CHAPTER – 2 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF INDIA

India is a land of physical diversities. Almost all types of landforms are

found here. Both endogenic and exogenic forces continuously operate to
create and shape the present landforms. According to one estimate, out
of total area of India 29% is mountain and hills, 28% is plateau and 43%
is plains.
The Indian landmass can be divided into following broad physiographic
units: 
I. Himalayas or Northern mountains 
II. The Great Plains of north India
III. The Great Indian Plateau 
IV. Coastal plains 
V. Islands

I. HIMALAYAS MOUNTAINS OR NORTHERN MOUNTAIN

 The Himalayas are the youngest and loftiest mountain chains in the
world. 
 They run in north-west to south-east direction, in the form of arcuate
shaped curve which is convex to the south. 
 They stretch for 2400 km in length. Width-wise they range from 500
km in Ladakh to 200 km in Arunachal Pradesh. 
 The Total area of Himalayan mountain region is nearly five lakh. Sq.
km.
 The Himalayas are characterized by complex geological structure,
high altitude, huge glaciers, deeply dissected topography, youthful
drainage, rich temperate forests in subtropical latitudes etc. 
 On southern side, the Himalayas rise sharply to great heights within
few kilometers from the Plains while northern boundary merges
imperceptibly with the high altitude Tibetan plateau. 
 On the western side, Himalayas extend into Hindukush, Sulaiman
and Kirthar mountain ranges. 
 On eastern side, Himalayan ranges in the north-east India merge
with Arakan Yoma ranges of Myanmar, Thailand etc. 
 On the northern side, Himalayas merge with the mountain ranges of
Central Asia at a knot like structure called the Pamir plateau.
Origin & Development 
 About 120 million years ago, there was a supercontinent called
Pangaea whose northern part was called Angaraland and Southern
part Gondwanaland. 
 Both were separated by a long, narrow and shallow sea i.e. a
geosyncline called Tethys Sea.
 As per theory of plate tectonics, the Indian Plate of Gondwanaland
moved northward across the Tethys sea and thrust into Eurasian
plate of Angaraland. 
 As a result, the sediments accumulated in Tethys Sea (brought by
rivers) were compressed, squeezed and series of folds were formed
one behind the other, giving birth to folded mountains of Himalayas. 
 Indian plate is still moving northwards at the rate of 5 cm/year and
pushing into rest of Asia, thereby constantly increasing the height of
Himalayas. Thus, as the process of mountain building is still going
on, the Himalayan region frequently experiences earthquakes. 
 The Great Northern Mountains include the mountains and plateaus
of Northern Kashmir, the Himalayas proper and the hills of North-
East India. 
Division of Himalayas 
The Himalayan ranges are classified on two bases – Longitudinal Series
of Himalayas and Regional Division of Himalayas.
Longitudinal Series of Himalayas
1. Great Himalaya or Himadri –
 This is also known as central axial range. 
 It is the only range of the Himalayas which maintains its continuity
from west to east. 
 It is the northern most and the highest range of the Himalayas. 
 These are with heights above 6000 m and have width of about 25-40
km. 
 The core of this range is made up of granite ranges and flanked by
metamorphic and sedimentary rocks. 
 The mountains are asymmetrical with steep southern slope and
gentle northern slope merging with Tibetan plateau. 
 They abruptly turn southward at the syntaxial bends (hairpin like) of
Nanga Parbat in the west and at Namcha Barwa in the east. 
 More than 100 peaks have a height of more than the average height
of the range. 
 The highest peak of the world, Mount Everest (8848 m) is situated in
this range. 
  Kanchenjunga, Makalu, Dhaulagiri, Annapurna are some of the
other peaks having a height of more than 8000 m. Several passes in
these ranges are part of ancient 'Silk Route' of trade which are
important passes from trade and strategic point of view. 
 The Greater Himalayan range is snow clad throughout the year.
There are a number of large and small glaciers. E.g. Gangotri and
Yamunotri. After melting of snow and ice, their water falls in, the
rivers of northern India making them perennial throughout the year. 
 Kanchenjunga is the highest peak of Himalayas in India. Himadri
range can be crossed through some passes like Zojila, Nathula etc. 
2. Middle Himalaya or Himachal –
 It is highly dissected and uneven and is located southward of the
Himadri.
