Canadian Slavonic Papers

The Paradigm of the Hebrew Prophet and the Russian Tradition of Iurodstvo
Author(s): Svitlana Kobets
Source: Canadian Slavonic Papers / Revue Canadienne des Slavistes, Vol. 50, No. 1/2,
CANADIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE XIV INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF SLAVISTS, OHRID,
MACEDONIA, 2008 (March-June 2008), pp. 1-16
Published by: Canadian Association of Slavists
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SvitlanaKobets

The Paradigm of the Hebrew Prophet and the

RussianTraditionofIurodstvo

Abstract: ThispaperproceedsfromthepremisethatRussianiurodivye - or foolsfor

- displaya remarkable
Christ resemblance to the Hebrewprophets. As it exploresthe
genealogicallinkbetweenthesetwocultural paradigms, thepapershowsthat,duringthe
variousstagesof the developmental historyof holy foolery,the figureof the Old
Testamentprophetservedas the holy fool's literaryand behaviouralmodel. The
influence
of theprophetic paradigmon theculturalphenomenology and hagiographie
imageryof iurodstvo was exercisedthrough theprominence assignedto theprophetin
thewritten,visualandaudibletextsavailableto theEasternSlavs fromthebeginning of
era.On theliterary
Christian level,thisenduring influence intheprophetic
is discernable
topoithatreachedholyfoolishhagiography directlyand indirectly.Whilethe direct
venuesare confined to Old Testament texts,whichdescribedthelivesand acts of the
Hebrewprophets, the indirectones includeNew Testament textsand hagiographies.
Whentheholyfoolfindshis place in theurbansetting, his paradigm undergoes crucial
changes,losing its ascetic aspectsand acquiringthe propheticones. This shiftof
emphasisdefinesRussianhagiography and culturaltradition, wheretheiurodivyi often
emergesas theRussianversionoftheHebrewprophet.

RussianOrthodox has a peculiarcategory

Christianity ofsaints,foolsforChrist,
who feignmadnessand exhibitsubversivebehaviourin orderto providethe
publicwithspiritualguidance - and at the same timeavoid praisefortheir
holiness.Thehagiographieimagery andphenomenology ofthefoolforChristor
iurodivyiand Hebrewprophetsharekeytraits:bothare believedto be God's
chosenandmediatebetweenthesacredandprofane realms;2bothareknownto
be mentors, and miracle-workers;
clairvoyants, bothcome fromvarioussocial
backgrounds and are representedby bothgenders.3 In the same way as the
prophetserveshispeopleas a reminderoftheOld Testament theholy
covenant,

Comprehensive studiesof holy fooleryincludeSergeyA. Ivanov,Holy Fools in

Byzantiumand Beyond(New York:OxfordUniversity Press,2006); A. M. Panchenko,
"Smekhkakzrelishche," D. S. Likhachev,
A. M. Panchenko, N. V. Ponyrko, Smekhv
DrevneiRusi(Leningrad: Nauka,1984);GeorgeFedotov,SviatyeDrevneiRusi,X-XVII
st.(NewYork:Izdanierusskogo pravoslavnogoBogoslovskogo Fonda,1959).
On thedichotomy betweensacredand profaneand itsuniversalityin worldreligions,
see MirceaEliade, The Sacred and Profane(San Diego: HarcourtTrade Publishers,
2001).
Fora discussionof different
aspects,functions
andtaxonomies of theHebrewprophet
see myLMS thesis,SvitlanaKobets,TheProphetic Paradigms:theFool in Christand
theHebrewProphet(Toronto:PIMS, University ofToronto,2006) 1-11.
CanadianSlavonicPapers/Revuecanadienne
des slavistes
Vol. L, Nos. 1-2,March-June
2008

