itself, it is a unit. It operates
in the context of its environment.It responds or reacts or is
connected to its environment. Adjustment is the key-idea.
Organisation as Society
It contains persons or groups with different political interests.
The central problem of organisation is to blend those interests
into a coherent whole. 6 Organisations change or move or
react to their social environment. When organisations lose

contact with their environment pressure for change arises.
Pressures may come from inside or outside, but the
consequence is the same in both cases. The most impressive
and influential writer who elaborate the theory of society
and organisations is the Talcott Persons. His social analogy
is quite convincing.
The Organisation as a System
It is a system because it constantly influences and is also
influenced by its environment? It is an adoptive and open
system. It has usual features ,of a system viz. input, output,
throughput, 'environment. It receives inputs from society in
the form of raw materials, labour, capital produces outputs
sends outputs in the form of materials, services and
information to the environment consists and environment of
many changing factors such as economic, political, social,
technological, legal etc.,
Principles of the Organisation

Principles are the basic doctrines of the organisation. Every
organisation needs to be based on certain principles. Many
dismiss these principles as myths or sayings or proverbs or
precepts. Then which principles to follow? No principles are
accurate, definite and precise.
But many regard these principles as necessary to the
achievement of the goals of public administration. Now what
are these goals-public welfare, social security, full employ-
ment, social welfare etc. The end of Public administration is
maximum common good or public welfare at minimum cost. 8
The principles of public administration are not like the laws of
physical sciences inflexible or invariable in their operation. But
on the other hand they are flexible and dynamic.
1. Hierarchy
Hierarchy is a principle which is quite fundamental to any
organisation. 9 Hierarchy means the rule or the control of the
higher over the lower. It also means graded organisations.
In an organisation there are people who occupy different
positions and have been given power and authority. In an
organisation all are not equal. On the one hand are those
who give orders and commands on the other are those who
are expected to obey commands issued to them. Thus, whole
system is based on the principle of high and low, the officer
and the subordinate. The rule through proper channel
occupies upper place in hierarchy. In every large scale
organisation there are few who command and there are
others, who are commanded.1O In the sense some have
authority to command and the others must obey them. Thus,
it creates the superior and the subordinate relationships. In
hierarchy the authority, the command and the control flows
from the top to the bottom-slowly, gradually or step-by-
step. The structure of an army is the best example of a
hierarchy. All large scale organisations follows the same
pattern. Hirerachy is a universal phenomena. Every person
or position in the hierarchy finds its appropriate place. The
lines of authority and responsibility flow along the path of
hierarchy. Links after links are there.
Every organisation looks like a paramidical or triangle
in its structure. A paramidical structure is sharp at the top
and broad at the bottom. Every organisation is like a ladder.
A person desirous of going to the roof will have to climb all
the steps of the ladder, if he misses any step in the middle,
he is likely to falldown. Similarly, in the organisation there
are various levels. Hierarchy in other words is also called as
a scalar process which means ladder with several steps. In
the organisation everything must move through proper

channel. For exp.mple, the secretary of the department will
have to deal with the joint secretary, joint-secretary, in turn
shall, deal with the deputy secretary. Qeputy-secretary shall,
in turn deal with Assistant Secretary who further shall, deal
with the under-secretary, the under-secretary shall, in turn
deal with the section officer-who in turn, shall deal with
the assistants, clerks etc. Similarly, the line of upward
communication shall be exactly the same when the section
officer deals with the higher officers.
The struchue and the functioning of a hierarchical
organisation may be examined and explained by the following
diagram:
A
c H
D I
E J
FL------------~K
The above diagram is like a triangle or a pyramidical

structure. In this diagram, A is at the top F and K are at the
bottom. A is the highest officer. A is the head of the
organisation. F and K are the lowest officers. B is directly
subordinate to A. B is A's immediate subordinate. Similarly
D is mediately subordinate to A through C and B. If D has
to say something to A that must go through C and B. Thus,
like a chain the line of authority runs upwards and down
wards step-by-step. Similarly, E cannot approach A directly.
He will have to go through DCB. Every order or
communication should move through proper channel. The
same process is found in the other side of the organisation.

The line of authority flows from A to F one end and A to
K at another end. The line of authority flows downwards
when Ajssues orders. But it flows upwards when papers are
submited to A for final decision. In this organisation the line
of authority is an unbroken chain. The papers are moving
through all the levels of the organisation and so it is known
as proper channel.
Functions
The functions of the hierarchy are numerous.
(1) It is a channel of command.
(2) It is a channel of communication down ward and
upward-along with information, advice, specific
instructions, warnings etc.
(3) It is the channel for the delegation of authority.
(4) It is a channel of internal control.
(5) It is the means of clarifying responsibilities and
defining relations.
2. Span of Control
The second principle of the organisation is the principle of
span of control. It refers to the number of subordinates, a
supervisor can supervise effectively. By span of control we
mean the number of subordinates an officer can effectively
supervise. l1 The span of control is the limit of attention or
the scope of attention which one superior officer can pay
towards his subordinates. It is the optimum limit of attention
which can be exercised by one superior officer over the
subordinates.
The problem of span of control is a natural out-flow of
the principle of scalar system. As we studied earlier, scalar
organisation involves a number of steps one above the other

in an organisation, each step is headed by a single person.
Now the question arises as to how many persons should
work under his control and supervision at the particular
level.
There is a great deal of disagreement among the writers
on the administration about the exact limit of the span of
control. The experts are sharply divided over the views
regarding the span of control. One school of thought holds
the view that eight to ten subordinates can be supervised by
one superior officer. Other school holds the view that four
to six subordinates can be supervised by one superior
officer. Still others restrict it to 20 and so on. There is no
unanimity or oneness of opinion as regards to the exact
number. But the main idea behind this problem is the
effectiveness of supervision. The supervision has both
qualitative and quantitative aspects. Hence, quality is to be
accompanied by quantity is an important factor. In an
organisation a superior officer is expected to exercise control
over subordinates. The number of subordinates to be
supervised differs from one organisation to another
organisation.
So, a span of control universally exists and it cannot be
exceeded without the danger of break down. Of late, the
UGC in India has been studying the problem of span of
control and the attention in the college class rooms. It has
drawn the conclusion that a teacher can teach and supervise
10 to 12 shldents most effectively.
Factors which Influence the Span of Control
At present, we can only discuss some of the factors which
can determine or influence the span of control. These factors
are:
Organisation and Its Principles 8!,)
(1) Nature of work

Where the nature of work is of repetitive, measurable and
homogeneous character, the span of control is more than
where the- work is of heterogeneous in character. 12 - For
example, it is easier to supervise a large number of typists
because of the measurable nature of their work, but this will
not be so if the nature of work is of intellectual type.
(2) Leadership
The span of control increases or decreases depending upon
the qualities of the supervisor. If he is wise, clever, shrewd
and tactful, he can supervise a large number of persons. The
span of control increases if he is fair, considerable and
truthful towards the subordinates. If he is through in his
dealings, if he has general outlook, teaching ability, then he
can inspire the loyalty of his subordinates. On the other
hand, if he is weak, less intelligent and floppish, he may not
be in a position to supervise even the few persons effectively.
It may also be pointed out that much depends on the
competence and calibre of the subordinates also. If they are
untrained and incompetent, they are liable to make mistakes
and, hence, needs closer supervision.
(3) Age of the agency

Supervision is more easy and the span of control increases
if the organisation has been long in existence. In the old
established organisations the work goes on smoothly. In new
organisations new problems constantly arrive which very
often demand reference of the superiors.
(4) Location of the organisational units
Supervision becomes easier when the subordinates work
under the same roof where the supervisor sits. If they work
in different rooms or at a distance from the supervisor,

supervision becomes difficult because they escape his
penetrating eyeP
The.principle of span of control is good as a general
guiding principle in administrative organisation. But it
cannot be caught in mathematical terms. Thus, we conclude
by saying that the principle of span of control cannot be
applied in a rigid way. The span of control varies with the
four factors mentioned above.
Span of Control under Revision

The idea of span of control has come under revision during
the recent years, Thus, the old pattern of organisation is
gradually under going a change. The well-known concept of
superior-subordinate relationship is facing a challenge.
Thus, bossing is being replaced by persuasion and negotiation.
The job of the chief executive is now more of co-ordination
than of supervision and control.
3. Unity of Command
The third principle of the organisation is the principle of
unity of command. By unity of command means that all the
employees in the organisation must be subordinate and
subjected to the orders of the one superior officer. Each
individual employee shall have only one man as his "boss"
and shall receive orders only from him. If they are subjected
to two different superiors, it leads to diversity of command.
If he gets orders from more than one officer, it may become
difficulty, highly impossible for him to discharge his duties.
He will be put in a very ackward and confusing position, if
he receives conflicting orders from his superiors. The diversity
of command is the dislocation of the authority. I .. If the
employees receive orders from only one superior officer,
they can faithfully carry out his orders. The employees have
to obey the orders of only superior officer. Nobody can serve
two masters at one and the same time. If they are made to
serve two masters, the.r:e will be confusion and chaos in the
organisation. All this may result confusion and chaos in
administration. In order to avoid such a conflict in an
organisation, it has been suggested by the experts that there
must be unity of command. It may be illustrated by the
following examples.
Unity
In the department of public instruction, there is a unity of
command. The department has hierarchical set-up consisting
of officials known as the director, deputy director, joint
director, assistant directors, educational officers and inspector
of schools. All these officials receive commands from the
head of the department. The line of authority flows
continuously, regularly in an unbroken chain. They will
easily obey the orders of the superiors.
Diversity of command
If the subordinate officers are subjected to the different
masters, they will be receiving conflicting orders from their
masters. 1S This will lead to confusion in the minds of the
employees. They will find it difficult to obey the orders of
any superior authority. It is usually seen that individual
employee particularly in the professional fields, is subject to
a dual or double command. He gets orders not only from
the administrative side but also from the professional or
technical side. He gets orders from both the sides i.e.,
administrative side and the technical side.
For example, administratively, a doctor employed in a
local body is under the administrative control of the chairman
of the local body, but professionally and technically, he is

under the control of the state director of public health.
Similar is the case with regard to all organisations employees,
tec.hnical personnel's.
In the National Extension Service Block, the BDO is the
chief executive officer who is expected to co-ordinate all the
activities of the extension officers working under his control.
The extension officers belongs to different departments.
Hence, they will have to be loyal to their parent departments
in respect of all technical matters. There are extension
officers for co-operation, animal husbandry, and veterinary
services, agriculture, horticulture, sericulture, fishries,
industries, commerce, health and social education. These
extension officers are under the administrative control of the
BDO but they are technically controlled by the respective
heads of the departments. Thus, they are subjected to two
different masters, and they find it difficult to obey the orders
of both the masters.
4. Morale
The fourth important principle of the organisation is the
principle of morale. Good morale is vital to efficient
organisation. It is an intangible concept. It is an inner
possession of an individual or a group. It is a state of mind
or attitude. It is a reflection of physical, mental, moral and
emotional health of an individual and the group. It reflects
a social and psychological situation. 16 Thus, it is an individual
as well as a group concept each interacting upon the other.
It has both individual and social aspect. Morale is the mental
and moral condition with respect to cheerfulness, confidence
and zeal. Morale is a constant state of mind. It is more than
mere enthusiasm. Enthusiasm is momentary, it vanishes
after a while. Enthusiasm, however, be an index of good
morale. The individual must take pride in his work. He must

identify himself with the group. He must have a sense of
belonging to it. Satisfaction is an important element in
morale. Morale .is a social utility. It has democratic
implications. Morale depends on the environment. 17
The secret of the outstanding success of the British Civil
Service is its high morale built up by the civil servants
themselves. Morale adds force and energy which make for
achievement. A wholesome morale stimulates loyalty, co-
operation and team work all of which are so essential for the
smooth co-ordination of many individuals in a single
organisation. Thus, the importance of high morale to a service
cannot be over-emphasised. Its presence leads to all-round
efficiency and success and its absence to inefficiency and
failure. "Good Morale is to a service, what good health is to a
body" .18 When an employee has few frustrations,
dissatisfactions, discontents, disregards he has high morale
and when he has many disappointments frustrations or deep
frustrations, he has low or poor morale. A favourable attitude
towards the job, the group, the boss and the company reflects
the good or high morale and an unfavourable attitude powers
the job, the group the boos and the company reflects the low
or poor morale. The group, certain co-worker, pays other
benefits to employees family life, his social life, his community
life, his friends and his union have impact on employees
morale. If the employee has nagging wife or if he is harassed
by his debtors his morale may be low.1 9
Good morale and its effects
Good or high morale among the employees is likely to bring
the following good results:
(1) Job satisfaction.
(2) Higher productivity.2o
(3) Higher profits.

(4) Better wages.
(5) Employment stability.
(6) Employees initiative, regl~larity and punctuality.
(7) To show great loyality to the boss and the company.
Poor or low morale and its effects

Poor or low morale among the employees is likely to bring
the following bad results:
(1) Apathy and non-involvement.
(2) Fatigue and monotony.
(3) Labour turnove.
(4) Work stoppages.
(5) Absenteeism.
(6) Discipliriary problems.
(7) Labour unrest.
(8) Increased difficulties.
(9) They make all the money for themselves.
(10) They believe that they have all the answers.
(11) They benefit when we work hard.
(12) They may fire us if we increase output.
(13) They want to introduce changes all the time at our
expense.
(14) They are fallible and neglectful.
(15) They don't care.
(16) They hire and fire as they please.
(17) They don't share.
(18) They think we are stupid and dumb.
Employee's with low morale tend to show the least

interest in their jobs and in what they are doing. Work is
drudgery and misery to them. They are generally dissatisfied.
They show their dissatisfactions in various ways by being
irregular to work, by taking leave often, by pleading sickness,

by not putting forth their best, by criticising foremen and
their boss etc.
How to build up morale?

Morale has both an intellectual as well as an emotional
quality and, therefore, both the minds and the emotions of
the employees should be trained.
In the first place, it is important that the employee should
have a knowledge of the purposes and objectives which the
organisation seeks to achieve. He may have a sympathy with
the objects he serves. This knowledge will help him to realise
the worthwhileness of his work. A work done only to earn
a livelihood somehow does not provide positive satisfaction
in the performance. A high morale is essential.
Secondly, confidence of the rank and good intent of their
superiors is an important element for boosting morale.
Nothing is more demoralising than a suspicion of
unfairness on the part of ones higher officers or fear of
victimisation from them. The entire organisation falls low in
public eyes. The higher officers should be fair, impartial and
honest. They should not succumb to low practices, corruption
and undesirable political influence. If the higher officers are
corrupt, the rumour spreads through the organisation like
a poison and the lower ranks also lose their morale.
Thirdly, a sense of sharing in policy-making and running
of his organisation heightens the morale of the employees.
They should be given as far as possible as share in the
formulation of work programme. Every effort should be
made to create a feeling among the employees that they
think of the service as a whole rather than of their personal
interests. They should not be dubbed as bureaucrats or
hirelings of the government but be regarded as part of the

people co-operating in the building up of the country21. Any
idea or suggestion for improvement if put by any employee
should be sympath.eticalJy considered by his superiors. That
will develop in them a sense of belongingness to the
government. The old concepts of hierarchy and chain of
command must give place to co-operation and partnership.
The directing head should be more of a leader than a boss.
Fourthly, stimulating leadership can greatly help in
building up of morale. The leader must be the men of ideas.
Leader should be there to lead and guide. He should
maintain good character. The leader should set an example
through his behaviour. The organisation must possess the
good leaders.
5. Communication
The fifth and the last principle of the organisation is the
principle of communication. The communication is derived
from the Latin word "communis". It means common. When
we communicate we are trying to establish a commonness
with someone.
Here we are speaking communication in the context of
an organisation. It is the basic principle of an organisation.
The success of organisation depends on efficient and
effective communication. Without communication there can
be no organisation. 22 It occupies central place in any
organisation. Effective administration depertds to a great
extent upon an effective system of communication. It plays
a central role in public administration. The essence is not
information but understanding. The success of any planning
depends on an efficient net work of communication. It is
the basis of decision-making. Communication and decision
making are inseparable. The data and information supplied
by the organisational communication system constitute the

raw material of decision-making. Therefore, a complete
information as far as possible should be available to
decision-makers. Communications are also essential for
effective performance of the organisation. A decision may
be sound, yet if it is communicated poorly, the desired
results will not be obtained Lack of proper communications
would result in confusion and friction in the organisation. 23
Herbert Simon, a noted writer, stresses the role of
communication in administration. He says, it is obvious that
without communication there can be no organisation. In the
opinion of the above writer, communication occupies a
central place in any administrative organisation.
Herbert Simon views communication as a process through
which decisions are transmitted from one member of an
organisation to another. L.A. Appleby has defined
communication as "that process whereby one person makes
his idea and feelings known to another". Thus, the purpose
of communication is to convey some idea by one person to
another person. Such an idea is communicated by the use
of words, letters, symbols etc. However, for communications
to be successful, the idea conveyed must be understood
otherwise the very purpose of communication is lost. Another
aspect of communication is that it is basically an interaction
and hence two or more persons are involved 24 in it. For the
operation of communications, at least, there must be two
persons-one the sender and other receiver.
Thus, communication is an instrument of co-ordination.
It is the transmitting of instructions and information to all
interested parties. The aim of communication is sending of
ideas of what one thinks and feels. It is nothing but sending
and receiving of ideas. It is an instrument of employer and
employees co-ordination. 25
Principles of Communication
To maintain communication system effective, following
principles need to be adopted:
Clarity
The instructions to be given should be clear. It should have a
definite meaning. Moreover, the language to be used should
be easy. It should be easy to understand. The information
transferred must be understandable to the receiver. The
informations should be brief, simple, clear and precise.
Consistency
Instructions, guidelines, messages and orders should be
consistent with one another. Orders should be consistent.
Adequacy
Information should be as less as possible. The information
should not be of lengthy and complex.
Acceptance
The purpose of communication is to secure a positive
response. The persons communicated to should accept the
information in a positive sense.
Timeliness
The instructions given by the higher authorities should reach
the filed agency promptly and at proper time. So also,
communication from field staff should reach at higher level
at proper time. If this is not followed, out of date information
becomes historical documents and it becomes the worst kind
of information.
Organisation and Its Principles
1. L.D. White, fntmduction to the Study of Public Administration,

1955, p. 41.
2. Appleby, P.H., -Policy and Administration, the University of
Alabama Press, Alabama, 1949, pp. 72-73.
The various parts operating in the organisation are having
legitimate or legal sanction. Authority is the base of legitimacy.
3. Dimock, M.E. and Dimock, e.O., Public Administration, Rinehart
and Co., New York, 1959, p. 110.
Organisation always works on the basis of some doctrines
or principles or values. Efficiency is an important value in
organisation.
4. See Gulick, L. and Urwick L. (Ed.) Papers on the Science of
Administration, Institute of Public Administration, Columbia
University, New York, 1937, pp.184-85.
Authority is the base of all organisations. Authority always
operates on the road of values.
5. Seckler-Hudson, c., op. cit., p. 51.
6. Willoughby, W.F., op. cit, p. 85.
7. W.H. Newman, Administrative Action, Prentice Hallinc, New
York 1953, p. 403.
Organisations are described as the open systems and they
interacts with environment.
8. Dwight Waldo, International Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences,
1968, Volume 13. The Macmillan Company and the Free Press,
p.146.
9. Charles, A. Beard, Public Policy and the General Welfare, Rinehart
and Company inc, 1941, pp. 148, 158- 60.
Through proper channel means never supersede or bypass
the people in between.
10. Gulick and Urwick, Papers on the Science of Public Administration,
Columbia University Press, 1937, p. 40.
In the hierarchy there are some people who issue the orders,
and others will receive or obey the orders. It implies superior-
subordinate relationships.
11. L.D. White, Public Administration, p. 36.