 With elevations above 3500 to 4500 m above sea level and 60-80
km width, they present hogback topography having steep, bare
southern slopes and gentle forest covered northern slopes. 
 Rocks in this zone have been metamorphosed due to violent thrusts
and compression. Hence, this range is mainly consists of
metamorphic rocks 
 The important ranges include Pir Panjal in Jammu and Kashmir,
Dhaula Dhar in Himachal Pradesh, Mussoorie and Nag Tibba in
Uttaranchal and Mahabharat range in Nepal. 
 The north facing gentle slopes of this-range are covered by dense
vegetation whereas the southern slopes are devoid of any
vegetation. 
 Pir Panjal, Banihal (Jammu-Srinagar Highway) etc are important
passes.
 Between middle and greater Himalayas are located some broad
synclinal valleys - beautiful, fertile and densely settled such as
Kashmir valley between Pir Panjal and Greater Himalaya, Kangra
valley between Dhauladhar and Greater Himalayas and the
Kathmandu valley in Mahabharat Ranges. 
 Also, the majority of Himalayan hill resorts such as Shimla, Kullu,
Manali, Mussoorie, Nainital, Dalhousie, McLeodganj etc. are located
in middle Himalayas. 
 Some of the most beautiful lakes such as Nainital, Bhimtal,
Chandertal, etc. are located in these ranges. 

Table: Prominent Peaks

Peak Name Elevation (m)
Everest 8,848
Godwin Austin or K2 8,611
Kanchenjunga 8,586
Lhotse 8,501
Makalu 8,462
Cho Oyu 8,201
Dhaulagiri 8,167
Manaslu 8,163
Nanga Parbat 8,126
Annapurna 8,091
Gasherbrum I 8,068
Broad Peak 8,047
Gasherbrum II 8,035
Shishapangma 8,027
Gyanchung Kang 7,922
Nanda Devi 7,817
Kabru 7,338
Pumori 7,161

3. Lesser Himalayas or Outer Himalayas or Shiwaliks –

 The Shiwaliks are outermost i.e. southernmost range with similar
hogback looks. 
 They have average elevation of 600-1200 m and width of 15-50 km. 
 Shivalik ranges have been formed much later by the accumulation of
sediments from Greater and middle Himalayas brought about by the
rivers. 
o In course of time, the Earth movements caused folding of these
relatively fresh deposits of sediments, giving rise to the least
consolidated Siwalik range. 
 They are covered by dense forests aided by the orographic rainfall
of monsoon and at the same time suffer from great erosion by the
Himalayan Rivers. 
 The longitudinal valleys between Shivaliks and Middle Himalayas
are called as 'duns' in the west. e.g. Dehradun, duns of Udhampur
and Kotli. 
 Shivalik ranges are conspicuously absent in eastern Himalayas and
in their place low rolling hills known as 'duars' are present. 
 o These duars of West Bengal and Sikkim are known for their tea
garden plantations and its scenic beauty. 
4. Trans Himalayas –
 The range north of the Himadri in Jammu and Kashmir and running
parallel to it is called the Zanskar range. North of Zanskar range is
the Ladakh range. 
 The river Indus flows towards northwest between Zanskar and
Ladakh range. 
 North of the Ladakh range lie the Karakoram. Karakoram Mountains
(also called Krishnagiri) form India's frontier with China,
Turkmenistan, Afghanistan and Pakistan. 
 Godwin Austin or K2 is the highest peak in these ranges and 2nd
highest in the world (8611 m). 
 Ladakh plateau is the highest plateau (5300 m) ASL of India having
physiography of 'cold desert'. 
5. North Eastern Hills or Purvanchal –
 Purvanchal is the name given to all the hills of the north-east India
beyond Brahmaputra gorge. Although comparatively low in height
(500-3000 m), these hills are difficult to access because of rough
terrain, dense forests and swift streams.
 Near Dihang gorge in Greater Himalayan ranges where
Brahmaputra enters into India, the Himalayas take a sudden
southward turn and run in north-south direction. 
 They form a frontier initially between India and China and then India
and Myanmar. These ranges include Patkai Bum, Naga hills, Barail
hills, Manipur hills, Mizo hills. 
 Meghalaya plateau including Garo, Khasi and Jaintia is also a part of
these hills of the north eastern region. 
o It should be noted that the hills of Garo, Khasi and Jaintia in
Meghalaya are structurally part of peninsular plateau and not
the Himalayan ranges.
