Microscopy Advance Access published June 21, 2016

Microscopy, 2016, 1–8

doi: 10.1093/jmicro/dfw019

Article

Skin microrelief profiles as a cutaneous

aging index
Dai Hyun Kim1,†, Yeon Seung Rhyu2,†, Hyo Hyun Ahn3, Eenjun Hwang4,

Downloaded from http://jmicro.oxfordjournals.org/ at University of California, Santa Barbara on June 27, 2016
and Chang Sub Uhm1,*
1
Department of Anatomy, Korea University College of Medicine, 2Department of Biotechnology, Korea
University College of Life Science & Biotechnology, 3Department of Dermatology, Korea University
College of Medicine, and 4School of Electrical Engineering, Korea University, Seoul, Korea
†
These authors contributed equally to this work.
*
To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail: uhmcs@korea.ac.kr
Received 10 February 2016; Accepted 18 May 2016

Abstract
An objective measurement of cutaneous topographical information is important for
quantifying the degree of skin aging. Our aim was to improve methods for measuring
microrelief patterns using a three-dimensional analysis based on silicone replicas and
scanning electron microscope (SEM). Another objective was to compare the results with
those obtained using a two-dimensional analysis method based on dermoscopy.
Silicone replicas were obtained from forearms, dorsum of the hands and fingers of 51
volunteers. Cutaneous profiles obtained by SEM with silicone replicas showed more
consistent correlations with age than data obtained by dermoscopy. This indicates the
advantage of three-dimensional topography analysis using silicone replicas and SEM
over the widely used dermoscopic assessment. The cutaneous age was calculated using
stepwise linear regression, and the result was 57.40–9.47 × (number of furrows on dor-
sum of the hand) × (width of furrows on dorsum of the hand).
Key words: skin aging, microrelief, silicone replica, scanning electron microscopy, dermoscopy, three-dimensional
topography analysis

Introduction anti-aging therapies and cosmetic products [2,5–7]. The

Skin aging is a natural biological process but progressive
aging can be delayed or even partly reversed by changing
daily lifestyle, proper usage of skin care products and using
dermatologic interventions [1–4]. Present-day patients and
consumers can easily obtain information on new emerging
drugs and cosmetics and advances in techniques or anti-
aging strategies than before. Dermatologists and cosmetic
companies are more often asked to provide evidence of their
conventional methods used to prove anti-aging effects are
videoscopic image analysis [2], skin biopsy [5,6], electron
microscopy [5], measurement of epidermal hyaluronan con-
tent [7], etc. Therefore, an objective assessment of skin aging
is required to satisfy the needs of patients or consumers.
Microrelief (MR) patterns, a component of skin top-
ography, contribute to the formation of cutaneous
microstructures resembling a net consisting of polygons,