12. Homogeneity means similar type of work and heterogeneity
means diversity.
13. L.D. White, introduction to THE study of Public Administration,
p.24.
14. James, D. Mooney, the Principles of Organisation, pp. 22-23.
Diversity of command means division or decentralisation of
authority.
15. Pfiffner and Presthus, Public Administration, p. 216.
16. P. Sharan Modern Public Administration, Meenakshi Prakashan,
Meerut, 1981, p. 437.
17. Ibid., p. 440.
18. F.M. Marx, Elements of Public Administration, Meenakshi
Prakashan, Meerut, 1981.
19. J.e. Charlesworth, Governmental Administration, Harper and
Brothers, New York, 1951, p. 207.
20. Fatigue means tiredness or laziness. Monotony means-
sameness.
21. Dennis, A. Rondinelli and G. Shabbir Cheema, Decentralisation
and Development, Sage Publications, Beverly Hills, 1983, p. 10.
22. Ibid., pp. 14-18.
23. W.P. Willoughby, Principles of Public Administration, p. 139.
24. Terry, G.R. Principles of Management (1954d), pp. 410-13.
25. Richard and Nielander, Readings in Management, pp. 101-153.
6
Organisation and Its Theories
There are several theories of the organisation. The term

theories of the organisation has become a popular one. The
organisation is not merely a structure. In fact, it embraces
structure as well as human beings.
Here we shall consider important theories of the
organisa tion.
1. Scientific Management Theory
The first systematic theory of organisation was formulated in

the early years of the present century by F.W. Taylor (1856-
1915), an engineer by profession, who is regatded as the father
of scientific management. He was the first to advocate the
adoption of scientific methods in the field of industrial work
processes and management to promote industrial efficiency
and economy. The scientific management is also known as
Taylorism. It is also known as time and motion studies.
Scientific management was started as a movement. But it was
an active movement. At that time the working conditions in
the factories were Chaotic. At the same time the conditions in

the factories were rather unplanned worst, bad and miserable.
Factory workers were not given sufficient instructions.
Workers were not being managed. They were managing
themselves. The work methods, tools and procedures were
neither standardised nor planned for efficiency. Choice of
methods of work was mainly left to the workers themselves
resulting in considerable ad hoc planning and inefficiency. The
workers were left entirely themselves in the matter of choosing
the work and the methods to be employed for doing the work.
Choice of the work was mainly left to the workers. Not only
this, they even used to bring their own tools, materials, articles
for doing the work. Whether these methods were efficient ones
or whether the tools were of right kinds, it is none of the
responsibilities of the management. The management was
unconcerned for methods and tools of work. The managerial
and supervisory roles of today were largely absent in those
days. Their superiors were unable to tell the workers how to
do the work efficiently. This was a sort of disorder which was
sought to be replaced by orderliness the keystone of Taylorian
management thought. Taylor lived at a time when both
management and labour could not understand their proper
roles and responsibilities. Taylor regarded the prevailing
system as irrational and highly inefficient. Taylor wrote a book
known as The Principles and Methods of Scientific Management.
As a result this, inefficient system prevailing in factories,
scientific management theory was emerged as a new
philosophy of management. Taylor advocated this theory.
This theory was first of all developed or formulated or
propunded by F.W. Taylor. Taylor was the first management
thinker. He was rightly regarded as the founder of Scientific
Management. Taylor was an American engineer. Credit goes
to Taylor because he made management a respectable science.
Organisation and Its Theories 99
He is universally acclaimed as the Father of Management.

He employed scientific methods to the problems of
management. He came into prominence towards the end of
nineteenth ceI}tury. Taylor served in different capacities as
an apprentice, as a mechanist, as a shop-clerk, as an operator,
as a gang boss, as a foremen and as a chief engineer, as a
consultant. He points out that management is a true science
depending upon clearly fixed laws, rules and principles. He
argued that management comprised a number of principles.
The overall goal of scientific management is the higher
industrial productivity and efficiency. Taylor had several
objectives. But the main objective of scientific management
is the standardisation of work methods. Taylor's principles
of scientific management were scientific to the extent that
they were based on first hand experimentation in, and
observation of work procedures and conditions in industrial
enterprises. Taylor used scientific techniques. Taylor who
gave general frame work so that they could become widely
accepted and available. He emphasised the need for
professional management.
In short, according to Taylor scientific management is
meant:
(1) Science not rule of thumb,
(2) Harmony not disorder,
(3) Co-operation not individualism,
(4) Maximum output in place of restricted output, and
(5) The development of each man to his greatest efficiency
and prosperity.
Basic Principles of Scientific Management
The main principles of scientific management are in other

words, scientific management stands for:
Standardisation of Work Methods
Taylors first principle relates to the improvement of work

methods. The focus is on work and worker itself. He wanted
scientific management. The good workers is one who accepts
orders. Each worker must be assumed as an economic man.
He said workers shquld work in a systematic, scientific or
in a planned way. The objective or the goal or the target of
management should be higher productivity. When Taylor's
methods were applied production increased manifold. He
was the first to conduct researches in highly scientific way
through time and motion study. He was of the view that the
worker has to be told what he has to do and how he has to
do. To achieve the goal, the management must pay high or
handsome wages to workers. Higher wages lead to higher
productivity. If the output of the worker is achieved maximum
or an optimum level such worker should be rewarded. High
performer should be rewarded. He said rewards should be
quick. He who does the work earlier must be rewarded with
bonus. If a worker shows excellence in production he should
be rewarded or awarded. But if a worker does not show
excellence in production such a worker should be penalised
or punished or in other words, if he failed in increasing his
output or production, penalty should be imposed on him.
Those who do not produce to the level he should be thrown
out. Management encourages higher performer at the expense
or cost of the lazy. He also stressed that the industry should
believe that the higher performer should stay whereas lower
performer should go. Thus, Taylor gave the concept of
reward and punishment.
It is only through enforced standardisation of methods,
enforced adoption of the best implement and working
conditions and enforced co-operation, that this faster work
can be assumed. Taylor in his book The Principles and

Methods of Scientific Management made certain fundamental
assumptions. They were:
(1) Industrial processes can be made open for scientific
observation and experimentation. The work proce-
dures of labour can be reduced to basic motions to
ascertain the longest, shortest and average time
needed for each motion.
(2) The standard time prescribed for each operation can
be produced at a designated standard of efficiency
and economy.
(3) The workers can be trained in the best methods for
achieving the industrial objectives by the manage-
ment.
Scientific Selection and Training of Workers

His second principle relates to the scientific selection,
placement and training cf workers in a scientific manner.
Standardisation of working conditions will be crucially
served by selecting and placing workers on jobs for which
they are best suited by their physical and intellectual abilities.
Moreover, it is the duty of the management to train workers
for their tasks and provide them all facilities for development
of their personalities. Management must appoint at least
literate or educated workers in the factories or industries.
Management should run on scientific principles. The
management,should train the workers so that they adopt the
scientific methods of work for maximum production.
Equal Division of Work between

Management and Workers
Taylor'S third principle was an open advocacy of an equal
division of work and responsibility between management

and workers. Taylor has noted in his observations the
unhealthy trend of the managers to place increasing burden
on the workers while assuming f9r themselves only minimum
responsibilities. In the context, Taylor advised that half of the
workers work should be taken over by the management. The
management should undertake the functions for which it
was best suited i.e., planning, organising, controlling and
determining the methods of work.
Mutual Collaboration of the

Workers and Management
Another Taylorian principle was that there should be active
co-operation and cordial relations between management and
workers. There should be mutual faith and trust. Efficiency
and productivity can be best promoted by creating a healthy
and congenial environment in the organisation which is the
joint responsibility of both workers and the management.
By maximising the productive efficiency of each worker,
scientific management would also maximise the earnings of
workers and employers. Hence, all conflict between capital
and labour would be resolved by the findings of science.
Replacing Rule of Thumb Methods by the
Scientific Methods and Procedures of Work
The rule of thumb methods should be replaced by scientific
methods. The rule of thumb methods should be vanished,
removed banished or abolished. Workers should think
rationally and scientifically.
Separation of Planning from Performance
The planning should be separated or divorced from
performance. Planning should be the responsibility of
management while performance should be the responsibility

of the workers. Management should plan the work on the
basis of time shldies. Work should be decided on scientific
basis and classified systematically.
Improving Organisational Efficiency and
Productivity
Production of the organisation should be improved. It must
be standardised, and are of high quality.
Five Postulates of Management
Taylor was the first management thinker. Besides the above
mentioned principles, Taylor has introduced and stressed
five postulates of management. These are:
(1) Research,
(2) Standards,
(3) Planning,
(4) Control, and
(5) Mutual co-operation or collaboration between labour
and management.
These five principles arr postulated form of the crux of
every successful management.
Criticisms
The scientific management movement aroused much criti-
cism and apprehensions in various quarters. It has been
alleged that the movement was mainly concerned with
organisational efficiency viewed in purely mechanical terms.
Scientific management concerned itself mainly with produc-
tion, efficiency and managerial problems, without touching
on the psychological and emotional problems of workers-
the routine and monotony of their work, uncertainly of
employment etc. The general allegation that Taylor had
neglected the human factor in management led to a series

of psychological and sociological studies with special refer-
ence to this factor.
The scientific .management views organisation mechani-
cally. It neglects human factor. It lays emphasis on mechanical
efficiency. This is wrong. Further Taylor and his followers con-
sidered or equated man to the machine. This is wrong assump-
tion. The very word man as a machine as said by Taylor was
bitterly criticised. Man is not a slave of the machine. He is a
human being. He operates the machine. Taylor's assumption is
that what is good for management is also good for the worker.
This is not accepted. Sometimes good for the management turns
bad to the workers. The food of one may be turned into the poi-
son to the other. The focus ofthis theory is very narrow, limited
and restricted. Taylor was not interested in the deep study of
whole organisation. It fails to take into account the influence of
the environment in the organisation.
However, the significance and importance of the theory
of scientific management cannot be under-estimated by the
above criticisms. Its true worth can be measured by the
growth of the science of management through the application
of scientific methods. In the early years of the twentieth
century, scientific management had a snow balling impact
on administrative thought and practice in the United States.
It permeated not only industrial enterprises but business
establishments and also government organisations. In 1910,
the scientific management movement manifested itself in the
establishment of the commission on economy and efficiency
under President Taft. The recommendations of this
commission further popularised the scientific management
movement. Taylor's advocacy of the one best way to do each
work-productive or managerial was equally implemented
in industrial and governmental business and management.
, Organisation and Its Theories 105
Thus, the scientific technology of Taylorism besides the

democratic principle, comprised the twin elements of
American Public Administration.
The popularity and impact of the scientific management
movement can be further gauged from the fact that it gained
considerable significance in industrial management in the
Soviet Union. Taylor combined theory and practices, thought
and experiment, doing and teaching all in one person and
in one life. Taylor's scientific management had a major
influence on the reforms and economy movements. It is
hoped that the industrial problems could be resolved through
these principles. Lenin had exhorted Russian industrial
managers, as early as 1920, to apply the principles of
scientific management for increasing production. Throughout
the 1930s and 1940s great efforts were made to increase the
productivity and efficiency in Soviet industries through the
application of the principles of scientific management.
It would be important to remember that in Taylor's work
the human relations aspect of organisations was under
emphasised but certainly not entirely neglected. As stated
earlier, he recognised the importance of mutual collaboration
of workers and management as one of the essential principles
for raising industrial efficiency. Besides, improvement of the
working conditions of labour was his chief concern. One of
the main by products of Taylorism that the workers came
to be paid and trained better, besides working in more
congenial conditions than before. However, the essence of
his theory that the speed, cost and quality of goods and
services were dependent variables, and they could be
maximised by the adjustment of independent variables such
as division of labour, method of supervision, financial
incentives, flow of materials and lastly, physical methods
and condition are still true to a great extent.
Conclusion
The combination of the above principles constituted the base
of scientific management. Viewed in the context, of its own
times, scientific management was a revolutiona-ry concept.
It brought a drastic change in the whole approach to
industrial management. Through it wastage of human and
material resources was greatly minimised affecting a better
and efficient utilisation of labour and material. It helped the
standardisation of work procedures and improvement of
working conditions in factories. Labour was greatly benefited
by higher wages, better placements and training, limiting of
working hours and the general improvement in working
facilities. The scientific management movement provided
effective guidelines to the management to develop an effective
organisa tion.
2. Classical Theory
The next important theory of the organisation is known as
Classical Theory. It has been called classical. This is a
dominant theory. This theory is also known as the Normative
and Structural Theory. Its proponents or advocates or the
notable persons have been Henry Fayol, Luther Gulick, L.F.
Un-vick, J.D. Mooney, A.c. Reiley, M.P. Follett, R. Shelton
and Syndall U rwick.
The important concern of the classical theory is a
formulation of certain universal principles of the organisation.
It deals primarily with formal organisational structure. The
theory assumes that there are certain fundamental principles
on the basis of which an organisation can be established to
achieve a specific objective. The watch-words of this theory
are efficiency and economy as it conceives that these principles,
if fully adopted, can lead to maximum organisational efficiency
and economy. The structuralists were chiefly concerned with

discovering the true basis On which work can be divided in
an organisation and devising proper methods of bringing
about effective organisational co-ordination. The classical
thinkers perceive organisation as a formal structure of plan
created in accordance with certain accepted principles.
Henry Fayol (1841-1925) is considered the father of
administrative management. His focus is on the development
of broad administrative principles. Fayol was a French
engineer, a leading industrialist and successful manager. He
was a chief executive, great writer on the theory of
management. Fayol was concerned with the management
and the tasks of the manager. He wrote a great book entitled
Industrial and General Administration. Fayol divided all the
activities in the organisation under six groups:
(1) Technical,
(2) Commercial,
(3) Financial,
(4) Security,
(5) Accounting, and
(6) administrative.
Further, Fayol also presented and propounded 14
principles of organisation and they are listed below.
Fayol's Principles of Administrative Management