Regional Division of Himalayas
Sir Sidney Burrard divided the entire length of the Himalayas into the
following four divisions on the basis of the river valleys –
Regional Division Location Between Stretch (km)
Punjab Himalaya Indus and Sutlej 560
Kumanu Himalaya Sutlej and Kali 320
Nepal Himalaya Kali and Teesta 800
Assam Himalaya Teesta and Dihang 750
1. Punjab Himalaya –
  Westernmost Part, it extended from east to South-East for 560 km.
 Important ranges are Zanskar range, Pir Panja range and Shiwalik
range, Ladakh, Dhaula Dhar etc.
 It is also called Kashmir Himalaya or Himachal Himalayas.
2. Kumanu Himalaya –
 Its general election is higher than Punjab Himalayas.
 Important peak situated here are Nanda Devi, Badrinath, Kamet,
Trishul, Kedarnath, Gangotri etc.
 It’s western most part is locally knows as Garhwal Himalayas.
3. Nepal Himalayas –
 It has some of the highest speaks of the world, Mount Everest,
Kanchenjunga, Lhotse, Makalu, Dhaulagiri, Annapurna.
4. Assam Himalayas –
 It is known as Assam Himalayas, but its area also line in Sikkim and
Arunachal Pradesh.
 Important peak are Namcha Barwa, Kulu, Kangri, Chamolhar.
Significance of Himalayas 
 Himalayas are not only the physical barrier; they are also a climatic,
drainage and cultural divide. 
 Himalayas contribute to the genesis of monsoon winds as well as to
the precipitation by obstructing northward moving monsoon winds. 
 The high altitude of Himalayas also blocks cold continental air
masses of Central Asia from entering India. They also act as
defense barrier against outside invaders. 
 Himalayas are the main source of north Indian rivers which provide
water for drinking, irrigation, creation of reservoirs and hydel power. 
 The fertile alluvial soil formed by weathering and erosion of
Himalayan ranges is deposited by the rivers into the Great Plains. 
 Himalayan slopes support crops like barley, maize, potato, and fruits
of temperate climate. 
 Himalayas are home to rich variety of flora and fauna including
medicinal herbs. 
 They are one of the biodiversity hotspots of the world. They also
have important minerals reserves like petroleum, limestone,
precious stones, etc. 
 Himalayas have been favoured places of nature, leisure and
religious pilgrimage. 
Glaciers of Himalayas 
All the important rivers of Indian subcontinent are fed by Himalayan
glaciers. 
 Karakoram ranges have half of the snow bound area of Himalaya
and some of the largest glaciers outside polar and sub polar regions
such as Siachen glacier (75 km long), Baltoro, Biafo, Hispar, Chogo
Lungma. 
 The Sona Pani and Gangri glaciers are present in Pir Panjal 
 In Kumaon Himalayas; Gangotri, Kedarnath, Milam, Pindari are
important glaciers. 
 Central Himalayas in Nepal have several large glaciers like
-Rongbuk, Khumbu, Annapurna, Zemu, Kanchanjunga etc.
These glaciers form the sources of perennial rivers of the subcontinent. It
is feared that under the effect of climate change and global warming, they
are fast receding and melting down.
Himalayan Glaciers and Climate Change
Scientific evidence provide us following key messages 
 The meltwater from glaciers in the Himalayan region supplements
several great river systems such as the Indus, Ganges, and
Brahmaputra. But most glaciers in the Himalayan region are
retreating due to Global Warming caused by Climate Change,
leading to concerns that, over time, normal glacier melt will not be
able to contribute to the region's water supply each year. 
 Glaciers in the eastern and central regions of the Himalayas appear
to be retreating at rates comparable to glaciers in other parts of the
world. In the western Himalayas, glaciers are more stable and may
even be increasing in size. There is uncertainty in projections of
future changes in precipitation, but shifts in the location and intensity
of snow and rain could also impact the rate of glacial retreat. 
 Variations in climate; in the timing, amount, and type of precipitation;
and in glacial behavior and dynamics across the vast Himalayan
region mean that it is challenging to determine exactly how
retreating glaciers will affect water supply in each location. It is likely
that the contribution of glacier meltwater to water supply in the
Himalayan region may have been overestimated in the past, for
example by not differentiating between the contributions to water
supply of meltwater from glaciers and meltwater from snow. 