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2 Microscopy, 2016
most often triangles or quadrangles [8,9]. The lines of MR
patterns represent furrows of the skin surface, and the
inner areas surrounded by the lines correspond to ridges.
Hence, MR patterns have been widely used in a quantified
evaluation of skin aging [8–11].
Based on the ways of image acquisition and analysis, two
main groups of methods for assessing MR patterns are avail-
able [8]. One is the two-dimensional image analysis (2DIA),
and it acquires topographical information from skin surface
using imaging instruments such as dermoscopy. This method
is simple and fast; however, it lacks cross-section associated
data such as depth of furrows and depends on computational
prediction of images from the skin surface. The other is
three-dimensional topography analysis (3DTA), and it pro-
vides an accurate assessment of superficial architecture con-
taining depth information.
Because scanning electron microscopy (SEM) is one of
the best-known techniques in obtaining images suitable for
three-dimensional analysis, we expect that its use would
improve quantifying methods for MR patterns in assessing
skin aging. The purpose of this study is to design a reliable
3DTA based on silicone replicas and SEM. The results will
be compared with data obtained from the 2DIA based on
dermoscopy. The 3DTA utilizing skin replicas and SEM
could measure MR-associated cutaneous profiles on sec-
tioned planes with higher magnification and resolution
compared with the 2DIA based on dermoscopy. Therefore,
the 3DTA method is able to provide more precise out-
comes especially for depth information compared with the
2DIA method, which uses a computational prediction
solely dependent on surface information. Furthermore, the
numerical formula was intended to be established as a stat-
istical calculation for an approximate quantification and
comparison of the degree of aging.
Materials and methods
Subjects
The study population consisted of 51 healthy volunteers of
age between 12 and 85 years (mean ± standard deviation
was 38.45 ± 19.09 years). Twenty-three subjects were male
(male to female ratio was 1:1.22). Participants who had
underlying systemic disorders and were using any topical or
systemic medications that could affect the condition of the
skin surface were excluded. A cadaver with no specific his-
tory of skin disease was also included in this study for the
verification of silicone replicas in reflecting the MR patterns
of cutaneous surface. The cadaver was one of those donated
for the medical education and investigation through the
Korea University Anatomical Donation Program and trea-
ted with an accurate observance of the university policy.
Methods
Silicone replicas
The skin surface for producing the replica was swabbed
with a 70% alcohol sponge. A silicone mixture (Exafine®,
GC Co., Tokyo, Japan) was slowly spread over the area of
interest to minimize the formation of air bubbles. The sili-
cone replica was solidified for 5 min and then gently
removed from the surface. These negative skin replicas were
collected twice from the medial aspect of the forearm, dor-
sum of the hand and dorsum of the proximal phalange of
the middle finger, respectively. One of the negative replicas
in repeated collections was vertically sectioned with a stain-
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less steel razor blade to obtain the vertical information. An
Epon mixture (Epon 812, 48.50 ml; DDSA, 18.50 ml;
NMA, 33.00 ml and DMP-30, 1.50 ml) was poured onto
the intact negative replicas and the output was then placed
in a dry oven at 60°C for 3 days to produce complementary
positive skin replicas. The Epon mixture solution completely
reflects the cutaneous microstructures contained in the nega-
tive replica, and the solidified Epon specimen was easily
detached after 3 days of hardening without damage to the
contacted silicone replica.
In addition to the silicone replicas applied to the human
volunteers, an experimental attempt was made on the dor-
sum of the hands of a 72-year-old female cadaver to verify
the precision of negative and positive replicas in reflecting
the MR patterns of targeted skin (Fig. 1). The application
of silicone replicas was done twice before and after the
excision of cadaveric skin. After cleansing left dorsum of
cadaveric hand with alcohol sponge, silicone mixture was
applied to produce the negative replica (Fig. 1b) and the
subsequent positive one (Fig. 1d). The hardening of sili-
cone mixture was aided by incandescent lamp for 30 min
because of lack of body temperature of living tissue. The
excised skin specimen was gently unfolded and fixed with
metal pins on the thick hardboard paper to maintain the
similar shape shown before the excision. The negative
(Fig. 1c) and positive (Fig. 1e) replicas were subsequent
results of additional administration of silicone formulation
on the excised skin sample. After separation of the solidi-
fied silicone mixture from the excised skin specimen, the
samples were processed for SEM imaging including fix-
ation with 2.5% glutaraldehyde and 2% osmium tetrox-
ide, dehydration with ethanol, substitution with t-butyl
alcohol and platinum coating. The excised skin specimen
was coherently fixed with metal pins on hardboard paper
during the whole preparation steps from fixation to substi-
tution to prevent massive distortion of original MR pat-
terns by shrinkage that might occur during the tissue
preparation. The processed skin sample was observed and
imaged with SEM as presented in Fig. 1a.
Microscopy, 2016 3

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Fig. 1. The cutaneous microarchitectures are clearly correlated among (a) the excised skin
specimen, negative replicas obtained from the (b) intact skin and (c) excised tissue, posi-
tive replicas reflecting the (d) intact skin and (e) excised one (see the black stars and trian-
gles representing the same area of polygon, respectively, and white arrows indicating the
same hair follicle). The negative replicas (b, c) are represented as a form of bisymmetry for
visual convenience.

Dermoscopic image analysis

Microtopographical profiles from the negative replicas
were measured using digital dermoscopy equipment
(Aphrodite-1, PSI Well-Being Co., Ltd., Suwon, Korea).
The obtained images were processed according to three
algorithms (a polygon mesh detection algorithm, cell map
construction and contact point detection) to yield informa-
tion about the average area of polygons, and average
width and depth of furrows [12].