F.W. Taylor is considered as the father of scientific
management, while Henry Fayol (1841-1925) is considered
a the father of administrative management. His focus is on
the developm~nt of broad administrative principles. Fayol
was a French man, French engineer. He was a leading
industrialist and successful manager. He was the chief
executive. He was a great writer on the theory of management.
Fayol was concerned with the management and the tasks of

the manager. He wrote a great book entitled Industrial and
General Administration. He defined management in terms of
five functions.
(1) Planning,
(2) Organising,
(3) Commanding,
(4) Co-ordinating, and
(5) Controlling.
Fayol also presented 14 principles of management as
general guides to the management process and management
practice.
The most well known principles of Henry Fayol are the
following:
Division of work: This process produces more and
(1)
better work with the same effort. Various functions of the
management like planning, organising, co-ordinating,
controlling cannot be performed by a single individual or by
group of directors. They must be entrusted to specialists in
related fields.
(2) Authority and responsibility: Authority is the right
~o issue orders which the subordinates are bound to obey.
Authority and responsibility go side by side or hand in hand.
The managers should have the right to give orders and
power to exact obedience. A manager may exercise, formal
authority and also personal authority. Formal authority is
derived from his official position while personal authority
is the result of the intelligence, experience, moral worth,
ability to lead, past service etc. Responsibility is closely
related to authority and it arises wherever authority is
exercised. Authority should be equal to responsibility.
(3) Discipline: It is absolutely essential for the smooth
running of management. By discipline we mean the obedience

to authority, observance of rules of service, respect for
agreements, respect for superiors etc. The means of discipline
is the jQdicious application of penalties.
(4) Unity of command: This principle requires that each
employee should receive instructions from one superior
only. Fayol believed that if an employee was to report to
more than one superior he would be confused due to conflict
in instructions and it would be difficult for him to carry out
the responsibilities.
(5) Unity of Direction: It means that there should be one
head, one plan and having the same objectives. Unity of
direction is concerned with the functioning of a body
corporate, the department, the sub-departments. For every
category of work there should be one plan of action and it
should be executed under the overall control and supervision
of one head or one superior.
(6) Subordination of individual interest to general
interest: It means the interests of one employee or group of
employees should not prevail over the common interest. If
there is disagreement between two superiors on any matter
the management should settle, solve or reconcile the
differences so as to conduct the overall operations of the
enterprise smoothly.
(7) Remuneration: The wages and salaries of the
employees should be fair: Employees who are paid decent
or handsome wages or salary will have a high morale and
their efficiency will be high. Contented or satisfied staff is
a property or asset to the firm. The rate of remuneration paid
should be based on general business conditions, cost of
living, productivity of the concerned employees and the
capacity of the firm to pay.
(8) Centralisation: If subordinates are given more role

and importance in the management, it is decentralisation.
But if they are given less role and importance it is
centralisation. The management has to decide the degree of
centralisation and decentralisation.
(9) Scalar chain: It means the hierarchy of authority from
highest executive to the lowest one. It indicates superior
subordinate relationship. As per this principle the order or
communications should pass through the proper channels.
(10) Order: "Right man in the right place". This is how
Fayol defined order. The principle of "right place for
everything and for every man" should be observed by the
management.
(11) Equity: It means justice. Impartial dealing means
fair dealing. It also means equality of treatment. Equity
results a combination of kindness and justice. Employees
expect equity from the management.
The managerial treatment of the subordinates should be
free from influence of prejudices and personal likes and
dislikes. Equity ensures healthy relations between the
management and the labour which is essential for the
successful working of the enterprise. Managers sacrifice
their vanity and to inspire the confidence from the lower
ranks so that all levels show initiative.
(12) Stability of tenure of personnel or employees: In
order to motivate workers to do more and better work, it is
necessary that they should be assured security of job by the
management. If they have fear of insecurity of job their
morale will be low and they cannot give more and better
work. Further, they will not have any sense of feeling or
attachment to the management and they will always be on
the look out for a job for else where.
(13) Initiative: It means freedom to think out and execute

a plan. Managers should give to their employees sufficient
scope to show their initiative. Employees should be encour-
(!ged to carry out their plans, even when spme mistakes
result.
(14) Esprit de-corps: Since "Union is strength", the
management should create team spirit among the employees.
Harmony and unity among the staff are a great source of
strength to the undertaking. The management should not
follow the policy of "Divide and Rule" and it should strive
to maintain unity among the staff. If there is any difference
or misunderstanding or symptom of distrust the management
should take steps in time to eliminate them.
Luther Gulick developed "POSDCORB" formula and
each letter of the word stands for a different technique such
as planning, organising, staffing, directing, co-ordinating,
reporting and budgeting.
Prof. Mooney and Reily's "Onward Industry" as a
pioneering work on the development of organisational theory
and is considered the first coherent approach to find
organisation universals. Mooney argued that all organisation
structures are based on a system of superior subordinate
relationships arranged in a hierarchical order. This he termed
as "Scalar Principles". According to this principle in every
organisation there is a grading of duties in varying degrees
of authority and corresponding responsibility. The scalar
chain constitutes the universal process of co-ordination,
through which the supreme co-ordinating authority becomes
effective throughout the entire structure. The scalar process
has its own principle, process and effect. These may term as
leadership, delegation and functional definition.
This theory is marked by four features:
(1) Impersonality,
(2) Specialisation,
(3) Efficiency, and
(4) Hierarchy.
Further the classical theory is marked by the following
five philosophical principles.
(1) It is atomistic: In the sense, it sees the individual in
isolation and not as a social beings. It views man as a single
animal not a group animaL
(2) It is mechanistic: It does not explain the dynamics
of organisational behaviour.
(3) It is static: In the sense, it is not influenced by external
environment. That is why it is static, stagnant, constant and
rigid.
(4) It is voluntaristic: It is voluntary and optionaL In the
sense, individuals are free from the control either by the
groups or social factors.
(5) It is highly Rationalistic: It focus on charts, rule
books, manuals, bye-laws and procedures. That is why it is
rationalistic.
Following are the basic beliefs of the classical theory:
(1) According to the classical thinkers, organisation is
the formal administrative structure. The formal
structure consists of several hierarchical levels. Each
level of the organisation is clearly defined and
described.
(2) The followers of the classical theory or school
considers "Efficiency and Economy" as the most
important value. The various parts of the organisation
must be properly arranged and adjusted.
(3) The advocates of the classical theory believe that the
design of the administrative structure is primary. It
comes first.
(4) Another belief of the classical theory is that

organisation should be structured according to four
Ps or bases. Those four Ps are:
(1) Purpose (They serve).
(2) Process (They use).
(3) Persons (Things worked with).
(4) Place (Where the work is done).
The choice of anyone criterion depends on specific
conditions. Generally organisations are the admixture
of all the four Ps.
(5) The subscribers or the scholars or the thinkers of the
classical theory believe in the existence of certain
universal principles of the administration. Such as
hierarchy, span of control, unity of command,
delegation, communication, centralisation versus
decentralisation, power, authority, morale, unity of
control.
(6) Another doctrine of classical theory relates to the
sharp distinction between line (operating) activities
and staff (advisory) activities.
In the classical theory of the organisation a sharp
distinction between line and staff activities is
maintained. The differences between line and staff
agencies may be listed as follows:
1. Line performs operating activities, whereas staff
performs assisting functions to facilitate the work
of the line officials. Therefore, line commands
whereas staff advises only.
2. Line agencies render Services to the people and,
therefore, come into contact with the public. Staff
services benefit the line agencies and hence the staff
officials do not come into contact with the people.
3. Line is hierarchical, staff is collateral.

4. Line agencies are organised on the basis of the
purpose principle, whereas staff agencies are
established on the basis of the proce~s principle.
In the opinion of Pfiffner and Presthus, the distinction
between line and staff agencies follows that between
direct, and indirect, labour the direct being line and
the indirect being staff.
(7) Because of their belief in the existence of some of the
universal principle of administration, they argue that
administration is found everywhere and anywhere.
It is universal.
It may be noted here that there is no unanimity or
oneness of opinion among the classical theorists as regards
to the principles of the organisation.
Criticisms of the Classical Theory
An important contribution of the classical theorists in general

is their attempt to find certain universal principles of
organisation. However, the classical theorists are criticised
on the ground that each principle has been proved to be
neither empirically valid in organisational functioning nor
universally applicable which has led Herbert Simon to dub
them as "proverbs".
Another criticism often levelled is the classicists lack of
behavioural analysis and neglect of the human factor in
administration. Their methods tend to be prescriptive rather
than descriptive. They also led greater emphasis on or
overemphasis on the formal structure rather than the informal
aspects of organisational dynamics. The theory is marked by
an undue concern for the problems of the structure in
relation to roles. Stress is laid not on human beings (rc:le
occupants) as such, but on the role as it relates to other roles

in the broader context of organisational goals.
Further, it is atomistic and voluntaristic in the sense that
it fails to view indiyiduals from an integrated perspective i.e.
it ignores the "Social aspect" of man and the influence of the
social environment on his work. The classical theory treats
organisation as "closed system" completely unconnected
with or uninfluenced by the external environment. Its
obsession with the normative aspect of the functioning of
organisations leads to its neglect of the study of an actual
and informal behavioural patterns in the formal organisa-
tional struchlre.
3. Systems Theory
It is the another important theory of the organisation. It has
its own pecular feahlres. It considers organisation as a
system with its parts. Organisation functions through its
parts. It views organisation as an adaptive and open system.
If it is to survive, it must adjust to the changes in the
environment. Organisation and its environment as inter-
dependent. Each depends on the other for resources. Here
the examples of the open system are men, animals, plants
etc. But on the other hand a closed system does not interact
with its environment or to put it differently the operation of
a closed system remains unaffected by its environment. For
example, A machine organisation as a system is dependent
upon its parts for effective functioning. Such parts are called
as sub-systems. Each sub-system performs a series of needed
activities. Organisation as a system generally consisting of
inputs, outputs feedback or throughput, and environment.
This theory views organisation as a system made up of inter-
dependent factors. As a system, organisation receives inputs
from its environment and transforms them into outputs.
This process of conversion of inputs into outputs is also

known as throughput. Further the systems have boundaries
or jurisdictions.
An organisation is looked uPQn as a system comprising
parts each of which makes a contribution to the operation
of the organisation and each of them is dependent on others
for its own needs. System parts are self-adjusting. Mainly the
sub-systems or sub-parts of the organisation are:
1. Production or technical sub-systems: They are called
as operations or technical core. They transform inputs into
the outputs of the organisation.
2. Supportive sub-systems: The parts of the organisation
support and supplement each other. They keep the
organisation itself functioning. It produces raw materials,
disposal of goods and services.
3. Maintenance sub-systems: This ensures the necessary
inp~ts of human skills for personnel functioning of all kinds.
4. Adaptive sub-systems: These help to adjust and
respond to the changing environmental conditions and
demands, for example, planning units, reserach and
development units.
5. Managerial sub-systems: They are called the
administrative structure. These co-ordinate inter-relate the
other sub-systems. They resolve the conflicts between units.
Parts of the Systems Theory
1. The individual and the personality structure: As
already mentioned, a system comprises parts. The first basic
part of the systems theory of organisation is the individual
and the personality structure. An individual's personality
includes motives and attitudes.
2. Formal organisation: The second part of the system
is the formal organisation. Formal organisation is the formal
arrangement of functions that made up the structure of a

system. F.W. Taylor, Henry Fayol contributed a lot to
development of the formal theory of the organisation. Formal
theory is also called as the mechanistic or structural theory.
Formal organisation is concerned with the discovering the
principles of organisation. Indeed, it rests on four key pillars.
These are:
(1) Division of labour,
(2) The scalar or fU!lcJional processes,
(3) The structure, and
(4) The span of control.
Among these the division of labour is the cornerstone, the
remaining three are its corollaries.
3. Informal organisation: The third part of the systems
theory of organisation is the informal organisation. In an
organisation continuity occurs, interactions, contacts and re-
lationships which are not part of or governed by formal
organisation. These contacts may be incidental or accidental
to organised activities. These contacts may arise from some
personal desire or gregarious instincts. Contacts may be
friendly or hostIle. These contacts make an informal
organisation. An important attribute of an informal organisa-
tion is that it is indefinite, structureless and has no definite
division. Informal organisations are necessary for the opera-
tion of the formal organisation. Informal organisation serves
to:
(1) help in attaining personal objectives,
(2) provide social satisfaction,
(3) communication, and
(4) social control of behaviour.
4. Physical setting: The fourth component of the systems
theory is the physical setting in which the job is performed.
The psychological, social and physiological characteristics of

people in the work environment have to be taken into
account and accommodated. Machine and processes should
be designed to fit the psychological and physiological
properties of men rather than hiring men to fit machines.
Organisation, moreover, do not exist in vacuum. They are
subject to pressures or forces from outside word such as
culture technological change, education, politics, natural
and human resources as well as economic frame work. All
these constitute external environment.
An essential feature of a system, as already mentioned,
is the inter-relatedness of its parts. This implies that parts
must interact with each other. The question then is what are
the processes to achieve this desired interaction. These
processes called the linking processes, they are three namely,
communication, balance and decision-making. The reader is
familiar with the meaning, importance and mechanisms of
communication and no more on it need to be said here. The
concept of baiance refers equilibrium mechanisms whereby
the various parts of the system are maintained in a
hamoniously structured relationship with each other. Finally,
decision-making necessarily covers a very wide field of
topics in the system and it keeps the various parts of the
system energised and activated.
4. The Human Relations Theroy
This is a behavioural theory. It is a new theory of the

organisation. This theory is also termed as socio-economic
theory or humanstic theory. This theory focuses on what is
called as informal organisation. This theory is customary. It
is not enacted, written and manualised. It is not formalised.
It is not subject to neat diagrams. It is not shown in charts.
It is more subtle or skilled. It develops through custom. This

theory lays emphasis on multi-dimensional nature of man.
It deals with concrete human behaviour. This theory does
not always conform to rule of .thumb. It is rooted in
psychology and applied to the field of public administration.
The chief exponents of human relations theory are: Elton
Mayo, Miss M.P. Follet, Bernard, Waldo, Herbert Simon etc.
Credit goes to Elton Mayo for their contribution to the
improvell"\ent of human relations in any enterprise.
The human relations theory lays greater stress on people
on human motivation, on informal group functioning. The
human relations theory of organisation rejects the formal
institutionalism. It assumes the organisational behaviour is
quite complex from all directions. A human problem requires
a human solution. This theory is more subtle in the sense,
as it reflects such matters as social and economic status, race
or language difference educational levels, personal likes and
dislikes.
An organisation is an essence of social system. A group
of people behvaing in a particular way. Workers 'formed
their own groups different from those of management. And
this gives rise to human relations theory. The formal
organisation tends to be relational and impersonal, whereas
informal organisation tends to be emotional and personal.
The two usually overlap.
According to humanists there are various types of
overlays (refers to contacts) in the informal organisation,
such as:
(1) The socio-metric overlay,
(2) The functional overlay,
(3) The decision overlay,
(4) The power overlay, and
(5) The communication overlay.
But the main defect or the deficiencies or the weaknesses

of the informal organisation is its instability. It goes on
changing and its behaviour cannot be predicted.
The Essentials of Human Relations Theory
The essentials of the human relations theory may be
summarised as follows:
1. According to this theory, an organisation is a complex

social system comprising individuals, informal
groups, and group relationships. It takes into
consideration as to how the employees of an
organisation actually behave their work habits. The
human relations theory is concerned with the life of
individual workers within the organisation.
Thus, the advocates of this theory do not accept the
view of the classical writers that an organisation is
merely a formal structure.
2. The Human relations theorists argue that the
efficiency and productivity of an organisation do not
entirely depend upon economic factors (e.g. monetary
rewards). Workers are not machines. They are human
beings having sentiments, emotions, beliefs, values
and opinions. All these informal socio-psychological
factors affect the productivity and efficiency of an
organisation. In their view both, economic rewards
and socio-psychological satisfactions are essential for
the effective functioning of an organisation. It is
based on the belief that happy workers are more
productive and unhappy workers less productive.
Happiness is not merely a matter of material rewards.
It is more a matter of interpersonal relations. If
proper harmony is maintained between the formal
and informal organisations, an organisation will

realise its goals of efficiency and productivity.
3. The advocates of the human relations theory have
attacked the so-called princ.iples of administration
expounded by the classical writers. According to
humanists these principles are not scientific principles
and they are not empirically tested. They are nothing
but commonsense conclusions derived from experi-
ence. Herbert Simon compared those principles to
maxims and mutually contradictory.
4. They have reinterpreted the meaning of authority.
The classical writers believed informal authority
which is derived from the formal position one holds.
5. Another idea associated with the human relations
school is the concept of participatory management. .
• The proponents of this theory or school believe that
workers should be allowed to participate in making
decisions that affect their working conditions.
7
Management
Meaning
Dr. P.A. Appleby remarks the heart of administration is

management. Management has many tasks. Those who
perform these tasks are called managers. Management is a
dynamic aspect. Managers achieve their objectives through
the efforts of others. The basic aim of management is to
achieve certain objectives or goals or results.
The term management has been variously defined. A
popular definition is offered by Miss M.P. Follet "Manage-
ment is the art of getting things done through the people."
A short definition is "Management is the art of arranging the
things". Management is a co-operative effort for achieving
a particular objective.
Management and administration are very closely related
to each other. Both the words are used in combination.
Management means administration and administration
means management. But they are not equal in all respects.
Management 123
Administration is wider in scope whereas management is

purely an internal concept. Both are distinct and different
subjects.
Modern states are welfare states aI}d as such the activities
of management go on increasing. It is said that someone
decides, someone administers, and someone performs.
Management is a process of achieving desired goal. Those
who perform these important functions are known as
managers. Management is primarily the supervision of the
work of others. Administration implies both ends and means,
but management confines itself to the most efficient and
economic means. 1
Nature and Characteristics of Management

Management has few important characteristics. These are
following:
(1) Universality
The first and foremost feature of management is that it is
universal in nature or character. It is found anywhere and
everywhere. For example, we can speak of home
management, school management, business management,
personnel management, university management etc. It is a
universal process or activity. It is central activity in economic
system. It is the core of all human activities. It is virtually
applicable in any and every situation and in all types of
organisation. 2 Thus, it is a universal principle.
(2) Management is Dynamic
There is nothing static about management. It is dynamic,
flexible and changeable. Management has to function in an
ever changing set up. It is subject to change. It is the product
of continuous change. It is adaptive. There are various ways
to adapt. But it should adopt to economic changes rapidly,

intelligently and rationally. It is not just a creature of
economy. It is the creator as well.
(3) Management as a Process
The term process refers to a technique of doing things.
Management has also been defined as the process of planning,
organising, directing and controlling the organisations
operation. As a process it is neither the privilege nor the
responsibility of the top members in an organisation. It is a
work of all people. It is not a product. But it is a process.
As a process it goes on functioning operating and working.
It is always at work. it is a process to achieve the desired
ends, targets, goals, results and objectives. 3
(4) Management is Inexact
Management as a systematic branch of knowledge is of recent
origin. There is no yet unifying and all pervasive theory of.
management. The principles of management are the best
guidelines. They can be adopted only in a given situation.
That is why management has been termed as situational. The
principles of the management are the guides to thought and
action. They help us to minimie and avoid mistakes.
Management functions in the complex and intricate situation.
Mere adoption of scientific methods does not make
management an exact science. True nahue of the work of a
management can be systematically analysed and classified.
In other words, there are distinct professional features and
a scientific aspect of management. Its elements and
requirements can be analysed, can be organised systematically
and can be learned by anyone.
(5) Management is Middle Culture
In the sense it is both a science and an art. It is a middle
Management 125
culture which believes in action and takes the help of both

science and an art.
Management is a science because it is a systematic body
of knowle<;tge. It has been studying systematically {lnd
scientifically in most of the colleges and in the universities.
But it is not an exact or pure or natural science. It is a social
science like anthropology, ethics, sociology, political science,
geography, history, economics and so on. It is also an art.
lt is not merely an art but also a fine or skilful art. Skill is
required to manage the affairs. Like medicine, engineering,
it is both a science as well as an art4.
(6) Management Deals with Economic Activities
Economic performance is the yardstick in management.
Economic performance is given the first priority. Management
in every action and decision put economic performance first.
The justification of the existence of management depends
upon the economic results that it produces. Management is
not really concerned with a non-economic performance such
as happiness, welfare and culhtral upliftment of the workers.
Management must produce economic goods and services. If
it does not do that it is not management. Every act, every
decision and every action of management has an economic
dimension. The ultimate test of management is economic
performance. Achievement and not knowledge remains the
proof and aim of management.
(7) Management Deals with Human Beings
Management is a social process and social activity. It is a
systematic way of doing things. Managers are social beings
who deals with their social beings. So, the process of
management is a social process. A manager's actions are
often guided by customs and shaped by the traditions of the
society in which he operates and by the physical environment.