Overall, retreating glaciers over the next several decades are unlikely to
cause significant changes in water availability at lower elevations, which
depend primarily on monsoon rains.
II. GREAT PLAINS OF NORTH INDIA 
The Great Plains or Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra plains are the largest
alluvial tract in the world stretching for 3200 km. 
 The plain extends from the arid and semi-arid areas of Rajasthan in
the west up to Brahmaputra valley in the east. 
 Its length in India is 2400 km. Its width of around 500 km in Punjab
narrowing down to 100-60 km in Assam. 
 Their northern boundary is well defined by Shivalik foothills while
southern boundary merges with irregularly shaped peninsular edge.
 This aggradational or depositional plain is characterized by extreme
horizontality & negligible slope (10-25 cm/km). 
 Frequent floods and changing courses of rivers deposit fresh layers
of fertile silt on the floodplains. 
 Hence, this plain is very fertile and a very sizeable portion of the
Indian population lives in this region. 
Origin
The Great plains is made up of the sediments brought down and
deposited by the rivers from the Himalayas in the north and the Great
Indian Plateau in the south. The rivers have been depositing their
sediments in this plain over millions of years. Therefore, the depth of
alluvium in this plain ranges from quite a few hundred meters as much as
2000 m to 3000 m.
Physiographic features / features of the plains 
 The heavy boulders, gravels and coarse sediments flown in by the
Himalayan Rivers are deposited at the foothills of Shivalik
Mountains. The plains formed by these coarse sediments are called
Bhabar or piedmont plains. 
 Due to high porosity, small river streams disappear in Bhabar tract
The streams re-emerge south of Bhabar forming a marshy tract
called Tarai forests. Today, the Tarai region has been reclaimed for
agriculture & now there are no forests. 
 Further South of Tarai is the alluvial plain formed by the deposition
of alluvium of silt by the rivers. 
o The older alluvium located at relatively higher ground away
from the riven course is called Bhangar plains. It contains
 calcium carbonate nodules called Kankar. This area is
generally never covered with flood water of the rivers. 
o The areas of newer alluvium along the course of rivers are
called Khadar or betlands. These are the comparatively lower
area which are flooded by streams almost every year. During
floods, fertile silt is deposited in Khadar. 
 Most of these areas are
subjected to periodic floods Majuli Island: 
and shifting river courses  Majuli or Majoli is the biggest
forming braided streams.  river island in the world in the
 The Brahmaputra plains are Brahmaputra River, Assam,
known for their riverine India. 
islands and sand bars.   It won the Guinness World
 The alluvial plains have Record of being the world's
characteristic features of largest river island and has
mature stage of fluvial been declared India's first
erosional and depositional island district
landforms such as sand bars,
meanders, oxbow lakes and
braided channels. 
 Reh, Kallar, Bhur are other micro features of plains. 
Regional Divisions 
The Great Northern Plain can be divided into four parts as follows: 
1. The Gangetic plain –
 It is the largest physiographic unit of Northern plains. 
 The upper Gangetic plain includes the upper Ganga-Yamuna doab. 
o Plain to the east of doab is called Rohilkhand plains. 
o Further south-east is Avadh plain which merges into middle
Gangetic plains.
 The middle Gangetic plain is drained by Ghaghara, Gandak and
Kosi rivers and includes their doabs. 
o Gandak-Kosi doab is known as Mithila plain while the area lying
south of Ganga & west of Son River in Bihar is known as
Magadha plain. 
 The lower Ganga plain lies in West Bengal. 
o The northern part of this plain is formed by sediments
deposited by Tista, Jaldhaka & Torsa. 
o Besides, this area also includes the Darjeeling Tarai known as
Duars and the Barind plains which extend from Kosi-
Mahananda belt to Sankosh River in the east. 
  The physiographic features observed are mentioned above 
o Apart from these features, this region has meanders, oxbow
lakes, river bluffs etc. 
 The delta plains of Bengal are actually extension of Khadar iehds. 
o In delta region, low lying marshy areas or alluvial, takes are
called bills while uplands are called Char. 
2. The Brahmaputra plain –
 The northeastern part of the Great Indian Plains extends into
Assam. 
 This plain has been formed by deposition of alluvium brought down
by the river Brahmaputra and its tributaries. 
 It is surrounded by mountains on all sides except west. 