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2 SVITLANAKOBETS

fool remindsthe congregation of the evangelicalmessageand is seen as a

walking, talking, ranting impersonation of scripture. By defying theestablished
orderof lifeandchallenging thepeople'slukewarm faith, theholyfoolexposes
himself/herself tothewrathandpersecution ofhis/her audienceswho,notunlike
the Old Testament ones,persistently resistGod's will and fail to graspHis
message.Justlike the biblicalprophet,the holy fool utterspredictions of
calamities andwoes andcastigates boththecommonpeople and the authorities.
The vitaefurther relatethatbecauseof hisdefianceandunsolicited prophecies,
the fool forChristis beaten,rejected,persecutedand marginalized by the
infuriated crowds.Quite in line withthe prophetic the
paradigm, iurodivyVs
safety,indeedhis life,is constantly endangered, providing thehagiographies
withthetoposoftheholyfool'smartyrdom, whichcloselyparallelsthatof the
prophet. The waythesetwoculturalphénoménologies convergein theirsocial
functions andmeanings raisesa questionabouttheirinterrelation. By analyzing
thegeneticlinksbetweenthem,mypaperwillshowthattheseanalogiesarenot
accidentalandthattheparadigm of theholyfollyself-consciously drewon the
culturalmodeloftheOld Testament prophet. It willshow the importantrolethat
thetextuallegacyoftheHebrewprophetic tradition playedduring theformative
yearsof Russianholy foolery,findingreflection in its phenomenology and
textualizations.Furthermore, I will arguethatthisinfluence was so significant
thatto a largedegreethe paradigmof Russianholy foolerywas modelled
directlyon the imageof the Old Testament prophet.On theotherhand,the
propheticparadigm exerted indirect influence on the imagery and
phenomenology of holy foolerythroughNew Testamenttexts and later
hagiographie literature, i.e., throughthe paradigmof JesusChristand the
derivativeparadigmof the Christiansaint.Prophetictopoi were presentin
hagiographies of ByzantinefoolsforChrist,butit was theRussianOrthodox
traditionthatmade thempartand parcelof the imageof the iurodivy, thus
producing a uniquecultural type.
The EasternSlavs' initialexposureto theimagery and phenomenology of
theHebrewprophet occurredat a timeof close contactwiththeneighbouring
carriersoftheHebrewfaith, theKhazars.4The first representative oftheJudeo-
Christiantradition to be venerated by the Eastern Slavs was the Hebrew prophet
Elijah.5Thechurches dedicated to him- e.g.,PskovandKyivanChurches ofSt.
Elijah- were among the firstChristian churches in Kyivan Rus1. Elijah's
honourable placewithinthepaganpantheon of KyivanRus'- he was a deityin

See Gumilev'sdiscussionof contactsbetweenKhazarsanddwellersof KyivanRus' in

Lev Gumilev,DrevniaiaRus' i velikaiastep'(Moskva:Izdatel'stvo
Akt,2002) 133, 152,
170.Alsosee M. I. Artamonov, Khazar(St. Petersburg:
Istoriici SPB Universitet,
2002).
A. M. Panchenko, la emigriroval Zvezda,2005) 13.
v DrevniuiuRus' (St. Petersburg:
Also see Nikolai Pogrebniak,protoierei,"Zametka ob ikonografiiprorokaIlii,"
Moskovskie eparkhial'nye vedomosti 3 (2003): 8-14, internet article:
(Aug20, 2007).
<http://vedomosti.meparh.ru/2003_6_8/14.htm>

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The Paradigmof the HebrewProphetand Iurodstvo 3

chargeof firesand rains - reflectsthe Slavs' familiarity withthe biblical

mythology this
surrounding figure.6
WiththeBaptismofKyivanRusf(988), translations ofbooksofprophets as
well as otherOld Testament bookscontaining storiesof suchmajorprophetic
figuresas Moses and Elijah,Samueland Elisha,David and Solomonbecame
availableto KyivanSlavs. As it is, thevoices of theprophets and narratives
abouttheirlives and oraclesfigureprominently in theOld Testament, where
theirbooksnumber sixteenamongthetotaloffifty. Theprophetic were
writings
includedin different typesof texts- liturgical,
hagiographical, - and
exegetical
as suchexistedthroughout thehistory ofEasternSlavicChristianity. Amongthe
earliestbiblicaltranslations werethebooks of prophetsand of Kings (Russ.
Tsarstvd),whichtellthestoriesof theprophets Samuel,Elijahand Elisha,and
of theprophet-kings David and Solomon.7Latertranslations of theprophetic
texts8were also continually available to the Slavic readingand listening
audiences,bothas independent textsand as a partof numerous compilations,
including Paleias,Prologs,Chronographs, and Florilegias.9The popularityand
wideavailability ofapocryphal storiesaboutprophets shouldnotbe overlooked
either.10All thesetextsunfoldedbeforethereadertheimageof an archetypal
prophet: God's messenger invested withthepowerto speakon His behalf.They
also illustratedhis mostsalientcharacteristics, includingunflagging struggle
withprofane-minded surroundings,hiscontroversialstanceas bothan awesome
miracle-worker and an outcast,and his martyrdom. The ChristianOrthodox