Thus, in a word, management deals with human beings. It
involves getting things done with and through the people. 5
It has been s~id that manager has to co-ordinate 4 Ms-
men, money machinery and material. Money, machines and
materials are different from men. Manager has to handle
money, machines and materials through men. All types of
principles, rules, generalisations and concepts can be applied
to money, machines, materials. Men are very difficult to
handle. Each human being is unique. He is unpredictable.
N a two persons are alike and even the same person is not
the same all the time. A manager may provide everything
to the people working with him. But he may fail to get the
best from them because of the external factors or forces
influencing the behaviour pattern of his subordinates. And
these factors are beyond his control. This is the challenge
which a modern manager has to face. It is a part of manager's
job to motivate, communicate, train and influence his
colleagues and subordinates and provides overall leadership.
(8) Management as a System
A system is an organised or complex whole. It is a combination
of things or parts forming a complex whole. It covers
extremely broad concepts. For example, we have a mountain
system, river systems and solar system as part of our
physical surroundings. The body itself is a complex organism
including skeletan system, circulatory system and the nervous
system. Thus, human body can, be looked upon as a system.
Its sub-systems are nervous system, the circulatory system,
the digestive system. Thus, management is looked upon as
a system made up of sub-systems. 6
(9) Management as Power
Niccolo Machiavelli was a public administrator. He was a
Management 127
historian, a man of affairs, practical man. He was a futurist,

child representative and product of his times. He was a
worthy thinker in the history of political thought. He followed
historical, scientific, empirical .and realistic approach. He
was a great diplomat. He was the founding father of political
realism. He is a value-free politician. I lis political philosophy
is empirical. He served as a secretary of foreign affairs in
flounce for about 14 years. He carried a diplomatic
correspondence. He lost his job on account of change in
administration. At age of 44 he wrote a book Prince. Prince
indicates how to gain or acquire power, how to hold or retain
power and how to expand. Power was the centre of his
political thought. In his private life he was an upright man.
He was also democrat. His political theory is nothing but the
theory of power. He expanded the doctrine of power. He
related it to religion state success and defence. All men desire
power. The exercise of power requires legitimacy. He advised
to his prince at least outwardly to appear merciful, faithful,
upright, religious and humane. He said that promises were
related to circumstances. He said when the security of the
state was in danger, then he said to his prince to break your
promises not bother and not care of those promises. A ruler
is one who can achieve the good of the people by any means.
End is more important here. Violence cannot be stopped.
Violence, force, fraud duplicity, deceit are the means. All
these are the means he favoured. He describes the nature of
man in a pessimistic or in a negative terms or uncompli-
mentary terms. People are the final base of Machinavelli's
doctrine of power. He advised the executive or prince to
make speeches before the local societies and to give awards
to those persons who demonstrating great ability in
commerce, agriculture, and to concentrate on one or two
achievements. He said that the best executive is one who was
feared rather than loved but not hated. Man is ready to forget
the death of his father rather than his property? Men are
selfish, self-centred, egoistic, brutish, and foolish.
(10) Management as a Profession
It is being adopted by talented persons. It is a specialised
subject. It is an occupation, profession, full time job or career
service. It is a profession like that of salesmen, typists. It has
been professionalised. Its knowledge is being used in
instructing, directing and guiding others. Government and
big business have their own paid legal advisers, chartered
accountants, and auditors. Managers are like teachers and
directly in the operating line.
(11) Management as a Team Work
It is a group of persons who exercise authority and respon-
sibility jointly or collectively. Management is more than a
single manager or an administrator. It is not just a single
individual with the title of superintendent or chief engineer
or director or secretary. Management is a group of persons.
It is a collective, joint, group, undivided or team work. It is
not confined to one particular step or level in an organisation.
Management requires a number of competent specialised
aSljistants.8 Thus, it is a team work.
(12) Management is Multilayered
Management has many layers or steps. Management is
hierarchically set up consisting of many layers or steps or
gradations-top management, middle management, rank
and file.
Top management is the administrative class including
important administrators. Top management is narrow and
restricted one. It includes the head of an agency or unit. It
directly takes part in policy-making.
Management 129
Middle management is wide and populated. 9 It is a link

between top and base influencing subordinate and influenced
by his superior. It is the executive class. Middle management
is the agent of top management. It always looking signals
from above. Middle management comprises under secretary,
section officers of field stations, budget and accounting
officers, public relations officers and other supervisory
officers. It performs very important functions. It does not
directly takes part in policy-making. :r.tJ. aids in policy-
making. Middle management influences the policy-making
of top management. It translates policies into action. Its main
task is to implement the policy. It is a two way traffic. It is,
thus, exposed to pressure from both top and bottom.
Execution of policy is its main business. It gets the job done.
It does not have complete freedom in choosing the personnel
or in firing them. It has to get the work fast. It has to run
the show. It has to think a plan itself. It is vital to good
administration. It is the middle management that controls
the operations. It is closer to base. It has negative role of
checking slackness, carelessness and bad workmanship. It
has positive role. It has to suggest improvements and raise
efficiency by encouraging, appreciating and rewarding good
work. Middle management looking after the lower
management and does the substantive work of the
government on behalf of the citizen. Many of the citizens
contact is included in this zone. It is itself a career. The spirit
and temper of public service is built up here. It is also a
training ground for top management.
Rink and file comprises supervisors, clerks, assistants,
peons etc. It is charged with running of the work. Supervisor
is a leader as well as a boss of the rank and file. He is the
spokesman carrying upward suggestions, informations, needs
and desires.
(13) Authority as the Basis of Management

Authority is the foundation upon which management
constructs its efforts. According to Prof. Millett, authority
involves the making of a decision 'and execution of a decision.
(14) Accountability of Management
Authority is accompanied by responsibility. It must be
accountable and f,esponsible. Such responsibility are of three
types-political, administrative and professional. If authority
is the foundation of management, accountability or
responsibility is the justification for the exercise of that
authority.
(15) Management is a Technique
It is a technique or a distinct skill. As a technique it is universal
in nature. The skill is applied for achieving desired objectives.
Technical departments are headed by and controlled by
technicians. It is a growing science. Its techniques are scientific.
Its techniques are of universal applications.
Types of Management
(1) Top Management

Managers may be classified by the amount of authority and
responsibility they have. Those with the greatest amount of
authority and responsibility are collectively known as the
top management. The top management in government
consists of political executives and career executives (higher
civil servants).10 In India, for example, the cabinet ministers,
ministers of state and deputy ministers on the political side
and secretaries, joint secretaries, and deputy secretaries on
the administrative side come under top management.
Management 131
Thus, top management comprises political and admin-

istrative personnel.
Functions
Top management mainly concerned with direction and
control. Direction means providing right kind of action.
Control means looking towards execution of a policy.
(1) It performs managerial functions of direction and
control.
(2) It prepares notes, reports, and information required
for the press, the public and the legislature.
(3) It furnishes the minister all sorts of information
required by him.
(4) It provides the legislature information asked by it in
the from of short- notice, questions, and committees.
(5) It has to supply information regarding legal matters
pending in the law courts.
(6) It serves as a co-ordinating body for inter-
departmental agencies.
(7) It co-ordinates the activities of various departments,
commissions, boards, and divisions.
(8) It shares with political head the functions of thinking
and planning.
1. Qualities of top management
1. Open mindedness,
2. Vision,
3. Imagination,
4. Intellect, and
5. Wide experience of men and affaires.
2. Middle management
The other managers who are subordinates to the top managers
are grouped into middle management. In India middle

management includes branch officers, section officers, heads
of attached offices, and officers of field agencies. The middle
managers direct supervisors who have authority over them.
Tasks of Middle Management
It performs very important functions:
(1) It aids in policy making
It does not directly take part in policy-making, but it
indirectly influences policy-making. It helps or aids the top
management. It uses its discretion and in filling in the gaps.
It is the agent of top management. It always looking for
signals from above. It is a policy-maker to a degree. It
translates strategy into practice.
(2) Its characteristic role is taking orders
It is a two way traffic or thought. It is exposed to pressures
from both top and bottom. It moves down by pressure at the
top.
(3) Its real task is to implement policy
Execution of policy is its main business. It gets the job done.
It has to get work fast. It does not have complete freedom
in choosing the personnel or in firing them. They are bound
by hard and fast rules. He has to run the show. Have to
report to the top management, about the mission achieved
or accomplished. He has to think a plan himself. He is the --
chosen instrument to settle details. Middle management is
vital to good administration. It must train employees for
advancement. It is the middle management that controls
operations. At the base is the first line supervisor-supervising
his small crew. Its supervision becomes more and more
specific in downward general at the top. It tends to become
Management 133
closer at the base. The burden of specific supervision

increases as it moves downward. Down below is the doers
world. The line operators kingdom. Only he sees the
concrete product. He is the mast~r of know-how. Middle
manager must extend support staring from the planning
stage to the finishing stage. In control of operations, middle
management does the tactics of administration, leaving
strategy to top management.
It has negative role also checking laziness, carelessness,
and bad workmanship.
It has a positive role. It has to suggest improvement, raise
efficiency by rewarding, encouraging and appreciating good
work. Many of the citizens contact comes in this zone. It is
in itself a career. The spirit and the temper of public service
is built up here. It is also the training ground for top
management. 12
(4) Repository of information
It is keeping records. It is good at record administration.
Qualities of Middle Managers

(1) Vocation specialists
If they have to be successful, middle managers should be

vocational experts, equipped with professional education.
(2) Knowledge of rules
They should be fully aware of law, regulations and rules and
regulations affecting government operations generally.
(3) Skilful supervisors
They should be perfect in the art of supervision. They must
work with close co-operation with supervisors and
subordinates. They should have the capacity of leadership.
134 Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues.
(4) Long experience

The longer is the experience, the better the functioning of
middle-managers. For a longer period if he remains in his
group, the more he becomes specialist. They come into
contact with field workers who deal with the public. Through
his band of field workers, taxes are to be collected, law and
order is to be maintained, trade and business is to be
regulated, social and economic welfare activities are to be
carried out. All these functions cannot be performed without
co-operation of the public.
(5) Participative management
It means workers participation or sharing in decision-making
process of the organisation. The impact of such decisions
may be proximate or ultimate. It is a part of the demand of
the employees.
1. It tends to increase the degree of 'we feeling'.
2. Removes or soften the feelings of hostility, conflict,
and confrontation in employer-employee relations.
3. Promotes mutual understanding.
4. Develops the employees personality and promotes a
sense of loyalty.
5. Develop a work climate.
The Tasks of Management
It is very difficult to exactly state the tasks of management tasks
are nothing but the functions of management. The primary
functions of management according to Henry Fayol are:
(1) To plan,
(2) To organise,
(3) To command,
(4) To co-odinate, and
Management 135
(5) To control.
Gulick and Urwick mentioned seven functions of
management as "POSDCORD"
However, the specific functions of management may be
stated as follows:
1. Planning
Determination of the goals of the group.
2. Organising
Setting up and maintaining a system of authority and
responsibility.
3. Mojivating
Directing the group at all types by exercisingi leadership.
4. Co-ordinating
Arranging the relationship of individuals and activities
within the group for achieving efficiency.
5. Controlling
Examining critically the achievements of the group and
making correction and improvements when found necessary.
Terry defines the functions of management as:
0) Planning,
(2) Organising,
(3) Actuating, and
(4) Controlling.
Seckler Hudson broadens the functions of management
so as to include:
0) Policy formation,
(2) Securing,
(3) Locating,
(4) Utilising authority,

(5) Organising,
(6) Budgeting,
(7) Staffing,
(8) Operating,
(9) Reporting,
(10) Leading,
(11) Directing, and
(12) Controlling.
Hudson summarises the role of managers as follows :
(1) Planning,
(2) Setting and communicating goals,
(3) Organising,
(4) Deciding administrative policy of the organisation,
(5) Assigning the general and specific tasks to the various
parts of his organisation,
(6) Co-ordinating,
(7) Examining and approving individual projects,
(8) Prescribing budgetary limits,
(9) Selecting or approving the selection of the key
subordinate personnel,
(10) Developing his subordinates,
.(11) Inspecting,
(12) Management improvement, and
(13) Participating in and controlling public relations.
Problems of Management
Prof. Millett distinguishes substantive or peculiar problems
of management from technical or common problems.
As regards to the substantive problems, they are peculiar
to each individual administrative agency. These problems
differ from agency to agency-depending upon the nature
Management 137
of their functions. The problem of police department are

different in nature than the problems of army or health
departments .
. Hence, management must give careful atteption to the
peculiar problems for carrying out its particular service.
The second set of problems are those which are technical
in nature and are common to all large scale organisations.
These problems can be studied in many different agencies
in this category are included.
1. Problems of work direction include the problems of
leadership, planning, communication, supervision, public
relations.
2. Problems of work operation includes the problems
of organisation, personnel, budget and legal advice.
3. Problems of internal services include house keeping
functions like the material supplies, stores, communication
and transportation facilities etc.
1. Dublin, R. Management : "Meaning, Methods, Motives",

Academy of Management Review, Vol. 7, No.3 (July 1982), pp. 12-
15.
2. Hurst, D.K. "Of Boxes, Bubbles and Effective Management",
Harvard Business Review, Vol. 60, No.6, pp. 15-20.
3. Weihrich, H., Management Excellent, New York, McGraw Hill
Book Company, 1985.
4. Om Prie Srivastava, Public Administration and Management,
Himalaya Publishing House, Dr. Bhalerao Marg, Mumbai, pp
3-10.
5. Hudson, Seckler, Organisation and Management, pp. 12-15.
6. Fayol, General and Industrial Management, p. 6.
7. Amal Kumar Mukhopadhyay, Westcm Political Thollght, K.P.
Ragchi and Company, Kolkata, pp. 192-145
8. Herman Finer, Theory and Practice of Modern Government,

(London: Methuen, 1956), p. 723.
9. Mary, C.H. Niles, Middle Management (2nd ed.), 1949.
10. Top management is composed of political leaders and the
government servants.
11. Marx, F.M., Elements of Public Administration.
12. Ibid., p. 377.
8
Financial Administration
Introduction
Finance occupies a very important place in budgetary process.

It is the oil of the engine of administration. 1 No act of
government can be performed without money. Government
requires money for everything, it does. The government can
achieve more if there can be large amount of money. Finance
is a life-blood of the government. No government can function
without finance just as no motor car can run without petrol.
Public finance is, thus, an integral part of administration.
Financial administration is concerned with the regulation
and distribution of monetary resources. It is an important
aspect of public administration and is concerned with all
aspects of financial management of the government. In fact,
public finance and public administration are inseparable.
Every administrative act has its financial implications. The
availability of financial resources determines or affects the
administrative activity as a whole. The management of fincince
is, therefore, one of the first and inescapable responsibility of

administrators.
Financial administration means the management of the
finances of a state or. of a public authority endowed with
taxing and spending powers. Administration and finance
are as substance and shadow inseparable. Finance is the fuel
of administration. It fuels the administrative engine. All
undertakings depend on finance, it is generalised capital.
Sound financial management is the vital to the success of any
enterprise. This is all the more so for any government.
Government should spend the money efficiently and eco-
nomically. Efficiency and economy are the two watchwords
of public finance. 2 Sound finance is at the core of modern
government. Financial administration seeks to raise, spend
and account for the funds needed for public expenditure.
Financial operations comprise planning, determining, ex-
ecuting and controlling taxation, borrowing, and public
spending. Thus, financial administration is one of the most
important facets of public administration and as such it is
concerned with all the aspects of financial management of
the state. It deals with the principles and practice relating to
the proper and efficient administration of the finances of the
state.
Budget
The very word budget was wholly unknown till 1803. The
word budget originally meants a bag or pocket attached to a
person. The term budget is derived from an old English word
"Bougettee". It means a leather bag or a pocket or wallet
carrying the official papers. The Chancellor of Exchequer in
England used to carry his papers in a leather bag to the House
of Commons. He would open it to place the papers containing
the financial plan before the parliament or the House. Thus,
Financial Administra tion 141
Budget is British in origin and it has been adopted by other

countries from there. Thus, Bougettee in due course of time
was called as Budget. In India Budget is called the annual
financial statement. 3 It contains the whole income and
expenditure of the government. Budget in modern times
means a financial, scheme or statement or document which
contained the estimate of revenue and expenditure for a year.
In simple words, Budget means 'annual financial statement'
containing the income and expenditure of a year. Budget is a
tool of administration. It is the key-stone of financial
administration. It is a tool of management. Budget now-a-
days is something more than an estimate of revenue and
expenditure. It also includes material finances.
Budget constitutes the vital part of governmental
machinery. Once Prof. George said government is finance.
Finaltce and administration are inseparable. Budget is the
core or heart of management. It is a scheme of what amount
shall be spent on what matters. It is also a tool of legislative
control. Legislature is a fund raising and fund granting
authority.
Budget has so many social and economic implications.
It reflects the social and the economic policies of the
government. Budget involves government's major decisions.
Such decisions show who pays how much and who gets how
much. Budget as an instrument for implementing social and
economic programmes of the government. It is the very core
of democratic government. 4 It is a powerful instrument of
social policy. Modern states are welfare states and here
budget serves as an instrument for the promotion of welfare
objectives. It is a means for the establishment of a socialist
pattern of society.
It is a major instrument for implementing our plans and
policies. It is an instrument for short-term and long-term
planning. In restricted sense, budgeting means planning.