 Many small rivers from Himalayas debouch in the plains, particularly
on northern bank. 
o This has led to formation of marshy lands, lakes, river island's,
dense forests and rich wildlife in Brahmaputra plains. 
 Every year, vast tracts of this plain are inundated by the flooded
rivers.
3. Western Plain –
 This region includes the Great Indian Desert or Thar Desert, an
extension of Great Plains and Bangar region lying to the east of
Aravallis. 
 Marusthali – the western part of desert is covered with shifting sand
dunes. 
 Eastern part called as Rajasthan Bagar is semi-arid rocky plain. 
 Rohi is the fertile agricultural tract in South-West of Aravallis with
seasonal streams originating from the mountain. 
4. The North-Central Plain –
 This plain extends over Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh. 
 The Punjab-Haryana plain is divided into many doabs i.e. area
between two rivers. 
o It is dominated by Sutlej-Yamuna river systems, their levees
locally called 'dhaya' and Khadar lands locally called as 'bet'. 
 Many small streams known as chos descend from adjacent Shivaliks
into these plains. 
o They have significantly eroded the adjacent lands such as in
Hoshiarpur. 
 To the south of Sutlej river lays the Malwa plain of Punjab and
Haryana. 
Significance of Plains 
 The Great Plains harbour intensive agriculture based economy,
highest population densities and dense network of roads and
railways.
 The plains of Punjab, Haryana and Western UP are called Granary
of India because of Green Revolution. 
 Hindu, Muslim, Sikh, Buddhist cultures and their religious places
have flourished on these plains. 
III. THE GREAT INDIAN PLATEAU 
The Great Indian Plateau lies to the South of the Great Northern Plains.
This is the largest physiographic division of our country. 
 It covers about half of the total area of the country. 
 The topography is consists of a series of plateaus and hill ranges
interspersed with river valleys. It is an old rocky plateau region. 
 The general slope of this plateau is towards east. 
 Peninsular India is the oldest physiographic unit of India. Its average
elevation is of 600-900 m. It's roughly a triangular block with apex
pointing southward. 
 Delhi ridge – an extension of Aravalis - in the northwest, the
Rajmahal hills in the east, Gir range in the west and the Cardamom
hills in the south constitute the outer extent of the peninsular
plateau. 
o However, an extension of this plateau is also seen in the
northeast, in the form of Shillong and Karbi-Anglong plateau. 
 The plateau is bordered on all sides by the hill ranges. 
 While the general slope of the plateau is from west to east with
rivers draining into Bay of Bengal, the base of the plateau slopes
northward with Chambal and Son valleys draining in Yamuna and
Ganga rivers. 
 The plateau has senile topographic features due to prolonged
erosion like shallow river valleys and small rounded hills. The
plateau is also characterized by presence of black cotton soil in its
western parts. 
 Geologically, the plateau is regarded to be stable, although it has
seen some changes like recurrent phases of upliftment and
submergence accompanied by crustal faulting and fractures. 
o E.g. Narmada - Tapti rift valley formation and eruption of basalt
lava through the fractures. 
Origin
The Great Indian Plateau is the part of very ancient landmass called
Gondwanaland. This plateau from the earliest times has been above the
level of the sea. Hence, it has been subjected to large scale denudation.
Its mountains are generally of relic types. They are composed of very
hard rocks. Here, all the rivers have attained their base level.
Hill Ranges of Peninsula
1. The Aravallis –
 It is relict of one of the oldest fold mountains of the world. 
 At present, it is seen as discontinuous ridges from Delhi to Ajmer
and rising up to 1722 m (Gurushikhar peak in Mt. Abu). Pipli Ghat,
Haldi Ghat, Dewair etc. are important passes. 
2. Vindhyan Ranges –
 They rise as an escarpment running parallel to Narmada-Son
Valley. 
 Most of them are made up of sedimentary rocks of ancient-ages. 
 They continue eastward as Bhander-Kaimur ranges. 
 These mountains act as watershed between Gangetic and
peninsular river systems. 
3. Satpura Ranges –
 Satpura ranges run parallel between Narmada and Tapi, parallel to
Maharashtra-MP border. 
 They include Mahadev hills and Maikala range. 
 Dhupgarh (1350 m) near Pachmarhi, Astamba Dongar and
Amarkantak are important peaks. 