It is widelyregarded thatthecultof prophetElijahwas brought to KyivanRus' from

Byzantium, yethe was mentioned in KyivanannalsevenbeforetheChristianization of
KyivanRus1.See, forexample,thePrimary Chronicleundertheyearof 945. Following
Byzantine iconographicalcanon,theprophet Elijah,similartoJohntheBaptist,was seen
as a linkbetweenOld and New Testaments. At thesametime,he was oftenseen in a
pagancontext. On thepaganmeaningof theprophetElijah,see T. S. Makashina"Il'in
den'.Il'ia-prorokv narodnyx predstavleniiakhi folklore
vostochnykh slavian,"Obriadyi
obriadovyi folklor(Moskva:Nauka,1982)andI. S. Rodnikova, "Ob ikone'Iliia prorokv
pustyne'XIII veka iz Vybut" Ol'ginskiechteniia.(Pskov: Izdaniie khramaSv.
Aleksandra Nevskogo),Internet article<http://www.pskovcity.ru/iconyiliya.htm>(Dec
12,2007)
A. A. Alekseev, Tekstologiiaslavianskoibiblii (S.-Peterburg:DmitriiBulanin
Publishing House, 1999) especiallychapter5 (1-5). Also see FrancisThompson, "The
Natureof the Receptionof ChristianByzantineCulturein Russia in the Tenthto
Thirteenth Centuriesand its ImplicationsforRussianCulture."In: FrancisThompson,
TheReception ofByzantine Culturein MedievalRussia(Aldershot, UK: Ashgate,1999)
107-139.
Alekseev,chapters 5-7.
Alekseevchapter1.
See M. V. Rozhdestvenskaia, "Introduction:'Etogov sbornike ne chitai...',"Apokrify
DrevneiRusi(St. Petersburg: Amfora, 2006).
CanadianSlavonicPapers/Revuecanadienne
des slavistes
Vol. L, Nos. 1-2,March-June
2008

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4 SVITLANA KOBETS

canon indeedplaced the prophetwithinthe Christiantradition of voluntary

sufferingin imitationof Christ.TheInterpretive Paleia,u forexample,liststhe
prophetstogether withtheapostles,therighteous onesand all "othermartyrs,"
whoendured sufferinginthenameofGod.12
Thetextualevidenceshowsthatalreadyat thedawnoftheChristian erathe
EasternSlavshadthoroughly internalizedthesignificance oftheOld Testament
prophet.This is explicitlyreflected in one of the firstmonuments of early
Kyivanliterature, the PrimaryChronicle(1113 A.D.), whichinterprets the
baptismof KyivanRus1as a fulfilled prophecy.The Philosopher'sSpeech,
containedin thatwork,offersan explicationof the Christiancreedand its
significancefortheSlavs by meansof extensivequotations fromthebooksof
prophets.Theprophets citedandmentioned inthePhilosopher's Speechinclude
Hosea,Samuel,Moses,Jeremiah, Malachi,Ezekiel,Isaiah,Amos,David,Micah,
andZechariah.All in all, in thiswork,theprophet is introduced as an agentof
God's willandas a heraldoftheneworderofChristianization ofthegentiles.
This imagealso gainedprominence through churchart- includingicons,
mosaicsand frescoes - whichwas anotherimportant visualand interpretative
mediumthroughwhich the EasternSlavs absorbedthe theologicaland
phenomenological peculiarities of the Hebrewprophet.The prophetswere
paintedin the archetypal sageoutfit,holdingscrollswithcitations thatalludedto
thecomingof Christand his redemptive mission.Theirportrayals habitually
surrounded thechurchcentrepiece, thedomeimageof JesusthePantocrator.13
Alternatively, depictionsof prophetscould be placed on the walls- as, for
example, inthe Cathedral ofSt. SophiaofKyivortheCathedral ofSt. Sophiaof
Novgorod - where are found depictions of David and Solomon, Isaiah and
Jeremiah, Ezekiel,Daniel, Malachi and Avvakum (Habakkuk).14 In the various
compositional patternsof the Eastern Orthodox tradition, the portrayals of the
were
prophets indispensable.
Thus, through the mediumof the Old Testament, the Hebrewprophet
arrivedto theEasternSlavs as God's mouthpiece and scourge,as teacherand
miracle-worker, as asceticandmartyr, as eschatological figureandcarrier ofthe
apocalyptic message,introducing theimagethatwas laterassociatedwiththe
iurodivyi.
WhiletheOld Testament providedthedirectvenueof transmission of the
Hebrewprophet's imagery andtopoi,theNew Testament andhagiographie texts