The relationship between planning and budgeting is very
close. Budget reflects policy and control. It is the heart of
financi(!l management. It is a powerful tool of co-ordination.5
The budget is a statement of expected revenue and
proposed expenditure. It is a frame work of reference for
financial administration. In fact, it is the instrument of
financial administration. It sets forth the manner in which
revenue is to be collected and the expenditure incurred. It
is the heart of financial administration. 6 Appropriations are
valid only for the authorised period at the end of which they
lapse. The budget therefore is subject to lapse. Through it the
legislature controls the purse, it controls the executive.
Budget disciplines and streamlines the administration?
Principles of Budgeting
Sound budgeting should conform to a few well recognised
principles. Professor Harold. A. Smith explains the principles
of budgeting as follows:
(1) Publicity: The government budget passes through
various stages i.e. preparation, enactment and execution.
Through these various stages, budget should be made
public. There should not be any secret sessions, of the
legislature to consider budget. Publicity of the budget is
essential so that all the people and the press of the country
may express views concerning various taxes or schemes of
expendihlre.
(2) Comprehensiveness: It should give the complete
picture of government revenues and expenditure. Receipts
and approriations should be expressed in detail specifications.
Through budget, one should be able to know the entire
financial positions of the government. Budget should know
the entire financial positions of the government. Budget
Financial Administration 143
should include the complete financial plans and programmes

of the government.
(3) Clarity: It should be simple. The income and the
expendihtre given in the budget should be sufficiently clear,
accurate, precise, specific, definite and exact. The informations
relating to the income and expenditure given in the budget
must be sufficiently accurate.
(4) Integrity: It means financial programmes which is to
be included in the budget and enacted by the legislature
should be carried out as intended by the legislature.
(5) Periodicity: Appropriation should be authorised for
a definite period of time. An appropriation not used at the
end of the period should generally lapse or be reapropriatd
with the specific amount and purpose detailed.
Other writers also stated with minor differentiation
some of the principle of budgeting. Taken together all these
principles, they can be summed up as follows.
1. The budget should be balanced: The expenditur for the
year must not exceed the total revenues for the year.
2. The estimates should be on cash basis: The budgets should
be prepared on what is expected to be actually received
during the year and not on demands or liabilities falling due
within the year. Both receipts and payments are in cash. The
budget is therefore prepared in cash.
3. Budgeting should be gross and not net: Gross budgeting
means that all the transactions both of receipts and
expenditure should be fully shown and not merely the
resultant net position.
4. Estimating should be as close as possible: Overestimating
or underestimating should be avoided. Exact or close
estimating is necessary. Budget estimates shall be closed.
They should be accurate as far as possible. Budget estimates
of receipts and expenses shall be as close to actuals as
possible. Neither revenue shall be underestimated nor

expenditure overestimated. The tax payer shall not be made
to pay more than· is necessary nor shall the spending
departments get more funds than n.ecessary. Lump-sum
grants and payments shall be avoided. There shall be
detailed specification of receipts and appropriations. Transfers
from one head to another shall be permitted only in
exceptional cases.
5. The value of lapse should be followed: This means that any
part of the grant not spent within the financial year expires
at the close of financial year and cannot be kept over for the
future.
6. Budget should be comprehensive: The budget is
comprehensive. It shows all the financial transactions of the
year. It should present a complete financial plan and should
be given wide publicity for the benefit of the electorate.
The Budgetary Procedure
The system of financial administration or the budgetary
procedure consists of three important stages or operations:
(1) The preparation of the budget or the act of the
planning.
(2) Th enactment of the budget or the act of approval.
(3) The execution of the budget or the act of enforcement.
Let us discuss all these stages or operations one by one.
I. Preparation of the Budget

1. Preparation of Preliminary Estimates by the
Local Officers
The work of the preparation of the budget starts or begins
or commences in the month of the July or August about six
to eight months before the commencement of the next
financial year. Ministry of Kinance sends out printed forms

for estimates of revenue and expenditure to the various
departments. The heads of departments send those forms to
the disbq.rsing officers head of the local offices who prepare
the preliminary estimats. The task of preparing the estimates
is perhaps the most important one. Every care should,
therefore, be taken in the preparation of the estimate. While
preparing the estimates the local officers are to fill in the
columns of the prescribed forms which relates to:
(1) Actuals of the previous year.
(2) Sanctioned estimated for the current year.
(3) Revised estimates for the current year.
(4) Proposed estimates for the next financial year with
explanatory notes for any increase or decrease in
estimates.
(5) Actuals of the current year.
2. Scrutiny of the Estimates by the Heads of the
Departments
The local officers send the estimates to the heads of
departments i.e. the controlling officers for scrutiny and
review. This scrutiny is purely on administrative type. He
has the power to accept some of the proposals and reject
others. Then he consolidates the estimates for the whole
department. The estimates from the various departments are
sent to the appropriate ministry. The estimates then are
passed on the to the budget division of the ministry of
finance.
3. Scrutiny by the Finance Ministry
The finance ministry critically examines the estimates of'
income and expenditure. Finance department is mainly
concerned with economy. The scrutiny of the estimates by
finance ministry is, thus, made from the financial point of

view, that is of economy and of availability of funds. The
Ministry of Finance then prepares an estimate of income and
expenditure of the Government of India as a whole. On the
basis of the estimated expenditure, proposals regarding
fresh taxes are made in the budget. In other words the
budget is divided into two parts.
(1) The income side, and (2) The expenditure side. The
budget consolidated in this form is ready by December.
4. Approval by the Cabinet
The finance minister examines the budget estimates
somewhere in January and in consultation with the Prime
Minister prepares his financial policy with regard to taxation
etc. After that has been done, the budget is submitted to the
cabinet for joint consideration. It is so done, because it is the
cabinet which is responsible for laying down the general
course of policy. When the cabinet has approved, the budget
is ready for being introduced in the parliament.
II. Enactment of the Budget
It is the unquestioned right of the parliament not only to

ensure the public funds are raised only with its consent but
also to exercise complete control over the way in which the
nations revenues are spent by the government. The parliament
is, thus, the manager of the national purse. The sanction and
approval of the parliament is, thus, necessary to raise or
spend public money. Not a single paisa can be spent without
the sanction of the legislature. Parliament control over
finances. It exercises budgetary control. The control of the
parliament over finance is most important and effective. The
legislature proceeds to supervise, direct and control the
, finances. It means the parliament should pass the budget

and, thus, authorise the government for raising the revenue
and expend money. 10
In the parliament, the budget goes through the following
stages of enactment namely,
1. Presentation of Budget
It has become customary in our country to frame, introduce,
present, and pass the budget in the parliament. The budget
session of the Indian parliament commences in the mid-
February. The budget is presented to the parliament in two
parts 0) The Railway budget, and (2) The General budget.
Railway budget is fully, totally, completely or exclusively
deals with the receipts and expendihue so of the railways.
And it is separately presented, piloted and introduced to the
parliament by the Railway Minister. The General budget
deals with the estimates of all the departments excluding
railways. It is presented to the parliament by the Finance
Minister. The procedure followed in case of Railway budget
and the General budget is the same.
First Railway budget is presented followed by the General
budget. The General budget is introduced and presented by
the finance minister in the Lok Sabha (House of the people)
with a speech called the budget speech. His speech relates
to government's economic policy. The finance minister's
speech is eagerly awaited by the people of industries,
businessmen, and financial circles as it gives them the first
intimation of the taxation, the tariff trends and protection of
the industries and the general economic and the financial
policy of the government for ensuing financial year. The
budget speech is a lengthy and comprehensive document.
And the copies of the budget together with the finance
statement are printed and circulated to all the members for
their reference. And it reveals what new taxes are to be'

imposed and which of the existing taxes are to be increased
or decreased or remitted.
2. The General Discussion
The general discussion of the annual financial statement or
the budget as we call it begins a few days after its presentation.
The general discussion does not take place on the day of
presentation of the budget. The speaker of the Lok Sabha
fixes a date and time on which general discussion takes
place. Discussion is confined to the general principles and
it involves the review and criticism of the administration and
also verification of difficulties of the people. Long dicussion
is not allowed. Four or five days are allotted or devoted for
the general discussion. The parliament is provided with
many occasions for discussions and debates most important
of which are the inaugural address by the president, the
budget speech of the finance minister. At such occasions
government policies and the working of the departments are
thoroughly discussed and debated. The members may
comment, criticise or praise any aspect of the departments
work. In the general discussion government servants
efficiency will be discussed. The general discussion covers
all items of expenditure. The discussion is more of political
rather than of financial nature.
The major part of the time is allowed to the opposition
to review the work of the government for the year and
ventilate the grievances of the people. At this stage, no
motions or resolutions can be moved or permitted nor is the
budget submitted to the vote of parliament. If the speaker
permits the motion, the work of the House is suspended or
postponed and a discussion on the matter takes place. Of all
the motions, adjournment motion is most important or
common.l1 This motion is intended to draw the attention of

the House to some urgent matter of public importance. Here,
the grievances of the people will be discussed. It may be
mentioned here that the general discus~ion on the budget
takes place in both the houses of parliament simultaneously.
The finance minister makes a general reply at the end of the
discussion.
3. The Voting of Demands
After the general discussion is over the Lok Sabha proceeds
to the voting of demands. It is exclusively the work of the
Lok Sabha. Here departmental-wise discussion takes place.
Voting of demands is nothing but the voting of the
expenditure is the part of the budget. For that purpose three
weeks or twenty-six days are allotted or reserved. Voting of.
demands is the exclusive privilege of the Lok Sabha and the
Rajya Sabha does not take part in it. The speaker in
consultation with the leader of the House fixes a time limit
for particular demands and for the entire expenditure part
of the budget. And as soon as the time limit for any demand
is reached, it is immediately put to vote irrespective of the
fact whether the discussion on it is complete or not. The
members of the opposition then proceeds to criticise the
administration of the department to which it relates. The
Minister concerned has to defend the administration against
all criticism that is levelled against it by the opposition. Due
to parliamentary system of government, the reduction of any
item of budget it gives chance to opposition tantamounts, to
a vote of no confidence. At the end of the discussion of each
demand, the demand is put to vote of the House. A demand
when duly voted becomes a grant. It may be remembered
that the House can only reject or reduce a demand but
cannot increase it. If more money is needed for expendihlre,
it is authorised by the way of supplementary grants or may

be spent out of contingency fund.
4. The Consolidated Fund Charges
There is one part of the estimate of expenditure which is not
submitted to the vote of the House though it can be
discussed by it. This part is known as 'consolidated fund
charges'. The consolidated fund charges include the salaries
and emoluments of the president of the Republic, the judges
of the Supreme Court, the speaker of the two Houses and
the comptroller and Auditor General etc.
5. Procedure in the (Rajya Sabha) Council of the
States
After being passed by the Lok Sabha, it is certified by the
. speaker as money bill and sent to the Council of the States
(Rajya Sabha). The Rajya Sabha has neither the power of
amending nor rejecting the financial bill. It has no power of
budget rejection. It may give the suggestions. It can make
modifications. In the financial field the Rajya Sabha has only
little powers. The Rajya Sabha can only discuss the bill and
make recommendations within 14 days to the House of
People (Lok Sabha) which may accept or reject them just as
it pleases. The Rajya Sabha has the power of withholding the
financial bill only for 14 days. After the expiry of the period,
the Rajya sabha return it to Lok Sabha. In case, the upper
house does not make recommendation within the above
specified period and remains silent, even then the bill will
be deemed to have been passed by the upper house on the
expiry of that period.
6. Presidents Assent
The appropriation bill is then sent to the president for his
assent. It is just a formality because the president cannot
return a money bill for reconsideration. Usually he does not

rehlrn the bill to the Lok Sabha. After 14 days of its passage
in the Rajya Sabha the president cannot return a money bill
for. consideration and his assent to it follows as.a matter of
course.
Thus, the enactment of the budget is over.
III. Execution of the Budget

After enactment of the budget comes the stage of execution.
Execution of budget means carrying out of the budget
collecting and spending of the money. Enforcement of the
budget is the responsibility of the chief executive. It is
authorised to collect the taxes. Execution of the budget
involves number of operations or multi stages.
1. Assessment and Collection
Before taxes are collected they have to be assessed.
Assessement means how much amount is to be collected
from different individuals according to the authority given
by the legislature. It means preparation of the list of the
persons liable to pay the tax and also determining how much
each has to pay according to the prescribed rates.
After assessment the officers of the government proceed
to collect the money due to government from the various
persons. The mode of collection varies according to the
mode of tax. For example, customs payments has to made
on the spot. In others bills may be sent to the assessee and
he may be asked to pay the amount in the nearest treasury.
Income tax is deducted from the pay of the salaried
employees. In some cases the agent or officials of the
government may approach the tax payer directly and demand
payment from him and collection thus, made may
subsequently deposit in the treasury. The task of collection
of revenue should be entrusted to the officials or different

set of officials.
2. Custody of Funds
All revenue that is collected has to be placed in safe custody.

System of cheque has introduced. In the past huge amount
of public money were maintained in the treasury. Banking
system has developed. Central Banks carries all transactions
on behalf of the government. The Reserve and State Bank of
India conduct treasury business of Government of India.
Government maintains sub treasuries and district treasuries
to supervise over them.
3. Disbursement of Funds
Process of withdrawal of money from treasury for payments
of various liabilities. Every care should be taken in the work
of disbursement against illegal and inaccurate withdrawals
or payments. Control is exercised by the ministry of finance
over expenditure. Controlling officer sends money to
disbursing officers. The basic unit of expenditure control is
sub-head. He allotted certain sub-heads of appropriations.
He alone can withdraw money from the treasury.
It is a great responsibility of a disbursing officer. He
should keep the accounts of various transactions. The
treasurer I the officer incharge of treasury is also to be
equally vigilant while making the payments. He has to see
that whether the cheque is signed by competent authority or
not and further he has to keep a record of all receipts and
payments.
The head of department exercises continuous control
over the expenditure in the department. The disbursing
officers are required to submit monthly accounts to the
controlling officer of their departments. Thus, he can get the
accurate and uptodate picture of the financial position of his

'" department as a whole. He watches the flow of expenditure
• in his department. He exercises necessary control over
extravagance or carelessn~ss.
4. Accounting
Accounting means keeping systematic record of financial
transactions.
It is only through account we come to know whether the
budget as voted by the legislature have been properly
implemented or not, how much has been spent, for what
purpose, whether within the budgetary limits or not.
Accounting operations helps for policy formulation and
programme making. Accurate accounting reports are
necessary in order to direct the course of work and future
expenditure. Here spending officer justifies his expenditure
either to Finance Director or to the Auditor GeneraI. 12

1. C.s. Lall, Financial Administration in India (Delhi, H.P. J. Kapoor,
1969), p. 76.
2. L.D. White, Introduction to the Study of Public Administration
(New York: MacMillan Co., 1958), p. 201.
3. Ashok Chanda, Indian Administration (London: George Allen
and Unwin, 1958), p. 220.
4. Also read Harold A. Smith, "Budget as an instrument of
legislative Control and Executive Management", in Public
Administration Review, p. 185.
5. Also refer E.N. Gladden, Central Government Administration
(London: Staples Press, 1972), p. 73.
6. For details refer Gladden, op. cit., pp. 115-117.
7. Also read John H. Ferguson and Dean E. Mchenry, The
American Federal Government (New York: Mc Graw - Hill Co.,
1973), pp. 392,463.
8. P.K. Wattal, The A.B.C. of Indian Government Finance, p. 34.