4. Western Ghats (Sahyadri) –
 It is a faulted part of the Deccan plateau running parallel from Tapi
valley to little north of Kanyakumari (1600 km). 
 The western slope is like an escarpment rising sharply from western
coastal plains while eastern slope merges gently with plateau. The
Sahyadris form a real watershed of peninsula. Godavari, Krishna
and Kaveri rivers originate in Western Ghats. 
 In. Karnataka, Sahyadri runs quite close to the coast. Kudremukh
(1892 m) Kalsubai (1646 m), Mahabaleshwar and Harish Chandra
are important peaks 
 The passes Thal ghat, Bhor Ghat (both The Nilgiri is the in
Konkan), Palghat Gap (between Kerala
meeting point of
and Tamil Nadu) connect coastal
Western Ghats, Ghats
plains with interior plateau. 
Eastern and hills.
Doddabetta (2637 m)
is its highest peak and
  The Anaimudi (2696 m) is highest peak in the whole south India
from where three ranges radiate in three directions - Cardamom hills
to the South Anaimalai to the north, Palni to the north east. 
5. Eastern Ghats –
 Eastern Ghats is the discontinuous chain of isolated, broken hills. 
 In Odisha, they are known as Maliya and Madugula Konda ranges.
Mahendragiri as the tallest peak (1501 m). In Andhra Pradesh, these
are known as Nallamala & Palkonda ranges. 
 Further southwards these are present as detached low hills - Javadi
Shevroy, Pachaimalai, Sirumalai, Varusanadu hills. 
The Plateaus of Peninsula 
1. Marwar Upland –
 It lies to the east of Aravallis in Rajasthan. 
 It is a rolling plain carved by the Banas River. 
2. Madhya Bharat Pathar –
 To the east of Marwar upland, it comprises ravines (badlands) of
Chambal and thick forests. 
3. Bundelkhand Upland –
 It has senile topography comprising small rounded hills of granite,
gneiss and sandstones. 
 Because of intensive erosion, semi-arid climate and undulating area;
it is unfit for cultivation. 
4. Malwa Plateau –
 lt's a rough triangle based on Vindhyan hills between Aravallis and
the scarps overlooking Bundelkhand. 
5. Baghelkhand –
 East of Maikal range is the Baghelkhand. 
 It comprises Vindhyan Sandstones, Son river basin and thick
forests. 
6. Chhota Nagpur Plateau –
 It includes Jharkhand, northern Chhattisgarh and Purulia in West
Bengal. 
 It has average elevation of 700 m comprising Archean rocks,
Gondwana rocks and Deccan lavas. 
 This plateau consists of series of step like sub-plateaus (locally
called as patlands - high level laterite plateau) such as Hazaribag
and Ranchi plateau. 
 Rajmahal hills are northeastern projection of Chhota Nagpur
Plateau. 
  Numerous rivers flow radially downward from this plateau making
number of waterfalls. Chhota Nagpur is a mineral rich plateau. 
7. Meghalaya / Shillong Plateau –
 It is separated from peninsular rock base by Garo-Rajmahal gap. 
 This gap was formed by down faulting & at present filled with
alluvium of Ganga and Brahmaputra. 
 The Meghalaya plateau has Garo, Khasi, Jaintia and Mikir (Rengma
hills). 
 It slopes down to Brahmaputra valley in north and to Surma &
Meghana valley in south. 
 The portion between Meghalaya and Purvanchal ranges is occupied
by North Cacher hills. Shillong (1961 m) is the highest point. 
8. Deccan Plateau –
 It's the largest unit of peninsula. It can be subdivided as follows: 
o Maharashtra plateau: It has typical Deccan Trap topography
underlain by basaltic rock. The lava derived black colored regur
is typical soil of this plateau. 
o Karnataka plateau: It is divided into the western hilly country
region of Malnad and the eastern plains of Maidan. 
o Both Karnataka & adjacent Telangana plateau in Andhar
Pradesh have Archean, Dharwar and Cuddapah rocks. 
o Deccan plateau is drained by the shallow and broad basins of
Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri rivers. 
o Chhattisgarh Plain is the only plain in peninsula. It's a saucer
depression drained by upper Mahanadi course. It lays between
Maikala range and Odisha hills. It is occupied by dense
Dandakaranya forests.
Significance of The Great Indian Plateau
 The peninsular landmass is geologically very rich and yields a
variety of metallic and non-metallic minerals. 