Paleia, availablein KyivanRus1as earlyas thetwelfthcentury,servedas a primary

sourceoftheOld Testament andtexts.
history
12
Paleia Tolkovaia(Moskva:Soglasiie,2002) 47.
Lazarevtracestheemergence to theninthcentury.
convention
of thisartistic V. N.
Lazarev,Vizantiiskoe
1A
iskusstvo
i drevnerusskoe (Moskva:Nauka,1978) 132-134.
Regarding thefrescoesofprophets in SophiaofNovgorod,see Lazarev140, 144-145,
148-149,150-151,152-153,156-157,158-159,160-161.

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The Paradigmof the HebrewProphetand Iurodstvo 5

providedan indirect one. Indeed,in theNew Testament, theHebrewprophet

findssuccessorsin thekeyfigures oftheChristian creed,JesusChristandJohn
the Baptist,bothof whomwere modelledas archetypal prophets. The latter
epitomizes theHebrewprophetic traditionandis represented as a healer,teacher
and sage of theElijahtype(Matt.11.14),15whereastheformer is throughout
represented as an archetypal prophet: his publiclifeand itinerant life-style; his
dressas an itinerant teacher;his unconditional devotionto his role as God's
herald;his practiceof speakingin parables;and his fearlessoppositionto the
foes of his missionare in line withthe phenomenology of his prophetic
predecessors. Thus,in theGospels,Jesusis identified by thepeople and his
disciplesas a prophet (Matt.21.11, Luke 7.16, John4.19) and is comparedto
Jeremiah (Matt. 16.14),Elijah (Matt. 11.14),Moses (John1.17) and "all the
prophets" (Mark6.15). Furthermore, Jesusidentifieshimself as a prophet (Luke
13.33,John 4.19) and is seen in the lightof fulfilmentof the Old Testament
prophecies(Matt. 13.35,Matt.12.39,Matt.27.9, Luke 4.17-21,Luke 24.27,
24.44,John1.45). In linewiththeparadigm of theprophet-healer (i.e., Elijah),
Jesushealedthesickand raisedthedead (Luke 7.14), spenttimein thedesert,
was an itinerantsageanda prophet-teacher likeMoses.Finally,as an archetypal
prophet Jesus was misunderstood, rejected,persecuted,and eventually putto
death.16
Within theHebrewtradition, thephenomenology oftheprophet was unique:
he stoodapartandneverinvited orprovoked anytype ofimitation. The imageof
JesusChrist,however,suppliedhis followerswithan enduringbehavioural
model,initiating theimitanoChristitradition. The imperative to imitateChrist
provided the stimulus for theChristian ascetics who ventured to cultivate a new
and
subjectivity engender a new social dynamic.17To thisend, they engaged in