Scanning electron microscopy

The surface-topped negative and positive skin replicas were
partially trimmed to appropriate sizes and attached side by
side on an aluminum stub with carbon tape for better com-
parison. A total of 10-sectioned plane-topped negative repli-
cas were also stuck to the stub. Then, platinum coating was
performed with an ion coater (IB-5 ion coater, Eiko Co.,
Hitachinaka, Japan). Finally, the number, width and depth
of furrows were evaluated using SEM (S-4700S, Hitachi,
Japan) operating at 10.0 kV in the secondary electron mode.
Analysis of the SEM images
The cutaneous profiles in SEM images were measured by
the consistent criteria, and the schematic figure of the nega-
tive replica provided detailed information (Fig. 2). As
observed in the first and second furrows in Fig. 2, the
beginning and end of a furrow are the points where a sig-
nificant gradient change of borderlines starting from the
deepest point of a furrow is generated. However, if the
required criteria were not fulfilled until arrival at the onset
of the highest plateau of a ridge, the median point between
the latter and the deepest point of a furrow became the
starting or end spot of a furrow, as seen in the third furrow
Fig. 2. Schematic presentation of the rules for measuring MR-
associated profiles with SEM images of a negative silicone replica. The
number of furrows, furrow width and furrow depth were measured
based on the rules. All numbers in the figure were rounded to two deci-
mal places.
of Fig. 2. The starting and end points of a furrow were
connected as a line and the length of the line becomes the
width of the furrow. The parallel line that crosses the dee-
pest point of a furrow was additionally designated. Finally,
the perpendicular line that passes the lowest point of a fur-
row was drawn to designate the depth of the furrow. The
average values of the width and depth of furrows were
used for the assessment of statistical correlation with age.
Statistical analysis
All statistical analyses were performed using SPSS version
21.0 for Windows (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL) with statistical
significance set at P < 0.05. Pearson’s correlation analyses
were performed to clarify the significance of associations
4 Microscopy, 2016

between age and various cutaneous profiles, i.e. the num-

ber, width and depth of furrows, and the average area of
polygons. In addition, paired t-test was used to identify
any statistically significant differences between dermoscopy
and SEM data. Furthermore, a stepwise linear regression
model was adopted for statistical deduction of the
equation that best reflected the degree of aging.

Results
The correlations among MR patterns on skin
surface, negative and positive replicas
The negative (Fig. 1b) and positive (Fig. 1d) replicas

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obtained from the intact skin showed significantly corre-
lated conformations composed of easily matched lines and
polygons each other. Furthermore, the negative (Fig. 1c)
and positive (Fig. 1e) replicas produced from the excised
skin specimen presented closely related MR patterns com-
pared with the excised skin specimen (Fig. 1a) and even the
opening of hair follicles (white arrow in Fig. 1a) were com-
pletely reflected in the negative and positive replicas (white
arrows in Fig. 1b and c, respectively).

Fig. 3. Correlations between age and the width of furrow on (a) the
Relationship between age and profiles analyzed medial aspect of the forearm and (b) the dorsum of the hand measured
by dermoscopy by dermoscopy and SEM.