9. P.K. Wattal, Parliamentary Financial Control in India (Mumbai:
Minerva Book Depot, 1962), pp. 50-5l.
10. E.N. op. cit., p. 208.
11. D.R. Sachdeva and Meena Sogani, Public Administration: Concepts
and Application, Associated Publishing House, New Delhi, pp.
424-430.
12. c.P. Bhambari, Public Administration, Jai Prakash Nath and Co.,
Meerut City (India), pp. 35-40.
9
Public Relations
Meaning
The term public relations stands for all relations between

government and the people. In a democracy people are the
sovereign and the government is their servant. Therefore,
the government has to maintain cordial public relations.
Public relations is nothing but maintaining relations with the
public. Public relations is an essential component of modern
public administration. It plays a very important role in
administration. Public relation humanises administration. A
good public relation removes misunderstandings in the
minds of the people about the purposes of government
policies and programmes. Public relation is concerned with
the survival of old and new government agencies because
in the long run an agency cannot endure without specific
support. Therefore, public relations aim at ll1aking the
~ureaucracy client-oriented. Public relations connotes muhlal
relationship between an organisation and its public. It covers
every kind of relations in which the various public policies

are involved. It is concerned with the study of human factor
in both industry and government. It is a sustained effort for
mutual understanding. It is not only an important function
of management, but also a philosophy management. It is
always a two-way communication, approach or traffic. It
means a free flow of information from government to the
public and a feedback from the public to the government.
It is through feedback that the government can see and
understand how the people react to the public policies and
programmes. Public relation is not an end in itself, it is a
means to an end 1 .
It is a tool of management. Public relation has two aspects
in the sense, it is concerned with the individual as well as
people in large numbers. Thus, pUblicity is an important
aspect of public relations.
Public Relations and Publicity
Public relations and publicity are very often confused.
Publicity means to make public. Public relations and publicity
are not two different activities.
They are closely related. Publicity deals with mass.
Whereas public relations deals with the individuals. They
are two different aspects or parts of the same thing or coin.
Publicity is an important tool or branch of public relations.
Publicity is an important instrument of public relations.
Public Relations and Propaganda

Public relations is not propaganda. Propaganda is the con-
scious effort to influence the opinions and actions of others.
It often misleads the people by giving false information. But
public relations is based on truth and facts and gives correct
information. Propaganda is outward directed.
Public Relations 157
Public relations and propaganda are two different

terms. Public relations and propaganda are totally two
different activities. The main aim of propaganda is to
influence the public by spreading information which may
be true or false. Propaganda always seeks to serve it own
selfish end and no regard is given to public opinion. There
is likely to enter falsehood in propaganda. Public relations
gives importance to public opinion. People must be supplied
with true facts.
They should be not misled
The public relations officer cannot be allowed to indulge in
propaganda. His job is publicity and not propaganda. The
purpose of publicity is to help, guide the people by providing
correct information, but the purpose of propaganda is to
mislead the people in order to serve its own selfish ends. The
aim of public relations is accurate or correct. Hence, these
two are distinguished.
Public relations is often based on facts whereas propa-
ganda is sinister.
It is secret, based on falsehood. The Nazis belief in the
big lie was based on propaganda. Public relations is always
known, while propaganda is unknown.
Media of Public Relations
The following are the important media of public relations.
(1) The Employees
Public employees come in contact with a large number of
the people from the various walks oUife. They are in a better
position to know what the public has to say about the
government. Professor L.o. White says in one context, every
public official and employee is a public relations man. By
his conduct, character and contacts with citizens he is

creating a public impression about his organisation.
Dissatisfied employees create an unfavourble impression of
their organisation in the public mind. Satisfied employees
on the other hand, can create good and favourable image
of their organisation in the minds of the people. Therefore,
there is a close relationship exist between the morale of the
employees and the reputation of their agency in their
community. There are four factors of battle efficiency-
(1) Numbers, (2) Arms, (3) Training, (4) Morale. Napoleon
attributed 75 per cent of value to morale. God is always
on the side of the biggest battalions. 2 Good public relations
depends upon the politeness dealing of the employees with
their public.
(2) Press
Press constitutes the fourth estate. The newspapers,
magazines and other periodicals are important and powerful
media of public relations. They inform the people about the
various activities of the government. They also show to the
government what the people want from the government and
how they react to the various policies and programmes of
the government. They also offer constructive criticisms of
the activities of the government through the editorials. The
press can play an effective role only when it is completely
free. The press serves all those who rule and those who are
ruled. 3 The press is helpful to the government to keep in
touch with the people. The press gives the written words and
this carries much weight.
Since the press is powerful instrument of public relations,
government makes use of it as an agency for maintaining
good relations with the public.
The prime minister and other ministers and high officials
hold press conferences from time to time. At such conferences

they explain to the press correspondents the policy of the
government or defend governments stand on some
controversial issues of public concern. The government also
releases press communiques, press notes, notifications,
resolutions etc. to the press.
(3) Radio and television
Radio and television are important media of mass
communication today. These two electronics communication
media send messages to large numbers of people very
quickly. They not only broadcast news but also educate and
entertain the people. They are the important sources of
popular ideas about national and world affairs. Government
make use of these media to popularise among the people
their plans, policies and programmes by broadcasting talks,
discussions, dramas and features. Thus, they have a powerful
impact upon the formation of public opinion.
Radio and TV are very effective, easy and important
means of public contact and communication. The newspapers
and other publications reach only the educated class, while
radio can reach every type of persons whether educated or
uneducated in any part of the world.
As compared to radio, TV has double advantage of
listening and observing simultaneousl y. They are very useful
in building popular support for government policies both
inside and outside the country. Through TV and radio
government broadcast, news and views. Government makes
use of these machinery for their programmes. Radio and TV
educate the public over important matters like the use of
fertilizers, saving the crops from insects, safety rules, family
planning, the talks broadcast over the radio etc. Air, radio
and TV must be interesting, intelligible and informative. 4
(4) Films
Films are also an important source not only of entertainment,
but also of education and information. Government issues
"documentaries and newsreels" for exhibition in the theatres.
The documentaries inform the people about an important
project area or event, while the newsreels depict the various
important happening in the country. Thus, the government
issues documentaries and newsreels for exhibition in picture
talkies. The documentaries and newsreels are exhibited by
every cinema house at each show. They are widely used by
governments at the national, state and local levels. Docu-
mentaries have an educational purpose but the newsreels have
essentially a news value. Films are also exhibited even in the
villages through mobile vans. A few people read the books
and the newspapers, but almost all the people see the films. It
is an important and effective instrument to spread the ideas.
Films educate and enlighten the people. It is an important
source of entertainment. Besides acting as a source of
entertainment, films exercise deep influence in moulding the
ideas and behaviour of the cinemagoers. 5
(5) Interest groups
Interest groups such as labour groups, professional groups,
chambers of commerce etc. are organisations formed to
pursue certain ends. A government agency and its interest
group help each other in furthering a common purpose.
Their functions include:
(1) publicity and propaganda.
(2) contacts with government authorities to achieve their
objectives.
(3) movements they arrange violent movements and
strikes.
(4) influencing public opinion.
(5) electioneering they conduct electioneering in favour

of candidates who, they think will uphold their
cause.
(6) Periodic reports
In Public administration, public reporting plays a major role
in public relations. Every government agency prepares
periodic reports which aim at informing the public on its
current activities as well as its accomplishments or achieve-
ments. Such reports are the raw materials of public relations.
It is said that performance plus reporting constitute a fair
share of the totality of public relations.
(7) Advisory committees
It is the another instrument of public relations. The
membership of advisory committees includes knowledge
citizens representing different interest groups in the society.
They act as a link between the government and the various
interest groups in the community. Further, the administrator
can obtain co-operation of the people through the use of
advisory committees in carrying out his department's
policies6 •
(8) The newspapers
The newspapers are important and powerful methods of
public relations. They inform the public about the various
activities of the government. The newspapers are called the
'Bibles' of democracy. The newspapers supply the news and the
views from time to time. They reach four corners of the world.
(9) Public relations department
Public relations department performs the advisory functions.
It build up the image of the administration. It is an open
door. In the sense an intention to welcome all to come in and

enquire. Its duty is to advise, assist and answer all the
enquiries. It should be kept fully briefed on all policy
matters. Public, relations department identify noteworthy
activities. It has only to explain the policies being pursued
by the administration. In short it has to sell the policies to
the public. Public relations officer has to sell the policies and
programmes of his department.
(10) The legislature

It is regarded as the mirror of public opinion. The legislature
is an important part of the public. It makes the laws. It
occupies most important place among the three organs of the
government. It is the most powerful organ. It occupies the
superior position. It has the power to frame the laws. Its
main function is to deliberate, discuss and make laws. It
reflects different shades of opinion. Various issues are
discussed in the legislature. Debates also took place on
various issues. The discussion in the legislature is high. It is
the place where public opinion is best reflected. The legislators
speak on behalf of their voters. In'the legislahue the most
important and burning problems are discussed. The speeches
of the members of the government and opposition, the
questions, supplementary questions are reported in all the
newspapers and these influence the minds of the readers. In
the legislature the legislators get many opportunities to
inform the government about the aspirations, desires and
difficulties of the voters?
(11) Exhibitions
Exhibitions offer excellent opportunities for good public
relations. They are particularly useful in promoting the arts,
industry, trade, commerce and community life. A nation's
culture can be easily reflected in the exhibitions. It provides

opporhmity of exhibiting the products and having face to tact.'
discussions. The exhibitions have now become a big business
for which g()\'l'rnments as well?-s private sectors spend huge
amounb. 1'L'llP Ie from different walks of life are influenced
by the exhibitions. They display the goods for sale.
(12) Advertising
Advertising is another effective tool of public relations. For
adn.'rtising the government makes use of the newspapers,
radio, TV, films, posters etc.
For example, we come across advertisements issued by
government arts, the announcements of tourist facilities by
the department of tourism, advertisements about five year
plans, national saving certificates, abolition of untouchabil-
ity family welfare programmes and so on. It advertises
through posters pasted at places like railway stations, bus-
stands, post-offices and market places. s Another example,
the revenue departments sign posters advertising "Pay while
you earn", "the tax is your contribution to the nation building
programme. "
(13) Public speaking

It is an important technique of public relations which is
exploited to the maximum by politicians at the time of
elections. But government officials are supposed to be neutral
in political matters. They can address people only on a
particular official occasion.
The leaders establish contacts with the public through the
public platform. Political leaders, scholars and other people
can express their views at the public meetings and influence
public opinion. At the time of elections public platforms are
fully exploited. The speaker direct] \' ,1 ppeals to the listeners.
Every speaker puts his view and convince them that his stand
or his party is correct and better than that of the opposition
parties or individuals. Great leaders, ministers and influencial
persons express their views through public platform. The
public gets the advantage of the various types of the opinions
and viewpoints expressed through public platform.
Public speaking is a difficult art to practice, only a few
people can be successful speakers. Public speaking is
important because it attracts the crowds.
(14) Public opinion polls
Public relations is a two-way affair. Public opinions are best
reflected at public opinion polls. This technique would be
very costly and expensive one.
The best and practical way is not to collect the public
opinion, but to collect the sample of public opinion from the
people belonging to different sections of society. The opinion,
thus, collected sometimes shall reflect the opinion of the
people as a whole.
(15) Photographs
Many persons who do not care even to read a part of the
paragraph are interested to look at the picture. It is mainly
because of its attractiveness.
A photograph attracts the eye of a person. It is the most
important tool of public relations. It assumes great importance
in public relations.
(16) Political parties
Another important techniques of public relations is the
political parties. Political party is an association of men
having common political ideas or principles. They try to
come into power by amicable or peaceful means. They are
the essence of the democracy. No parties no democracy.

Political parties are the fighting groups. Their main goal is
to acquire power, retain power and to expand power. They
always attempt to capture power. Actually the fact is that
a political party is by nature adaptive.") They are concerned
with the goal of attaining political power. They are the
brokers of public opinion. They influence the minds of the
public in such a way that they are willing to vote for them.
They appeal to the voters to stand under its umbrella.
Leaders approach the people door-to-door.
A lot of propaganda is carried out before the elections
to win over the votes. They arrange public meetings, distribute
pamphlets and broadcast to the nation. Political parties
perform wide variety of functions like educating the public,
they aims at social welfare, contacts with the press, they also
aims at bringing social consciousness. lO
1. Quoted in Cutlip and Center, Effective Public Relatives,
(Englewood Cliffs, N.J. Prentice Hall, inc., 1971), p. 6.
Public relatiuns is a means to attain the goals of public
administration.
2. This statement is quoted from the book entitled International
Relations written by Vinay Kumar Malhotra, Anmol
Publications, New Delhi, pp. 20-31.
3. Press act as a bridge between the people and the government.
4. Refer Sunanda Gupta, Administration of Broadcasting in India,
(Delhi Associated, 1978), pp. 257-58.
5. Prof. Charles S. Ascher's Lecture, Human Relati(Jl1 in Public
Administration, p. 5.
6. I.I.P.A. Proceedings of the Sixth Annual Meeting, 1960, pp. 21.
7. M.e. Carny, J.L., Government Publicity.
8. Childs, H.L. An Introduction to Public Opinion, p. 2
9. Rex, F. Harlow, Public Relatiolls in War and Peace, p. 130.
10. David M. Cox, Hmo much Public Rclati(ll1~ in G(Jvernment, p. 140.
10
Personnel Administration
Bureaucracy
The permanent civil service of a country is often referred to

as Bureaucracy, a term whose origin can be traced to France
in the seventeenth century.1 In Erance each minister had a
bureau consisting of graded officers, who carried out
ministerial instructions. In the bureau the clerks played a
vital role particularly because the French government was
unstable. The importance of clerks was taken for granted
and the critics of the government began to speak in terms
of bureaucracy.
In modern times, the term is applied to the civil service.
Features
(1) Competence
Civil servants of the higher cadres are generally noted for
their competence. This is mainly due to their ability, skill and
long experience. 2
Personnel Administration 167
(2) Discipline
The members of the civil service are well disciplined. They
should carry out the orders of their superiors promptly by
and efficiently. It· must take its work seriously.
(3) Satisfaction of public
A good civil service will be able to satisfy the general public.
The motto of the civil servant is to serve the people.
Nahlrally they will be efficient, impartial and disciplined.:'I
Functions
(1) Execution of laws
Civil servants must carry out faithfully the orders of their
superiors. They come into close contact with the people and
the laws must be explained to them in an effective manner
as possible, so that the people may obey the laws willingly.
(2) Advisory
Ministers in general are amateurs. They have to depend
more often on the expert advise of their heads of departments.
Therefore, it is the duty of these departmental heads to
supply all the information and advise the ministers on
particulars issues, of course, it is left to the discretion of the
ministers to accept or reflect the advice while taking the final
decision. The final responsibility for the decisions is that of
the ministers.
(3) Delegated legislation
It is the power given by the legislature to the executive to
make subsidiary rules.
(4) Action of public complaints
Necessary action should be taken against those who are
habitually negligent and indifferent towards the public in

their dealings. They should scrutinise the complaints and
take prompt action when the complaints are genuine. 4
(5) -Public service
They should render service to the people. A government
department does not function for its own sake but for
meeting the needs and aspirations of the people. Civil
servants must discharge their duties assigned to them with
a sense of responsibility.
(6) Supervision
The superiors supervise the work of their subordinates.
Through books, pamphlets, leaflets the policy of the
government is explained.
Functions and Role of Civil Servants
The civil service has become today one of the most essential
and vital parts of the governmental machine. 5 It is important
not only for the government but also for the society. Its
functions are of varied nature. In the executive branch of the
government, there are 2 parts (1) the ministers and (2) the
civil servants.
The civil servants carry out the orders of the ministers
and advise them in policy formulation.
The functions of the civil servants are divided into the
following categories:
1. Implementation of policies
The first important function of the civil servants is to
implement or to enforce or to execute or to carry out the
policies as passed by the 1egislahlre. It is the civil servants
who translates the laws into action. 6 This is the peculiar
function. They materialise the social and economic goals of

the government. The civil servants acts as an instrument in
implementing the policies. The minister has no time because
he is always busy in party work. Therefore, the civil servants
exercises more powers in executing the laws and policies.
Administrative problems became so complex complicated
and difficult that ministers being ignorant to understand
those problems. The politicians or the top level men are
unschooled, untrained, unfamiliar, unversed in legal technical
and administrative matters. They are not scholars, experts,
specialists in these matters. Hence, they have to depend
more and more upon the permanent officials. To implement
the plans, policies, it requires skills. Who implements the
policies-The administrators or civil servants? Still, why
they are failing? Many plans and policies in India are failing
because today there is no timely implementation of policies.
Policies and plans have not been able to reach the targets. 8
Further, if the civil servant thinks that law is unfavourable
and unenforceable, he can use his discretion in enforcing
it. Sometimes he ignores it. In all these the minister does
not interfere and he should not interfere. If the minister
interferes, the result will be that the civil servant will not
be able to enforce the law according to the circumstances.
But one thing is important here, the official must act
impartially.9
2. Determination of policy
The civil service is a policy maker to a degree. The civil
service today takes part in the formation or framing or
drafting or determination of the policy of the nation. The
civil service has a great influence on the formulation of the
national policy. The ministers as the political heads of the
department often amateur of administrative work. The civil
servant recommends policy to the minister and the legislature.