In Christian
theology JohntheBaptistrepresents theOld Testament prophetictradition,
is seenandinterpreted withintheOld Testament canonandprovidesitwitha closure.
Forthediscussionof Jesusas a prophet see SeverinoJ.Croatto,"Jesus,ProphetLike
Elijah,and Prophet-Teacher Like Moses in Luke-Acts,"Journalof BiblicalLiterature,
124.3(2005): 451^65.
Similarto theasceticsof Greco-Roman the Christian
tradition, ones practicedself-
disciplineand cultivated however,theirswas a newventure:
virtue.Ideologically, they
proceededfromtheteachingsfoundin New Testament and otherearlyChristian texts,
imitated lifeand sufferings of Christand aspiredto live in uninterruptedmentaland
spiritualunionwithGod. Forthediscussionof social,historical and culturalaspectsof
Christian asceticism,see LeifVaage,and L. VincentWimbush, eds.,Asceticismand the
New Testament (New York: Routledge,1999); Wimbush,VincentL. and Vanantasis,
Richard,eds.,Asceticism (New York,Oxford:OxfordUniversity Press,1995); Clark,
ElizabethA., ReadingRenunciation: Asceticismand Scripturein Early Christianity
(Princeton: PrincetonUniversityPress,1999);Goehring, JamesE., Ascetics,Society,and
the Desert: Studies in Early EgyptianMonasticism (Harrisburg:TrinityPress
International,1999).
CanadianSlavonicPapers/Revuecanadienne
des slavistes
2008
Vol. L, Nos. 1-2,March-June

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6 SVITLANA KOBETS

suchpracticesas constant prayer, non-possession, celibacyand fasting, which

were implemented by meansof rigorousself-discipline. Self-deprivation and
suffering wereimportant elements of theasceticprogram, as theywereseenin
thelightof Christ'svoluntarily self-sacrifice and Passion.18 Representatives of
different asceticdenominations (i.e., monks,hermits, itinerants) inflictedon
themselves suffering by rejecting commonhumanconveniences (e.g., sleeping
on bareground, havingno home,wearingfewclothes)anddepriving themselves
of sleepand foodduringcontinuous vigilsand fasts.Certainrepresentatives of
asceticism wouldgo evenfurther, inflictingon themselves intense sufferingby
exposingthemselves to elements, contracting diseases(e.g., leprosy),enduring
insectbites,livingin confinedspaces,wearinghair-shirts or chains,standing
continuously (e.g., stylites)or even mutilating theirbodies (e.g., asceticself-
castration). The holy fool a
occupies place among the latter,i.e., extreme
ascetics,as his suffering is seen as truly preter-human. onlydidthefoolsfor
Not
Christexposethemselves to theelements, fast,wearchainsand keep nightly
vigils,they also the
provoked cruelty of thepeopleandexultedin theincessant
persecution to which their hostile audiences subjectedthem.In fact,theholy
fool'ssuffering was so extreme thatinRussiantheology theexploitoiiurodstvo
receiveda reputation as themostdifficult asceticpracticeandwas qualifiedby
thetheologians as operasuperogatoria oran optionalasceticexploit.19
The asceticssoughtseclusion,but,as thelifeof thearchetypal Christian
saintSt.Antony ofEgyptshows,theascetic'swithdrawal wouldbe followedby
a return, while his featwould culminatein a special social status,thatof
power.20 Gained through the cultivation of self,a new consciousnesswould
elevatetheasceticabovetheprofane worldandattract numerous congregations
to seek benefitsfromhis presence,interference or prayer.21 The holy man
emerged inthesocietyas an arbiter anda judge,a medicalmananda counsellor,
the man of powerand a sage in a numberof ways thatmirrorthe social
functions of the Hebrewprophet, includinghis continuousinsistenceon the
personal responsibility of man vis-à-vis Judgment day. In RussianOrthodoxy,
thisfunction eventually becamethedomainof theholyfool,in whosefigure
asceticandprophetic aspectswereamalgamated.

18
David Rensberger,"Asceticismand the Gospel of John,"Vaage, Leif and Wimbush,L.
Vincent,Asceticismand theNew Testament127-147, especially 141.
Ioann Kovalevskii, lurodstvoo Khristei KhristaRadi Iurodivyievostochnoii Russkoi
Tserkvi(Moskva: PechatniaA. I. Snegireva, 1895) 102; Evgenii E. Golubinskii,Istoriia
Kanonizatsii Sviatykh v Russkoi Tserkvi (Moskva, 1902 Reprint [Westmead,
Farnborough:Hants Gregg InternationalPublishers,19691) 186.
PeterBrown,"The Rise and Functionof the Holy Man in Late Antiquity,"TheJournal
ofRoman Studies 61 (1971): 80. Also see RichardValantasis,"Constructionsof Power in
Asceticism,"Journalof theAmericanAcademyofReligion 63.4 (1 995): 775-82 1.
Brown 82.