Medial aspect of the forearm

aspect of the forearms and the dorsum of the hands,
The furrow width was positively correlated with age
excluding the fingers.
(r = 0.59, P < 0.01) (Fig. 3a). The furrow depth was also
positively correlated with age (r = 0.12, P > 0.05), but the
correlation was insignificant. The average area of polygons
Relationships between age and profiles analyzed
was positively correlated with age (r = 0.55, P < 0.01).
by SEM
Medial aspect of the forearm
Dorsum of the hand
The number of furrows showed a significant negative cor-
The furrow width was positively correlated with age
relation with age (r = −0.40, P < 0.01). Furrow depth
(r = 0.55, P < 0.01) (Fig. 3b). The furrow depth was nega-
and width were positively correlated with age (r = 0.28,
tively correlated with age (r = −0.40, P < 0.01). The aver-
P < 0.05); furrow widths measured by dermoscopy and
age area of polygons was positively correlated with age
SEM were significantly different (P < 0.0001). The average
(r = 0.61, P < 0.01). The most prominent morphological
and standard deviation of furrow width obtained from der-
changes in polygons with age occurred in the dorsum of
moscopy and SEM were 90.21 ± 10.83 and 250.59 ± 47.34
the hand. The skin surface of older people had less poly-
μm, respectively (Fig. 3a).
gons but the average areas were larger than those of the
polygons of younger people (Fig. 4).
Dorsum of the hand
Dorsum of the proximal phalange of the middle finger The number of furrows was significantly negatively corre-
Furrow width was positively correlated with age, but the lated with age (r = −0.75, P < 0.01). Furrow width was
correlation was insignificant (r = 0.26, P > 0.05); furrow positively correlated with age (r = 0.62, P < 0.01); however,
depth was also not significant, but negatively correlated furrow depth showed an insignificant positive correlation
with age (r = −0.07, P > 0.05). The average area of poly- with age (r = 0.13, P > 0.05). A statistically significant dif-
gons showed no noticeable correlation with age (r = 0.00, ference was found between furrow widths measured by der-
P > 0.05). Because of these insignificant relationships, moscopy and SEM (P < 0.0001). The average and standard
SEM was performed on the replicas taken from the medial deviation of furrow width measured using dermoscopy and
Microscopy, 2016
Fig. 4. Dermoscopic images of the dorsum of the hands and modified
figures subsequently processed by the serial algorithms including the
polygon mesh detection algorithm. The automated software recog-
nized the furrows (black arrows) and ridges (white stars), and then cal-
culated the furrow width, furrow depth, and area of ridges (area of
polygons). The number and area of polygons at 10 s (a, b), 30 s (c, d),
50 s (e, f), and 70 s (g, h) clearly showed age-related alterations such as
widening of the area of polygons and width of furrows.
SEM were 94.49 ± 19.86 and 279.37 ± 63.12 μm, respect-
ively (Fig. 3b). The number of furrows on the dorsum of the
hand was most significantly correlated with age among the
profiles obtained by SEM. As seen by dermoscopy, the
chronological presentation of SEM images also displayed
age-associated skin alterations (Fig. 5).
Statistical deduction using a stepwise linear
regression model
As described above, 15 categories of MR-associated pro-
files were measured using dermoscopy and SEM (Table 1).
Through stepwise linear regression, three cutaneous char-
acteristics were determined to be most decisive in reflecting
5
the degree of aging, i.e. number of furrows on dorsum of
the hand, widths of furrows on dorsum of the hands and
of medial aspect of the forearms. Three equation models
were deduced with further processing: (i) age = 97.83–
11.05 × (number of furrows on dorsum of the hand),
(ii) age = 57.40–9.47 × (number of furrows on dorsum of
the hand) × (width of furrows on dorsum of the hand) and
(iii) age = 10.767–7.90 × (number of furrows on dorsum
of the hand) + 1.93 × (width of furrows on dorsum of the
hand) + 3.01 × (width of furrows on medial aspect of the
forearm). The adjusted R2 value of each model was 0.55,
0.66 and 0.71, respectively (Table 2).
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Discussion
Aged skin shows altered topographical structures, includ-
ing noticeable wrinkles that are one of the main thera-
peutic targets of dermatologic therapies and cosmetic
products [2,13,14]. Among the cutaneous characteristics
used in quantitative measurements of skin aging, the MR
pattern had been regarded as one of the most sensitive tar-
gets on skin surface and used as a marker of the aging pro-
cess [15].
MR lines are imprinted in the upper dermis and the
overall geometry is determined by the three-dimensional
conformation of collagen bundles [16]. Cutaneous MR
patterns provide an important mechanical function called a
‘deformation reservoir’ that enables stratum corneum
stretching without significant structural and functional
changes [3,17]. The density of MR lines decreases and the
mean depth increases during the aging process. These age-
associated changes could be caused by reorganization of
collagen fibers in upper dermis resulting from chronic
stress by repetitive movements and/or ultraviolet irradi-
ation. A continuous loss of elasticity of the dermis contri-
butes to evanescence of the MR patterns, and hence a
greater proportion of the skin is assembled and forms deep
and wide wrinkles to compensate for declined ‘deform-
ation reservoir’ [3,17]. The age-related deformation of the
MR patterns was clearly demonstrated in morphologic
comparisons of the dermoscopic and SEM images of each
age group (Figs. 4 and 5, respectively). The cutaneous
microtopography of the relatively older subjects in their
50s and 70s (Figs. 4e–h and 5g–l, respectively) showed
deeper and wider wrinkles compared with those of the
younger volunteers (Figs. 4a–d and 5a–f), because of sig-
nificantly diminished capacities of the ‘deformation reser-
voir’. The profound and broad wrinkles of an aged
person on limited skin surface were related to the
decreased number of furrows and increased area of
ridges. These age-associated morphological changes are
also presented in Figs. 4 and 5.
6 Microscopy, 2016