The ministers and the legislators are amateurs and they
cannot understand the complexities of the public policy and
consequently, they act on the advi<;:e of the civil servant. The
decisions of the ministers are based upon the information
and facts provided by the expert officials. The official
sometime suggest and recommend new policies also. The
role of civil servant in policy formulation is also very
significant. The various legislative bills are drafted by the
expert civil servants. He advises the minister in policy
formulation. He checks the minister in framing of wrong
policies which may have severe and serious consequences.
He also gives the minister a programme of action which the
minister has not framed. He suggests alternatives to policy
which are practically enforceable. This is because he knows
how the policy works in practice. Further, the ministers are
not permanent. They change with the change of government
on the contrary, the civil service is a permanent body which
provides continuity of administration. lO
3. Public relations
Another important function of the civil servants is to
establish sound public relations. Public relations is not a
one way traffic. But it is a two way traffic or process or
approach or affair or street. It means free flow of information
from government to public and from public to government.
And here civil servant has to act as a bridge between the
government and the public. He has to maintain better public
contacts. He should maintain cordial, proper, friendly,
excellent, co-operative, healthy and happy relations with the
public. His basic must be policy, we are the friends of all,
enemies of none.11 He should be the public well wisher,
teacher, philosopher, friend and guide. He should be kind,
polite, sweet, sympathetic with the people. It is said that

the "shoe wearer knows where the shoe pinches." In the
same way he should know the real difficulties of the people.
Anyhow satisfactory contacts or relations must be maintained
with the public. Relations with public must be always all
fright, OK and not rival and contradictory. He must realise
the importance of his contacts with the public.
Recruitment
A very important problem of the public personnel is that of
recruitment. In the ancient days there was no problem of
recruitment as the king himself selected and appointed his
employees. The problem, in fact, arose with the expansion
of kingdoms into empires, when to carryon large-scale
administration employees were required in a greater number.
The purpose of recruitment is to find out a suitable person
for particular job. China is said to be the first country to
develop scientific system of recruitment through competitive
examinations as early as 2 B.C. In modern times Prussia first
introduced the system of competitive examinations. In India
the system was established in 1853.
Recruitment in the technical phraseology of administra-
tion means attracting the proper and suitable type of can-
didates for particular jobs. The interests of administration
require that only competent and deserving persons with
keen intellect and skill should get the public office. 12
The Concept of Negative and Positive Recruitment
If the recruitment stands for eliminating the political influ-
ence or preventing favouritism or keeping the rascals out,
it is termed as a negative concept of recruitment. But recruit-
ment method did not try to secure a competent body of
public servants. The emphasis was more on open then on
competition. This negative or passive approach result in

recruitment of mediocrities.
With the passage of time the spoils system or negative
system had suffere~ a set back.
Now the emphasis in recruitment shifted towards securing
the best and the most competent persons for public services.
Thus, the concept of positive recruitment emerged out. Positive
recruitment, therefore, means that the personnel agency will
recruit the best, the most talented, and competent personnel.
Thus in positive recruitment new techniques will have to be
employed to attract the most qualified personnel. In other
words, recruitment programme will have to be so devised that
the only qualified applicants get a chance to compete.
Methods of Recruitment
There are two methods of recruitment. They are:
(1) Recruitment from with (by promotion)
(2) Recruitment from without (direct recruitment)
Public personnel are recruited by two methods. One
method is to recruit the personnel direct from the open
market. It is known as direct recruitment.
The other method is to promote the employees from one
position to the other. This recruitment is from within the
service because in it employees are promoted from one post
to the other. This principle of recruitment is mostly applied
in the case of superior officials in the public service. Almost
all the countries make use of both these methods for the
selection of their public employees. In all the democratic
countries both the methods of recruitment are followed i.e.,
through open competition as well as promotion. In India in
the income tax department more than 20 per cent of class I
posts are filled by promotion.
In practice, both the systems are followed in most

countries
Qualifications of Employees
In every country some pre-requisite qualifications are laid
down for entry to public service. Some qualifications are
always laid down for entry into public service, so that only
suitable persons should get chance for a particular post. B
Qualifications required for the public servants are both
general and specific. In every country some qualifications
are laid down for entry into public service. These qualifica-
tions are of two types:
0) General, (2) Special or specific.
1. The General
The general qualifications required of every public servant
are those of
0) Citizenship
The first qualification required of a public servant is that he
should be citizen of the state. In every country only citizens
are appointed to public services. Aliens who do not owe
allegiance to the state are appointed only for a short or brief
period and as a temporary measure. It is reasonable that all
employees of a government should owe allegiance to it.
Loyalty and faithfulness to the government are necessary for
keeping the secrets of office which has become so vital these
days.
(2) Domicile or residence
Along with citizenship sometimes domicile qualifications
are required for entering into public services. It is specially
so for state services. This qualification began in the USA and
has entered in the Indian state services also. In the USA
residence qualification plays an important part in the

personnel system of national government too. Though the
law may not require the convention or practice is firmly
established that the .offices of postmasters, collectors of
revenue etc. shall be filled from persons residing in the state.
This is, however, an undersirable practice. It does violence
the merit principle. Besides affecting the efficiency and talent
adversely it also creates provincialism and narrow outlook
in public administration
(3) Age
Some countries follow the practice of recruiting persons of

young age for public services. In England and India the
practice is to recruit young persons at the age of 18, 22 or 25
just after they have left their schools or colleges. Young
persons are recruited and they are trained in service for higher
positions. In the United States the practice is to recruit trained,
experienced and mature persons of advanced age. In the
United States the age limit for scientific and professional
positions is 35, 45 and 55. Hence the age scale ranges from 18
years to 55 years. America does not follow the British practice.
(4) Sex
In few years ago public service was the sole monopoly of

man. No women were employed in the government
departments specially in the higher services. No women was
allowed to appear in the competitive examination held for
lAS and other central services. Women as a rule were
considered unfit for administrative jobs. But due to the
spread of the doctrine of equality and aspiration of women
to economic independence, the sex qualification has been
removed from recruitment to public services in most
countries. About 20,000 women are at present employed in
the central government most of them holding lower positions.

In some years in the lAS and IPS examination they have been
topping. W.F. Willoughby is of the opinion that women were
unfit for certain responsible position!,. Every man must be
suited to his work. There are certain offices e.g. in the armed
forces for which women may not be suited at all and
reversibly there are certain offices for which women alone
are better suited e.g. for nurses, kindergarten teachers,
telephone operators etc. Thus it implies that natural capacities
of men make men better suited to certain posts for which
women are not well-suited. Under the over enthusiasm and
sentiment for equality all the posts should not be thrown
open equally for men and women. The nature of the work
required for the post should be the practical consideration.
Women are not well suited for arduous jobS. 14
(2) SpeciaJ qualifications
(1) Educational qualifications
The British and the Indian system lays down definite
educational qualifications for entrants. Higher Secondary
school certificate for clerical jobs graduate degree for executive
jobs, B.A. degree for executive positions, and Honours
degree for administrative jobs are the qualifications. In India
for clerical jobs High School certificate and for higher jobs
degree in arts, science and commerce or law is the requisite
qualification. In India there is no discrimination between a
liberal and scientific education. The subjects of the competitive
examination are so broad based as to include every subject.
(2) Experiellce
Sometimes the training or experience that a candidate has
received in the actual performance of the work is a
qualification. By experience is meant the training that a
person receives in the actual performance of the work. For

example, a person who after obtaining a master degree
serves as a lecturer in some educational institution for 4
years h.as the teaching experience of four years. In the USA
experience is usually required for technical services. In other
countries for all public services experience is regarded an
additional qualification.
(3) Technical knowledge
It means the possession of technical skill required for the
proper performance of duties of that particular position. For
example to become a Civil Engineer, it is necessary to have
a degree in civil engineering. This qualification is essential
to fill up technical post such as that of legal experts, doctors
and mechanics.
(4) Personal qualifications

There qualification are at once the most important and most
difficult to determine. The tasks of modern administration
require of its employees highly administrative skills. Honesty
tact, presence of mind, resourcefulness, reliability persistence,
ability to direct and control, punctuality, executive ability
and even personal appearance and manner are considered
important qualifications for a public employees.
Methods of Detennining Qualifications

Above we have specified various qualifications required of
the entrants for public services. The purpose of laying down
these qualifications is to get the best qualified and most
competent men for government service. The question now
arises how to determine these qualifications? Upon the
proper solution of the question will depend the efficiency of
the whole administrative system.
Generally, the following methods have been adopted to

determine the qualifications:
(1) Personal judgement of the appointing officer
This is the simplest and oldest method of recruitment. Under
it the appointing officers himself determines the qualifications
of the candidates. He makes his own personal judgement in
making selections. This system is followed in the appointment
of top most positions in the official hierarchy in India as well
as in other countries. 1S
(2) Certificates of character, ability and
previous experience
The value of certificates of character and ability from
responsible persons and experience from the previous
employer is evident. These certificates are usually secured
in all cases. They help to make a preliminary estimate of the
candidates capacities and qualities on the basis of which they
may be called for interview.
(3) Examinations
Examinations are mainly of two types:
(1) Competitive, and (2) Non-competitive.
The competitive test h~s to determine which of the
candidates meet minimum standards. It has also to determine
the grades of the applicants who is the best, the next best
the third best and so on.
A non-competitive test has to determine only the
minimum standards required of the candidates. The non-
competitive test confines itself to determine merely which of
the candidates satisfy the minimum standard required.
Generally speaking there are three basic types of
examinations, namely:
I. Written examinations
Written examinations are generally used in all the countries

for judging the qualifications of the candidates. The written
examination test is of several kinds. There are five types of
written tests:
(1) The ability test
The ability tests may be short answer or essay-answer type.

Both these tests judge the general or special mental abilities
of the candidates, his memory degree of reaction to problems,
power of reasoning etc. Besides testing the general ability of
the candidates, devices have been devised by experts to test
the specific traits of mind.
(2) General intelligence test
It measures mind through the group tests of mental ability.
(3) Social intelligence test
Thruston and his associates devised this test. Such a quality
is expected to be found in police officials, railway officers
and taxation department. Such a trait of character is measured
by means of series of tests given to a group of candidates
who are asked to reside together in a camp with a examiner
for a fortnight to a month.
(4) Unit trait system
1.1. Thruston discovered this system. It identifies unit trains
of intelligence i.e., word fluency, memory reasoning ability,
deduction perception etc.
5) Mechanical intelligence test
This test used in skilled trades and positions which involve
use of clerical machines.
II. Aptitude tests

Military service in UK and also some other universities of
the UK and the USA have discovered methods of measuring
the aptitudes of the candidates. These tests are used for
filling up trade and clerical positions.
III. Achievement tests
The academic examinations are termed as achievement tests.
Certain basic academic qualifications are required for com-
peting in the examinations. A BA degree enables a candidate
to compete for lAS and other allied services examinations.
IV. Training
Administrative activities are no longer simple. They have
become so complex and specialised that mere commonsense
is not enough to carry them out. Besides, the nature of
administrative activities is constantly changing. Hence, there
arises the necessity of both in service and post entry training.
However, training has not been given due importance till
recently.
Its dictionary meaning training is practical education in
any profession, art or handicraft. In public administration it
means a conscious effort made to improve or increase an
employees skill, powers or intelligence and to develop his
attihldes and schemes of values in a desired direction. 16
Training to be distinguished from education. It has
comparatively narrow scope. Education can be explained as
the complete upbringing of the individual from the child
hood, the formation of character and of habits and manners
and of mental and physical aptitude. No doubt both are
closely related to each other and even overlap each other. Dr.
White has clearly distinguished between the two. He remarks
education is intended to show fitness for appointment but
training is directed towards individuals who are actually at

work.
Objects of Training
Training plays a vital part in public administration. It is
essential not only for affecting efficiency of administration
but also for broadening the vision of the employees. There
cannot be an efficient performance of a job without proper
training of the employees. That is way that training has been
considered the key-note of staff efficiency. It teaches him
that precision makes himself reliant and independent and
develops in him capacity to take decisions and arrives at
judgements. Training has therefore been described as a
continuous process. For this reason training like education
is a continuous process which should never end because
the need always exists. Training improves a mans, capacity,
skill and understanding. It also creates capacity in an
employee to adjust himself to his new situations. Training
must make an employee properly understand and accept
the values and goals of the organisation in which he is to
work. It creates in an employee the ability to take independent
decisions.
Training helps the employees to become people-oriented
and inculcates in them respect and regard for the general
public. It broadens the vision and widens the outlook of the
employees. It is vital to a career service. It fits them for
advancement which is assured to the employees when they
join the government service at young age. It improves the
tone and adds to the quality of organisationsP Since it
enhances the efficiency of the employees and develops their
capacities, the efficiency and prestige of the department goes
up. It fosters homogeneity of outlook in the employees. It
helps him to adjust his outlook and methods to the new
needs of new times. He is made aware of his work and the

service that he is required to render to his community. It not
only enables an individual to perform his current work more
.efficiently but also fits him for other duties .. It develops in
him capacity for higher work and greater responsibilities
that is why training of the public servants is essential. It
improves the efficiency of the work. It improves the
employees, capacity, ability, skill and understanding.
Types of Training
With regard to the types of training experts are divided
opinion. They are having divergent views about the training.
Broadly there are 5 types of training.
(1) Fonnal and informal training
When the training is imparted according to pre-planned

scheme it is known as formal training and it is conducted
under the expert guidance. It is being increasingly realise that
the old thinking Administration is to man as swimming is
1/
to a dog" stands exploded. An employee may be given a

formal training of the work he has to do. This kind of training
is given in the administrative schools or academies. The
probationers to higher civil service are given formal training.
In a formal paining, there is a regular training programme.
The formal training consists of actual instructions in certain
skills or procedures. The employee may be instructed as to
the procedure of the department, the nature of his duties and
the code of conduct which he has to follow in the office. Formal
training is carefully pre-arranged and conducted under the
expert guidance for the assistance for the employees.
When training is imparted without any well thought out
scheme or plan it is known as informal training. Informal
training is a training by experience which the employees
himself graudally acquires in the course of actual performance

of his work. Until the beginning of the twentieth cenhuy
most of the training programmes were informal. Because
administrative. machinery has not grown in size and
complexity. During the British administration in India the
ICS probationers were given informal training. The employee
gets training when he acutally comes in the contact with
files, papers and officers. It is a self acquired education.
Informal training teaches him the techniques or tools or
methods of work. This has been the traditional or conventional
method of training.
(2) Short-term and long-term training
The short-term and the long-term training programmes
depend '..Ipon the duration of the training. Broadly it may be
stated that a training programme lasting for a period of less
than one year is described or designed as short-term training.
Any training programme exceeding one year may be
treated as long-term training. Generally the clerical employees
in the central and the state governments are given short-term
training. But the gazetted probationers appointed to the All
India Services, central Civil Services and the state civil
services are given long-term training. I8
(3) Pre-entry and post entry training

Pre-entry training as its very name suggests that the training
is imparted before the entry of the candidates into the
service. It is known as pre-entry training. In this sense,
education imparted in schools and colleges or universities
is a sort of pre-entry training which fits the individual to seek
all sorts of jobs in the government. In a stricter sense,
pre-entry training may take the shape of vocational or
professional training at technical schools or colleges. The
products of such technical institutions can be given jobs

immediately after their coming out of the portals of these
institutions. Pre-entry training is given to a candidate to
prepare him to the service. It ~s intended to show fitness to
appointment. The USA has made provision of a rather
comprehensive scheme of pre-entry training for administra-
tive and managerial positions in the form of internship and
apprenticeship. In India, the medical graduates, the engi-
neering graduates and the graduates in commerce and
education will get pre-entry training.
But when the training is imparted after the appointment
it is known as post-entry training. Post-entry training is
imparted to the employee during the course of his service.
The post-entry training is most popular in most of the
countries except France and USA. The post-entry training is
aimed to train the individuals who are already in service. It
is a training for an employee to know the techniques of his
work. This type of training aims at 0) better performance
of present work, and (2) preparation for advancement (i.e.
higher position). The graduates of the general education
belonging to the faculties of arts, science and commerce will
receive post-entry training. All the probationers belonging
to the All India Service, Central Civil Service, and State Civil
Services will have to undergo the post-entry training. This
type of training can be given in two ways-(l) through
refresher courses, and (2) self efforts.
(4) Departmental and central training
When training is given in the department or in the office
itself, it is called departmental training, Follo\\'ing arE' the
examples of departmental training institutions
(1) Central Secretariat TraiJ1ing School, New IMlii
This school was established in l\1i1ylg4~ to impi1rt trClining
to section officers and lower division clerks. The courses of

training comprise organisation and methods, office procedure,
financial rules and regulations etc. After the end of this
training they ar.e posted to different ministries for practical
training.
(2) Railway Staff College Vadodara
The staff college at Vadodara imparts training to the traffic,
transportation, T.T. and commercial department (CD). The
course of training has direct bearing on the work of these
officers.
(3) Administrative Staff College Hyderabad
This training is imparted through group discussions.
(4) Training for Indian Foreign Service
The I.F.S. recruits has to undergo a training programme for
a period of three years.
(5) Training for Indian Police Service (I.PS)
The IPS recruits are trained at the central police training
college at Mount Abu. The syllabus comprises studies of
crime psychology, scientific aids in direction of crime,
methods of combating corruption and fire and emergency
relief and studies on drill. After the completion of years of
training the probationer has to take an examination conducted
by the UPSc. He is then given a post of Asst. Superintendent
of Police.
(6) Training for I1ldian Audit and Accounts Services
The IA and AS are imparted training at the department
training school at Shimla. The courses of study have a direct
bearing on the work a member of the IA and AS has to
perform. After the completion of this training the probationer
has to pass departmental examination on the subjects directly

linked with his work. After passing the departmental
examination, the probationer is posted as an Assistant
Accounts Officer.
(7) Training for Income-tax Service
The probationers of income-tax service get training at the
income-tax training school in Nagpur. The pattern of training
in their case is the same as that of the IA and AS.
But when training is imparted by the central training
institutions, it is called central training. Central training is
nothing but the basic or fundamental training scheme which
is common for all the probationers. In most of the countries
central training is more popular. In India central training is
being imparted to the probationers of All India Services,
central civil services and the state civil services. All the
probationers belonging to the various categories of service
are brought together in one central training institute. They
are given common training in certain fundamental subjects
like general economics, economic planning, Indian ad-
ministration etc. Mussorie and Mysore are the best examples
of central training. After this all the probationers will be
sent for departmental training and posted to various
departments.
(5) Skill and Background Training
When the purpose of training is to instruct the employees in
some specialised techniques, it is called skill training. The
teachers of nursery, primary and secondary schools are given
skill training in the art of teaching. They acquire skill in the
techniques of teaching by undergoing the training courses
like N.T.O, T.C.H. and B.Ed. The police officers training is
primarily in prevention and detection of crimes, the training
of the craftsman is entirely a skill training. Similarly the