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The Paradigmof the HebrewProphetand Iurodstvo 1

The stanceof Christianasceticsfoundreflection in the hagiographical

writings forwhichtheprophetic paradigmwas an important sourceof topoi.
Thus,thedesertwithdrawal of Moses, Elijah and Jesuswas mirrored in the
anachoresisof thedesertasceticsof Egypt,Syriaand Palestine,whereasthe
formers' abstinence duringthewithdrawal was reflected in theself-purifying
practicesof the ascetics.The prophet'slife-longstrugglewithhis people's
unfaithfulness and his call to repentance(cf. St. Johnthe Baptist)were
transposed as theascetic'sstruggle withevil,whichenteredthehagiographie
patternpersonifiedas the struggle demons.As was explicitly
with in
textualized
theLifeof St.Antony, thisasceticventure was markedbya directcitation from
theGospel:Christ'stemptation inthedesert.22Otherreflections oftheprophetic
paradigm includethe ascetics'commitment to theircause and theirpositionas
menof wisdomand power.At the same time,earlyChristian hagiographers
drewheavilyon themiraculous component foundin storiesabouttheprophets.
The scrollreceivedby Abba Ephraimthe Syrian(cf. Ezek. 2.9-3.2) and the
Elijah-likeascentto heaven(2 Kings2:11), whichwe findin thelifeof the
desertAbba Sissoi, are examplesof such borrowings. Allusionto Elijah's
heavenly chariotbecomes a symbol of holiness- although employed bySatan-
in thelifeof SimeontheStylite. Not unlikeElijahand Christ, AbbasMacarius
and Bessarionraise the dead. Yet most commonare the Abbas' giftsof
clairvoyance and prophecyfoundin the lives and apophthegmata of Antony,
and
Sergius, many more desert saints.23
Finally, thescenes of makingcross-eyed
or blinding ofthegirls(whomockedthesefoolsforChrist) - in thelivesof St.
SimeonofEmesaandSt.VasiliiofMoscowrespectively - aremodelleddirectly
on Elisha'scruelretributiontotheboyswhotaunted him(2 Kings2:23-25).
To sumup,a number of components of theprophetic paradigm becamean
integralpartof thehagiographie imageryof Christian asceticismand sanctity.
Thesehagiographie textsservedas anotherimportant, althoughindirect, venue
of transmission of prophetic topoi,supplying essentialbuildingblocksforthe
paradigm ofiurodstvo.
FoolishnessforChristdevelopedwithinthe earlyasceticmovement and
was integral
initially to it.24Accordingto thehagiographie evidence,thefirst
asceticswho feignedmadnessin orderto invitescorn and abuse by the
community weremonks.The mostcelebrated case is thatof IsidoratheFool,

See TimVivian'sintroductioninAthanasiusofAlexandria.TimVivianandApostólos
N. Athanassakis,trans.,TheLifeofAntony (Kalamazoo:CistercianPublications,2003)
xxiii.
See The DesertFathers:Sayingsof theEarly ChristianMonks(London: Penguin
books,2003) 184-196.FortheScriptural rootsof Christian
hagiography,see N. Petrov,
O proiskhozhdenii i sostave slaviano-russkago pechatnago prologa (inozemnye
(Kiev: TipografiaEremeeva,1875) 17 and 121-123.
istochniki)
24
ForthediscussionofearlyChristian see Ivanov49-65.
iurodstvo,
CanadianSlavonicPapers/Revuecanadienne
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2008