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Fig. 5. SEM images showed sectioned planes (a, d, g, j) and surface characteristics (b, e, h, k) of negative replicas,
and the positive equivalents (c, f, i, l) at 10 s (a, b, c), 30 s (d, e, f), 50 s (g, h, i) and 70 s (j, k, l). The furrows are repre-
sented as black arrows, and the ridges are indicated as white stars. The age-associated cutaneous changes including
decreased number of furrows and increased depth of furrows were identified in the analyzed images from sectioned
planes or surface figures.

Table 1. Correlations of MR-associated profiles measured by dermoscopy and SEM with age

Forearm Dorsum of the hand Finger

Furrow Furrow Average area Furrow Furrow Average area Furrow Furrow Average area
width depth of polygons width depth of polygons width depth of polygons

Dermoscopy
Age Positive Positive Positive Positive Negative Positive Positive Negative r = 0.00,
r = 0.59, r = 0.12, r = 0.55, r = 0.55, r = −0.40, r = 0.61, r = 0.26, r = −0.07, P > 0.05
P < 0.01 P > 0.05 P < 0.01 P < 0.01 P < 0.01 P < 0.01 P > 0.05 P > 0.05
SEM
Age Positive Positive Negative Positive Positive Negative
r = 0.28, r = 0.28, r = −0.40, r = 0.62, r = 0.13, r = −0.75,
P < 0.05 P < 0.05 P < 0.01 P < 0.01 P > 0.05 P < 0.01