 The basaltic rocks results in fertile black Requr soil giving good yield
of cotton and sugarcane, while the areas of Sahyadri are known for
tropical crops such as spices, tea, coffee, banana, alphonso
mangoes etc. 
 The hydel power potential of peninsular rivers is limited although by
seasonal nature of these rivers. 
 The biodiversity hotspots of Western Ghats and dense central Indian
forests sustain varied flora and fauna. 
 The Vindhyas have acted as natural watershed between north and
south India. 
 o The Vindhya and its dense forests have acted as a physical
barrier between the Northern Plains and the Peninsula, as a
result of which the cultural traits of area south of Vindhyas are
different than the Northern plains. 
o Even within peninsula, there are regional variations in cultures
commensurate with geographical varlations of hills, rain
shadow regions and plateau region. 
 There are number of hill resorts in peninsula such as Mount Abu,
Panchamarhl, Lonavala, Mahabaleshwar, Matheran, Ooty,
Kodaikanal etc. 
 The peninsula harbours lesser population than the Northern plains
because of its rugged terrain and water scarcity. 
o But, the presence of mineral deposits and availability of ports
on the adjacent coasts have helped change the economic
potential of the region. 
IV. COASTAL PLAINS 
The Great plateau of India is surrounded by plains on all sides. In the
north lies the Great Northern Plain and in south, along the east and west
lie the Coastal Plains. 
Western Coastal Plain
 It extends along the Arabian sea from the Rann of Kutch in the north
to Kanyakumari in the south. 
 Except for the Gujarat plains, these are straight (1500 km) narrower
(10-25 km) and better than their eastern counterpart. 
 The northernmost section, Rann of Kachchh comprising Great Rann
and Little Rann, is a salt soaked plain subject to marine inundations.
 Kathiawar peninsula contains volcanic hills made up of basaltic lava
(Gir and Mandav hills). 
 The coastal plains from Daman to Goa are called Konkan Coast
(500 km) which is generally flat and composed of basaltic trap
rocks. 
 Karnataka coast runs from Goa to Cannanore. It is the narrowest
part of western coastal plains. 
 From Cannanore to Cape Camorin (Kanniyakumari) for 500 km runs
the Malabar Coast. 
 It has characteristic lagoons or backwaters locally called Kayals
such as Ashtamudi and Vembanad. 
 Many small rivers descend from Western Ghats making a chain of
waterfalls throughout the length of Sahyadris. 
  The western coast being more indented than eastern coast has
more number of natural harbours. 
 Kochi port is situated on one of the lagoons.
Eastern Coastal Plains
 It extends along the coast of Bay of Bengal from Ganga Delta in the
north to Kanyakumari in the south. 
 These are wider / broader but drier resulting in shifting sand dunes
on its plains. 
 The major peninsular rivers have formed thick alluvial deltas which
are very fertile. 
 The coast belt from Kanyakumari to Godavari delta is known as
Coromandel Coast while coastal tract of Odisha is called Utkal
Plains. 
 Lake Chilka and Pulicat are famous lagoons while freshwater Kolleru
Lake lies between Krishna-Godavari deltas.
Significance of Coastal Plains
 The coastal plains are agriculturally very productive. 
 Western coast grows specialized tropical crops while eastern coasts
witnessed green revolution in rice. 
 The delta regions of eastern coastal plains have a good network of
canals across the river tributaries. 
 Coastal plains are source of salt, monazite, mineral oil and gas as
well as are centres of fisheries. 
 Although lacking in adequate natural harbours, the coastal plains
have number of major and minor ports. These ports are centres of
commerce and have attracted dense human settlements and are
home to the some of the largest cities of the world. 
 The coastal regions of India inhabiting large population is facing the
risk of inundation due to probable sea level rise caused by global
warming. 
V. THE ISLANDS 
Of the total 247 islands of India, 204 are in Bay of Bengal and remaining
in Arabian Sea and Gulf of Mannar. There are two small groups of
islands. One of these is situated in the Bay of Bengal, off the coast of
Myanmar is known as the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The other is
known as Lakshadweep and situated off the coast of Kerala. 
Andaman and Nicobar Islands
 Andaman Islands are actually the continuation of Arakan Yoma
mountain ranges of Myanmar and form an elevated portion of
submarine mountains.
