Grain boundary (GB) is the junction of two crystalline particles.

There are two main types of

GBs, namely, the rotation and torsion GBs (fig. 8), which are characterized by the angle θ of
rotation or torsion of one grain relative to another. Under rotation at some special angles θ0
the some number n of lattice sites of one grain may by coincidence with some sites at another
grain, forming the coincidence site lattice, that is characterized by the reciprocal density of
coincidence sites Σ =1/n. In the case of ideal matching of similar perfect lattices all the sites
coincide, so n = 1 and Σ =1. For twin boundary every third site coincides, so Σ =3. In the respect
of Σ all boundaries are divided into the special boundaries withΣ < 50, and the general high
angle boundaries Σ > 50 with random disorientation. As a rule in metals the majority of
boundaries is of the high angle type with disordered amorphous structure. They are
characterized by the relatively large free volume, the great number of dangling or weakened
bonds, and the extended GB width of ~1 nm. Therefore, the general GBs have the energy of
near half of surface energy and greater than of special one:

In general, GBs in NSM have specific structural features, which are responsible for their specific
behavior and properties. The structure of GB in NSM in many cases is in nonequilibrium state
with high densities of non-periodically arranged GB defects. Nonequilibrium NSMs are
inherently heterogeneous on a nano-meter scale consisting of nanometer-sized building blocks
separated by boundary regions. The various types of non-equilibrium NSM differ by the
characteristic features of their building blocks (e.g. crystallites with different or identical
chemical composition, different or identical atomic structure, different or identical shape, size,
etc.). However, the size, structure, etc. of the building blocks are not the only microstructural
features distinguishing different NC materials. In fact, the boundary regions between them
play a similar role. The chemical composition, atomic structure, thickness, etc. of the boundary
regions are equally crucial for the properties of NC materials. In other words, even if the
building blocks, e.g. the crystallites of two NC materials, have comparable size, chemical
composition, etc., the properties of both materials may deviate significantly if their interfacial
structures differ.

One of the technologically attractive features of non-equilibrium NC materials is the fact that
their microstructure (and properties) can be manipulated by the mode of fabrication. This
allows a wide variety of microstructures to be generated. Method of preparation strongly
affects the structure and boundaries behavior of GBs. For example, nanocrystalline nickel
(crystal size about 10 nm, density about 94%) prepared by consolidation of Ni powder
exhibited little (100%). The major difference noticed between both materials is the energy
stored in the interfacial regions suggesting different interfacial structures. The enthalpy stored
in nc Pt may be reduced during annealing up to 50% without grain growth (i.e. at constant
crystal size and chemical composition). The reduction is presumably caused by atomic
rearrangements in the boundary regions. Measurements of other properties of NSMs (e.g.
thermal expansion, specifc heat, compressibility) and spectroscopic studies (e.g. by Mossbauer
or positron lifetime spectroscopy) indicate structural differences between chemically identical
nc materials with comparable crystallite sizes if these materials were prepared by different
methods and/or if their previous time – temperature history was different. The nonequilibrium
character of nc materials implies that any comparison of experimental observations is
meaningful only if the specimens used have comparable crystal size, chemical composition,
preparation mode and time – temperature history. Moreover, the non-equilibrium character
of nc materials renders them susceptible to structural modifcations by the methods applied to
study their structure.