Several methodological approaches to study MR pat-
terns have been published. They can be grossly classified
into two groups: 3DTA and 2DIA [8]. The 3DTA method
requires cutaneous negative and positive silicone replicas
for an additional profilometric analysis based on mechan-
ical, optical and laser principles, or SEM assays [8,18,19].
The method using silicone replicas is considered one of the
most stable approaches for generating precise reproduc-
tions of a cutaneous surface, and the reliability of this tech-
nique has been reported in many articles [18] and in this
study (Fig. 1). In the 2DIA, a skin replica is not needed.
Instead, cutaneous information such as the level of anisot-
ropy and density of furrows is simply obtained with a port-
able skin detector, i.e. a dermoscope [8].
The conventional process of an MR analysis is based on
data obtained from the skin surface whether skin replicas
are used or not. Recently, more refined methodologies and
software solutions have been developed for approximate
predictions of vertical information from images of skin sur-
faces. However, the most reasonable way to acquire per-
pendicular data is to directly measure a profile on
sectioned planes of the target skin. This simple and reliable
Microscopy, 2016
Table 2. Three most statistically significant models for
predicting cutaneous age for different profiles of MR pattern
Modeld R R2 Adjusted R2 Std. error of the estimate
1 0.750a 0.563 0.554 12.75227
2 0.821b 0.675 0.661 11.11259
3 0.854c 0.729 0.711 10.25391
a
Predictors: (constant), number of furrows on dorsum of the hands.
b
Predictors: (constant), number and width of furrows on dorsum of the
hands.
c
Predictors: (constant), number and width of furrows on dorsum of the hands,
width of furrows on medial aspect of forearms.
d
Dependent variable: age.
concept has been widely used in skin biopsy to make final
diagnoses in dermatology clinics. However, only a few
small studies have been published regarding the measure-
ment of MR patterns utilizing information from sectioned
planes of human skin [20]. Oh et al. [20] dealt with the
relationship between MR patterns and histologic structure
of cadaver skin.
In this study, data obtained from the sectioned planes and
actual skin surfaces were used to demonstrate age-related
cutaneous changes in humans. Conventional noninvasive sili-
cone replicas were applied to the forearms and dorsum of the
hands and fingers of the volunteers. The relatively insignifi-
cant results from the fingers were possibly explained by the
curved surface and feasible mobility of the area. Hence,
the replica could not sufficiently reflect the MR patterns of
the target skin. The negative replicas produced on the fore-
arms and dorsum of hands were partially sectioned for add-
itional imaging of the vertical planes by SEM. As a result, a
more precise assessment of the furrow number, width and
depth was possible compared with the dermoscopy evalu-
ation using the limited data available from the surface with
comparatively lower levels of magnification. Therefore, the
measured profiles obtained using SEM could be regarded as
index values when the accuracy of a specific 2DIA tool needs
to be established.
Our results showed generally similar age-dependent
transformations of the MR pattern compared with those of
previously published articles; however, several results should
be discussed and interpreted further. Masuda et al. reported
positive correlations between the width and depth of fur-
rows and age (r = 0.14, 0.48, respectively). The number of
ridges was negatively related with age (r = −0.52). Skin
replicas were obtained from the cheek area, and a confocal
scanning microscope was used to construct the 3D surface
morphology [16]. Other investigators measured microtopo-
graphy of the skin on the face, neck and hand using dermo-
scopy. Furrow depth and average area of polygons were
consistently positively correlated with age at the three differ-
ent sites. However, furrow width was inconsistently related
7
to age at these different sites. Furrow width on the face and
hand was positively correlated with age, but an inverse rela-
tionship was found for that on the neck [12].
In this study, similar inconsistent correlations with age
were found in the results obtained using dermoscopy.
Furrow depth appeared to be positively related to age on
the medial aspect of the forearm, but an opposite correl-
ation was found on the dorsum of the hand. The positive
correlation of furrow depth with age has been frequently
reported in the literature [12,19,21]. The data obtained
from SEM yielded the expected consistent correlations
with age, in contrast to the conflicting results from dermo-
scopy. Furthermore, significant discrepancies were identi-
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fied between the widths of furrows measured using
dermoscopy and SEM, as presented in Fig. 2. The signifi-
cant difference implies that the data calculated from der-
moscopic images were constantly underestimated. The
combined method of silicone replicas plus sectioned speci-
mens and SEM had synergistic advantages in the aspects of
precision and reliability. This is because SEM could produce
significantly higher resolution images than dermoscopy and
sectioned silicone replicas, giving rise to a direct measure-
ment of depth information, while most of the 2DIA methods
pursue an approximate calculation by complex algorithms.
Our method could also contribute as a mean to show stand-
ard values to the verification processes of other 2DIA meth-
ods using devices other than dermoscopy.
The coated silicone replicas were also imaged by dermo-
scopy (data not shown) after data acquisition using SEM
to allow for comparisons to be made with the results
obtained from the uncoated silicone replicas. Statistical
analysis revealed that furrow width and average area of
polygons on the forearm and dorsum of the hand of both
replicas were significantly correlated. In contrast, furrow
depth measured from coated and uncoated silicone replicas
had no significant relationship at either site. The data-
processing steps used for the dermoscopy images were
thought to be significantly influenced by minimal changes
to specimens, including alterations to color through ion
coating. These results may imply that improvements in the
data-processing steps for the 2DIA using dermoscopy are
needed.
The approximate quantification of cutaneous age pro-
vides substantially useful therapeutic and/or cosmetic indi-
ces for dermatologists or investigators of companies,
especially if the outcome is acquired by a noninvasive and
reliable method. The quantified MR patterns were utilized
to statistically calculate the three model equations for
determining cutaneous age of the target skin as stated in
the ’Results’ section. The second model included constant
variables measured only on the dorsum of the hand, com-
pared with the third model that required additional
8 Microscopy, 2016
variables measured on the medial aspect of forearm, and
was still recognized to yield a significant modest R2 values
as shown in Table 2. Therefore, the second model provides
an approximate estimation of skin age with a simple appli-
cation of silicone replicas only on the dorsum of hands.
Concluding remarks
The 3DTA using silicone replicas appears to be gradually
replaced by the 2DIA methodologies in the field of clinics
and laboratories, because direct measurements of the latter
are more convenient than complicated and time-consuming
procedures of the former. However, reliability, accuracy and
reproducibility are still the advantages of the 3DTA with
replicas, and these positive aspects could explain the continu-
ous adoption seen in recent publications. Furthermore, the
advancement of the replica-associated 3DTA makes is pos-
sible to utilize high-resolution images acquired from SEM
and depth information obtained from sectioned silicone
replicas. This improved 3DTA could be useful in the field of
research associated with cutaneous aging and skin barriers
that requires precise measurements. This method could
also be of use at anti-aging clinics because the equation for
the degree of aging can be simply applied with noninvasive
measurements at a single site.
Funding
This study was not supported by any funding source.
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