medical, the engineering, the agricultural, the commerce, the
business management and home science graduates will
.acquire skill training during their related couJses.
The background training is nothing but the fundamental
training which is important to the probationers of All India
Services and central civil services. Background training
seeks to teach -certain subjects which help the trainee to
understand the political, administrative, economic and social
background and nature of his work. Its purpose is not to
increase the trainee's skill in some particular kind of work
but to broaden his mind. Generally, background training is
imparted in the National Academy of Administration at
Mussorie.
Promotion
Meaning and Importance
Promotion should not be confused with the annual increase
of salary of the employee. It is to be noted that mere increase
of pay is not promotion. Real promotion means rising to a
higher post carrying a higher grade. 19 Real promotion means
rise to a higher grade. The change in duties and responsibilities
form the essential characteristics of the promotion process.
Promotion means progress from a lower to a higher class
leading
I
to the change of duties and responsibilities. If a
lecturer is appointed as the Head of the Department in a
college, it is a promotion. Similarly if the Head of the
Department is appointed principal it is a promotion because
he has gone to the higher class leading to the change of duties
and responsibilities. Promotion generally leads to the
enhancement of salary also. Increase in salary is subsidiary
part of promotion.
Promotion should be distinguished from advancement

or administrative promotion. The employee enters the
service in a fixed grade and as he progresses in his service
and gains more, experience he is given higher pay scale. This
increment, which is annual, is called technically advance-
ment or administrative promotion. It differs from promo-
tion because it does lead to change in status, duties or
responsibilities . It is merely an increase of emoluments
which is usually automatic. For example, a lecturer has a
prescribed scale of pay which starts from Rs. 8,000 per
month and goes up to Rs. 10,000. The annual increment of
Rs. 200 when he has worked for a year, he earns an
increment which means his compensation has been in-
creased or he has received an advancement of payor
administrative promotion. But since it does not involve
change in his duties status, designation and responsibilities,
it is not called promotion proper.
Promotion must be distinguished from transfer. An
employee is transferred from one place of work to another
in the same grade and on the same position, whereas
promotion upgrades him and makes him share heavier and
greater responsibilities.
Importance
Firstly, the existence of a proper promotion system is vital
for attracting talented persons to public services and
preventing them from migrating to private ones.
Secondly, a good promotion system keeps the employees
interested in the job. To the employees, promotion is of
direct significance as a reward or possible reward. Actual
promotion is a reward.
Thirdly, the actual promotions given to employees tend
to create a contented, stable and efficient personnel. In the
absence of promotion, ambitious intelligent and capable

persons leave the job. The employees remain discontented
and dissatisfied. It leads to the general imparement of
morale. A proper promotion ?ystem helps in retaining the
service of the most capable amongst its employees and also
in giving them an impetus to improve their capacities and
capabilities and qualifications. Promotion is essential for the
efficienecy of the public personnel. The principles of
promotion system should be equity, justice and fair play.
Essentials of a Proper Promotion System
It is essential that promotion system must be based on sound
principles. The influence of a good promotion system is all
pervasive. It is an important phase of a career service. The
failure to establish a good system of promotion is likely to
give rise to a number of evil consequences. Firstly, it would
have an adverse effect on recruiting capable persons would
not like to enter public services. Secondly, the incentive to
good work will be crushed thereby affecting adversely the
efficiency of administration. Thirdly, the moral standards of
the offices and employees will be lowered. It will make the
maintenance of discipline difficult among them.
Conditions in India as regards this important aspect of
personnel administration are not satisfactory. It is pointed
out that promotions on the basis of merit is haphazard and
arbitrary often based on prejudice, favourism or coercive
influence from outside. The important stalwarts of the
political party in power approach the authorities and
persuade them to promote their own men. This is, of course,
a depressing feature. Moreover, certain officers get angry
with some employees on very trifling matters and thereby
withhold their promotions. All these factors result in unjust
promotions. 20
Lines of Promotion
Normally promotions are departmental i.t'. a vacancy in a

higher post in a department is usually filled among the
employees of that department within the department. The
line of promotion is determined by grades, classes and the
services. The employee is promoted from one grade to the
next higher grade within the same class i.e., a lecturer in the
grade of Rs. 8,000 - 10,000 in class II may be promoted to
the grade of Rs. 10,000 - 12,000, within the same class. Inter-
service promotion is rare. Inter-departmental promotions
are rare i.e. a medical officer cannot be promoted to an
engineering post. Technical officers although can be transfered
and promoted from technical service to administrative service,
but this is not very common e.g. an engineer working in the
local self government department may be appointed by
promotion as secretary in the same department.
Principles of Promotion
Writers on public administration has suggested two methods
of promotion. Generally speaking, there are two main
principles of promotion namely, seniority and merit.
(1) The principle of seniority is more popular in
governmental organisations. It stands for the principle of
"first come first served."21 Historically speaking this is the
first principle though it is still prevalent. This means that the
length of service determines in making promotion. According
to this principle the employee who has longer service to his
credit would be entitled to the promotion. By length of
service is meant the service in the same grade. Hence, a
government servant of a higher grade is always regarded as
senior to those in lower grade. It believes that all the
employees working in a particular grade are equal in their
abilities and they are eligible for promotion on the basis of

their continuous service. A few years ago, the seniority was
determined on the basis of date and time of joining duties
by the employees. But this caused inconvenience to the
candidates living on different parts of the country. Though
they were selected at the same time they were not able to
join duties on the same date and time on account of their
staying in distant place. The time and distance were the two
inconvenient factors for the selected candidates. To avoid
inconvenience a rational procedure was adopted. According
to this procedure, the seniority is determined on the basis
of rank in the order of merit of the selected candidates in a
particular batch. But sometimes ranking becomes a difficult
task for the selecting authorities. Here determination of
seniority is not, however, a simple affair. When two or more
candidates secure an equal number of marks in the
competitive examinations the determination of their rank
becomes difficult. Under such circumstances the marks
obtained by those candidates at the degree examination will
be taken into account. But if the marks obtained by them in
the degree examination are again equal then their date of
birth will be taken into consideration. A candidate who is
born earlier will become senior to the candidate who is born
later. If the date of birth is also similar then their seniority
will be decided by the toss of coin. 22
A public servant of a higher grade is senior to those who
are in lower grade. Similarly, an employee of a higher class
though getting actually less pay is senior to an employee of
a lower class getting at the time more pay. For example, a
lecturer of class II getting basic pay of Rs. 8000 is senior to
a lecturer of class III getting Rs. 9000. Among employees of
the same grade one who has been holding a substantive post
longer than his rival is senior.
Advantages
1. It is an objective test. Seniority is a matter of fact
which is apt to be accepted.
2. Seniorman is more experienced. Hence enough
experience and qualification for promotion.
3. It is a fair and just basis of promotion as every body
gets an opportunity for promotion in turn.
4. Interference by politicians can be avoided if this
system of promotion is adopted.
5. It keeps the morale of the employees boosted as they
are sure of promotion at their turn.
6. Better type of persons may be attrated to the jobs
when they are certain of promotions.
7. The old employees in particular, stand for this system
of promotion as they have not to be lorded over by
the young chaps.
8. According to Dr. Finer is of the opinion, this seniority
principle is against favouritism and undue
intervention of politicians. The principle of seniority
is so simple, clear and objective that there is no cause
left for heart-burning or resentment among the
employees. The employees naturally favour this
principle of promotion.
9. In this principle everyone gets opportunity for
promotion step-by-step, slowly, and gradually. Thus
it is a fair and just basis of promotion.
10. The basis of seniority leads to automatic promotion.
And at the same time the young are not placed over
the heads of the old.
Its Drawbacks
The principle of seniority has, however, a number of draw-
backs.
-192 Contemporary Public Administration-Ideas and Issues
1. There is no guarantee that the senior man will also

be more competent or meritorious than his junior
one. Promotions should be strictly on merit line.
2. If seniority alone is the basis of prom9tion employee
does not make any effort for self-improvement.
3. Seniority alone does not necessarily result in the
selection of the most competent.
4. Mediocre and unintelligent persons who cannot
compete with the young, meritorious, efficient, and
the intelligent are the great supporters of the principle
of seniority.
Following guidelines may be suggested for the promotion
of the employees:
1. The top level posts or higher posts merit alone
should be the consideration. They may be filled up
by promotion on the basis of merit.
2. The middle may be filled up by promotion on the
basis of seniority-cum-merit. Merit should be the
primary and seniority as a secondary consideration.
3. The lower posts may be filled up by promotion on
the basis of seniority. The lower posts of a routine
nature, seniority should carry greater weight.
Merit Principle
The principle of merit is just the opposite or rival or
contradictory of the principle of seniority. It means that the
promotion would be made on the basis of qualifications and
achievements of the employee irrespective of his length of
service. 23 The term merit refers to the efficiency of the
employees working in the organisation. Under this system
the most meritorious or the best qualified person would be
promoted. This principle secures capable persons to the job.
It provides due incentive to the efficient and hard working
employees. It helps in building up the morale and efficiency

of public services. It also increase the efficiency of the
department. It would favourably affect the entire personnel
system. Merit is, however, a complex concept. It is rather
difficult to measure it objectively.
Generally speaking there are three methods of judging
or testing the merits of the employees or candidates viz.,
(1) Written examination
There are three types of written examination:

(1) Open competitive examination
In an open examination, anyone whether in service or not
can compete for the post of promotion. Thus, outsiders who
are not working in the department can compete for
promotional tests. This method is justified on the ground
that it widens the range of selection without prejudicing the
interests of the existing employees, since they will benefit by
the special knowledge of the departmental work. Moreover
this system brings a new blpod and fresh ideas in the
department. Such a system is, however, rare.
(2) Limited competitive examination
Under the limited competition, only those who are in service
are allowed to appear for the examination. It is a competition
among those who are already in the service. This is also
known as closed system. This system is preferred by
employees in the lower grades. The central government
follows it in regard to the recruitment to the posts of section
officers, assistants, stenographers etc. It followed in some of
the secretariat services in India. Besides examination, an
equal weight is given to the confidential reports of the
employees in deciding their overall merit. 24
(3) Pass examination

The third type of promotional or written examination is the
pass examination in which a candidate has just to pass the
examination and give a proof of his minimum attainments.
The employee will be promoted only if he has passed the
pass examination. The employee is promoted if he has
passed the departmental examination. This system is followed
in India in junior clerical, typist, steno and other mechanical
jobs. A list of qualified candidates is maintained and they
are promoted on the basis of the list on the occurrence of a
vacancy.
(2) Personal judgement of the Head of Department

It is a time-honoured system. The determination of merit for
promotion may be left to the judgement of head of the office
or department concerned who has been in closest contact
with the employees and thus is in the best position to know
about their qualities. He has the personal knowledge of the
various employees at their work in his organisation.
Moreover, he being responsible for the discipline and morale
of employees working in his department. He must be
directly concerned with the conforming of awards, as
pronouncing of punishments. This system has the advantage
of being both simple and comprehensive. Normally in the
private organisations, the employees are under the direct
control of the head of the organisation. Their work and
conduct are under constant observation of the Head or the
boss. The Head of Department knows better about his
subordinates than any other outside agency. Hence, he
should have discretion or power in the matter. of promotion.
But such a system is applicable for top most position at the
governmental level. In India r the Head of the Departments
and secretaries to government are promoted on the basis of

the discretion of the Head of the organisation. But there are
two serious defects in this system. In large scale organisations,
it is rather impossible for the Head of the Department to be
in closest touch with all the employees and make a personal
judgement of the capacities of each one of them. Secondly,
this system is highly subjective and is susceptible to
favouritism and extraneous considerations. As such, it may
cause suspicion and resentiment among the employees.
(3) Efficiency rating
The other system of judging the qualifications of employees

for promotion is on the basis of service records which are
also sometimes called efficiency rating or service file. The
service records are the basis on which the head of the
organisation rates of his employees. The maintenance of
service records known variously as service book, personal
record, personal file or confidential. This method is used in
civil service. Such records only furnish the data on the basis
of which today efficiency may be evaluated. The size of
government organisations is so large that no officer can
possibly remember without the efficiency of individual
employees working in his department. Therefore, a written
record of the service of the employee and his performance
is maintained which furnishes a valuable assistance in
judging the merits of employees at the time of promotion. 25
In the United States efficiency rating has been made a
very elaborate affair. The Americans have attempted to
make it mechanical, exact and very objective guide for
measuring the average efficiency of their civil servants. 26 The
federal government established in 1916 a Bureau of Efficiency
for looking after the work of efficiency rating in the different
departments.
Nates and References

1. L.D. White, Introduction to the Study of Public Administration
(New York, MacMillan, 1955), p. 380.
2. Ibid., p. 38'5-90.
3. E.N. Gladden, The Civil Service, its Problems and Future, Staples,
London, 1948, p. 35.
4. Ibid., pp. 36-40.
5. For details refer the Civil Services (Classification, Control and
Appeal) Rules, 1965.
6. W.F. Willoughby, Principles of Public Administration, (Allahabad
Central Book Depot, 1958), p. 252.
The Civil Service translates the decisions of the government
into action.
7. L.D. While, The Civil Service in Modern State, p. 11.
8. A.D. Gorwala's Report on Public Administration, 1957, p. 63.
There is a wide gap between policy formulation and policy
implementation in India. This gap should be closed. Then only
we can hope of the success of the plans and policies.
9. Pfiffner and Presthus, Public Administration, p. 208.
10. Governments may come and go, rise and fall but the country's
administration goes on forever.
11: This statement is drawn from the book Dynamics of Diplomacy
written by G.U.G. Krishnamurty, p. 130.
12. A.R. Tyagi, Public Administration, pp. 438-440.
13. P.H. Appleby's Report of a Survey of Public Administration in
India, 1953, p.11.
14. Lulful Hog Chowathury, "Training for Development" I.I.P.A,
Vol. XXVI, 1980, pp. 378-383.
15. Quoted in O. Glenn Stahl, Public Personnel Administration
(Ne\-\f York: Harper and Row, 1962), pp. 199-200.
16. Dale Yoder and others, Handbook of Personnel Management and
Labour Relations (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1958), p. 146.
17. Herman Finer, Theory and Practice of Modern Government,
London, Methuen, 1954, p. 849.
18. Ibid., p. 851.

19. Ibid., p. 861.
20. O.P. Dwivedi and R.B. Jain, India's Administrative State, Citanjali
Publishing House, New Delhi, 1985, pp. 72-73.
21. This is the quotation drawn from the book Advanced Public
Administration, written by S.D. Sharma, pp. 11-13.
22. The whole idea of this type of promotion is seen in M.K.
Chaturvedi, "Comment in Civil Service" ~IIPA, 17 (l97)}, pp.41-
42.
23. Ibid., pp. 45-48.
24. W.F. Willoughby, Principles of Public Administration, p. 208.
25. A. Awasthi and S. Maheshwari, Public Administration, Lakshmi
Narain Agarwal, Agra, 1984, pp. 417-418.
26. For details refer the All India Services (Conduct) Rules, 1968,
refer Government of India, The All India Services Manual Part-
I (New Delhi, 1975), pp. 75-90.

P.B.rahod-Contemporary Public Administration - Ideas and Issues-ABD Publishers (2004)

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Contem porary

Dr. P.B. Rathod

No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted

ebook EDITION :2010

1. Meaning, Nature, Scope and

Modern states are welfare states. 2 The modern state has

sense that there cannot be an all satisfying explanation of the

disciplines. Paul H. Appleby regards administration as a

administration. There is an element of inseparability between

Summary of Public Administration

(6) It is multi-dimensional in nature.

science? Political science has struggled hard to be described

Scope of Public Administration

Several definitions of Public Admin.istration have, however,

Luther Gulick confines the scope of public administration

(1) P-stands for planning-It means public administra-

Professor Pfiffner divides the scope of public admini~­

(1) Principles of Public Administration.

Under the first category public administration studies

This theory includes or covers the topics like organisation,

(i) Imperial administration: This includes the domination

Importance of Public Administration

Public administration is the marshalling of men, materials

transformation of a traditional developing, society into a

Public administration is a subject of growing importance in

moral act and administrator is moral agent. Administration

impartial, honest and efficient administration. Democracy

which are the ideals of democracy. He should keep in mind

Public administration is responsible for the proper execution

subject or discipline it is being studied and taught in most

7. Simon, Smithburg and Thompson, Public Administration

Public administration protects the nation and its people

Administratiorl, (ed.) , Allied Publishers, New Delhi, 1964, p. 19.

legal, economic, cultural, technological and social systems.

policies with regard to social problems is a great task before

democratic countries like India, the government has

Thanks to the quota system for the SC/ST, there is an

social policies, plans, programmes and laws there is no social

2. Political Environment and Public Administration

The administrative rules are framed by the ministers or

programmes, projects and works are executed by the perma-

public administration is politicised." 9 Public administrators,

"Power corrupts and absolute or all power corrupts

politics as the last resort of scoundrels. ll In profit-loss terms

Culture is a concept of power. Culture denotes the entire

Indian culture (norms, values etc) and

It was considered natural and proper for men to be born

because of dowry. Dowry-burning cases are increasing.

educated to eradicate the dowry system. All the educated

of finances is one of the most important potential factor to

Budgets and the economic context of

the instrument of administering the "mixed economy"

socio-political and constitutional framework. Some aspects

We cannot think of politics without power. Power and

We cannot understand public administration without the

Public Administration and Political Science

Public administration is very closely related to the study of

is the key to an understanding of public administration. 3 In

thorough knowledge of politics and political problems with

tried to give administration a more separate status by calling

Sl. No. Political Officers Administrative Officers

But this kind of distinction or difference between the

is done by the administrators behind the curtain or scenes. In

Professor Pfiffner divides the scope of public admini~