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8 SVITLANA KOBETS

whosestoryis foundin Palladius'paterikon, TheLausiac History}5In pursuit

of her ascetic endeavour,this Egyptiannun feignedmadness,thereby
deliberately denigrating herselfand invitingabuse by the sistersof her
monastery. Another holyfoolishcharacter fromthiscompilation, Serapionthe
26
Sindonite, is representative of a controversialascetic movementof
27
itinerancy, whose practitioners often displayedtraitsof holy foolery,
challenging andprovoking thecongregation bytheirradicalinterpretation ofthe
Gospels,vagrancy,refusalto perform manuallabour,subversivebehaviour,
anticsand begging.Accordingto SergeiIvanov,who in his recentstudyof
Byzantine andRussianfoolery forChristtracesthecultural history ofiurodstvo,
thisasceticpracticereacheditsapex intheurbanparadigm.28 Thisdevelopment
was forthefirsttimereflected in thelifeof a fifth-century salos Simeonof
Emesa,whichwas written in theseventhcentury by Leontiusof Napolis.This
life explicitlyshows fooleryforChristas one of the stages in the ascetic
endeavour of SimeontheFool,whowas able to undertake it onlyafterseveral
decadesofrigorous self-perfectionas a monkanda hermit.29
The ascetic dimensionof the holy foolishparadigmwas reflectedin
Byzantine hagiographies, whichshowfoolsforChristmortifying theirbodiesby
meansof vigils,fasting, and itinerancy. These practicescomprisean integral
partof theholyfool's asceticprogramof self-abnegation, yetthey - at least
and
fasting vigils - as well as continuous prayer,are implemented at nightand
thereforeare unknown to hisor heraudiences.The holyfool'sasceticprogram
also embraces thedaywhenunderthemaskofmadness, s/hetirelesslyconfronts
and provokeshis/her audience, which does not fail to abuse and persecute
him/her thusfacilitating the holyfool's partaking in Christ'sPassion.Thus,
uponfirst entering thecityofEmesa,St.Simeonprovokeslittleboysto beatand
teasehimandalmostimmediately afterthatinciteshisownbrutalthrashing by

ItsOld ChurchSlavonictranslationwas includedin Egipetskii Paterik,a compilation

of paterikstories,whichwas probably availablein KyivanRus' alreadyin theeleventh
century.See I. P. Eremin,"K istoriidrenve-russkoi perevodnoipovesti,"TODRL 3
(1936): 56-57. FortheEnglishtranslation of Isidora'sstorysee RobertT. Meyer,trans.,
Palladius: The Lausiac History(New York: Paulist Press, 1964) 96-98. For the
discussion,see Ivanov51-59.
"
Meyer 105-110.
27
Fora discussionofthecontroversial
character ofitinerancyandofSerapion,see Daniel
Caner, Wandering,Begging Monks: SpiritualAuthority and the Promotionof
Monasticism inLateAntiquity(Berkeley:
University ofCalifornia Press,2002) 19^49.
28
Ivanov103.
29
FortheEnglishtranslationof Liontius'Lifeof Simeonand itsdiscussion,see Derek
Krueger, SymeontheHolyFool: Liontius 's Lifeand theLateAntiqueCity(Berkeley-Los
Angeles-London: Universityof CaliforniaPress, 1996). Also see the discussionby
AlexanderY. Syrkin,"On the Behaviorof the 'Fool For Christ'sSake,'" Historyof
Religions22.2 (November1982)andIvanov104-130.

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The Paradigmof the HebrewProphetand Iurodstvo 9