 The islands in Bay of Bengal are mostly tectonic and volcanic in
origin. 
 Barren Island is a dormant volcano while Narcondam Island has
extinct volcano. 
 The Andaman and Nicobar Island have tropical weather moderated
by cooling effect of the ocean. 
 Tropical crops such as rice, coconut, arecanut, banana, etc. grow
here. 
 These islands are abode of many aboriginal tribes such as Onges,
Jarawas, Sentinelese etc. who are seeing invasion in their traditional
way of life and a rapid decline in numbers. 
 The Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserve and the Wandoor Marine
Biosphere reserve in South Andaman have rare Giant Robber
Crabs. 
 Saddle peak (737 m) in North Andaman is the highest peak. 
 The Andamans are separated from Nicobar Islands by Ten Degree
channel.
 The Dancan Passage separates Little Andaman from Great
Andaman. 
 Nicobar Islands are just 147 km away from Sumatra. These are of
coral in origin.
 The Indira point or Pygmalion point in Great Nicobar is southernmost
point of India.
Lakshdweep and Minicoy Islands
 These are in Arabian Sea and are coral islands. 
 Kavaratti is the capital of Lakshadweep. 
 While coconut is the main crop on the islands, fishing is main
occupation of people.
 The corals act as good habitat for fishes to lay their eggs. 
 The Eight degree channel separates Minicoy Island from Maldives 
 The Nine degree channel separates Minicoy Island from main
Lakshadweep.
New Moore Island
 It is a small uninhabited offshore sandbar landform in the Bay of
Bengal, off the coast of the Ganges-Brahmaputra Delta region.
  It emerged in the Bay of Bengal in the aftermath of the Bhola
cyclone in 1970. It keeps on emerging and disappearing.
 Although the island was uninhabited and there were no permanent
settlements or stations located on it, both India and Bangladesh
claimed sovereignty over it because of speculation over the
existence of oil and natural gas in the region.
 The issue of sovereignty was also a part of the larger dispute over
the Radcliffe Award methodology of settling the maritime boundary
between the two nations.
Besides these, there are numerous offshore islands in the delta regions of
great rivers of India e.g. Sagar (mouth of Ganga), Shri Harikota (mouth of
Pulicat Lake), Wheeler (Mahanadi-Brahmani mouth), Aliabet (Narmada),
etc. 
On the other hand, islands like Pamban, Crocodile, Adunda (Gulf of
Mannar), Elephanta (Mumbai), etc. are tectonic in origin formed due to
submergence. The islands are gaining importance because of increasing
interest of superpowers in the geopolitics of Indian Ocean. 

Corals
 Coral polyps are short lived microscopic organisms, which live in
colonies. 
 They flourish in shallow, mud free and warm waters. 
 They secrete calcium carbonate. 
 The coral secretion and their skeletons from coral deposits in the
form of reefs 
 There are mainly three kinds of reefs - Barrier Reef, Fringing Reef
and Atolls. 
 Australia has the largest barrier reef called - The Great Barrier
Reef. 
 Atolls are circular or horseshoe shaped coral reefs.

Significance of Indian Ocean

 Like formidable Himalayas, Indian Ocean also provides for
isolating and guarding of human interaction. The Himalayan
mountains and Indian Ocean together make it look as if India was
planned by nature as an indisputable geographic unit, sharply
isolated from the outside world. 
 The monsoonal climate of India is also attributed mainly to the
 salutary effect of Indian Ocean. It is Indian Ocean which makes the
southwesterly monsoon winds laden with moisture and therefore
causes heavy rainfall. 
 As India lies at the head of Indian ocean it helps in establishing
trade and communication inks with south-east Asia and Oceania
on one hand and west Asia and East Africa on the other. 
 The islands in the Indian Ocean are geo-strategically located
facing the crucial Sea Lanes of Communication which are
important from trade and defense point of view. 
 The two branches of the ocean wash the western and eastern
shores providing great potential for exploitation of deep sea fishing
resources. 
 Besides fish resources, Indian Ocean also provides for storehouse
of non-living resources like poly-metallic nodules in the central
Indian Ocean. 
 The significance of Indian Ocean can also be seen in the form of
Cultural Influence. It helped Indian culture to venture in eastern
and western hemisphere with periodic assimilation of their culture
in India.

Important Mountain Passes list

Important Peak list
Lakes in India list