thecongregation andthenbyhisinadvertent employer, thebean-vender, whose

merchandise Simeonate and distributed forfree.As she feignsinsanity, St.
IsidoraofEgyptprovokesincessant harassment andabusebyhersistersmerely
becauseofwhatsheis- orappearstobe- an odd,retarded person.
The asceticdimensionin the lives of Isidora,Serapionand Simeon is
paramount. Yet iftheformer twohave no vestigesof theprophetic plane,the
latter
acquiresa considerable prominence inthelifeofSimeon,whoseforesight,
miracleworkingand giftof prophecyconstruct his identity as a successful
ascetic,manofpowerandsaint.Whilehisidentity as a saintunfolds through the
prophetictopoi, thus reiteratingthe established by then commonplaceof
Christian sanctity, his new statusas a city-dweller sets him in an archetypal
prophetic milieu- after the
all, prophet is an urban dweller parexcellence.This
twofolddevelopment - the holyfool's statusof a city-dweller and a saint -
marksthe pointof crucialimportance, the fool's transition to the domain
previously restricted to the prophets.Indeed,onlywhenthe fool forChrist
positions himself in the middleof busycitylifeand startsoccupying thesame
culturalspace as the Hebrew prophet, does his start
paradigm mirroring thatof
hismodel.
Thisdevelopment is especiallyobviousinthetenth-century vitaofAndrew
of Constantinople (X c.),30 which portrays its hero as God's servantand
mouthpiece, extensively the
reinstating prophetic paradigm. Andrew is an urban
holy fool, yet if his predecessors' holy foolishness was defined by its ascetic
dimension, St. Andrew'sstanceis emphatically prophetic. Like the Hebrew
prophet,he is calledto,andinitiated into,hisfoolishvocationas a layindividual,
whichis in sharpcontrast withtheasceticlivesof his asceticpredecessors and
models.UnlikeSimeon,he does not undertake holy fooleryafteryearsof
rigorous asceticism. Noris Andrewaffiliated witha monasticinstitution (cf.St.
Isidora).Atthesametime,similarto thetextual izationsofthelivesofprophets,
Andrew'slifeaccentuates hisinitiation,whichimpliesa God-inspired mission.31
He also exhibitssuchprophetic abilitiesas clairvoyance, theabilityto predict
the future, as well as access to the ultimateknowledgeon whichrestshis
clandestine statusof a saintand a sage. However,whiletheHebrewprophet
prophesiesto the entirenationor at least to the nation's leaders - still
representing their nations- Andrew, and the fool for Christ in general,often
revealshisvisionsand predictions only to a select circle. Thus, Andrew shares
hisdivineknowledge withhis friend and spiritual son,Epiphanios. At the same

of thistextand itsdiscussioncan be foundin LennartRydén

The Englishtranslation
(ed.), TheLifeofSt.AndrewtheFool, Vol. I & II (Stockholm: Uppsala,1995).Forthe
Old ChurchSlavonicrendition see
ofthislifeas wellas thediscussionofitsmanuscripts,
A. M. Moldovan,ZhitieAndreiaIurodivogov slavianskoipis'mennosti(Moskva:
Azbukovnik, 2000).
'
RydénII, 17.
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10 SVITLANA KOBETS

time,likethebiblicalprophet, Andrewactson behalfoftheentirecongregation

and mankind in itsentirety. In linewiththeparadigmof theHebrewprophet,
Andrewplaystheroleofan intermediary betweenthesacredandprofane realms,
continuously attempting to channelto thecongregation his knowledgeof the
hiddenreality. As he communicates withhis choseninitiates, theauthorof his
lifeandthevirtuous manEpiphanios, Andrewcastsoffthemaskofmadnessand
assumes the role of a sage,32revealingto themhis divine wisdom and
knowledge.33 Yet whenthis fool forChristapproachesthe profane-minded
crowdsof Constantinople, he resortsto allegorical, cryptic discourse, whichis
regularly misunderstood,34 exemplifying thepeople'sseparation fromthedivine.
Like theHebrewprophets, Andrewtirelessly fights withtheforcesof evil,
thereby illustrating different aspectsofthescriptural truth: he calls to virtueby
confronting misers, a sodomite, and by punishing a grave robber.35 His actions,
however, arenotalwaysdictated byGod,as is thecase withtheperformances of
Hebrewprophets,but reveal theirascetic underpinning. For example,his
subversive asceticism surfaces whenhe eatsfigsthatarebeingoffered forsale,
relieveshimselfin public,feignsdrunkenness and danceswithprostitutes.36 At
othertimesAndrewacts on his own, exemplifying the evangelicalspiritof
compassion.This is exemplified by Andrew'smercifulintercession forhis
abusers37- a distinct toposof holyfoolishness - and his charitable mourning
andprayer inspired byhisvisionata richman'sfuneral.38
Whilea numberof topoifromAndrew'slifereiterate theparadigmof the
Hebrewprophet, it is his initiation
to theultimate knowledgeand his roleof a
visionary thatmakehis stature trulyprophetic. Initiation is neveran issuefora
holy foolishascetic.In fact,he always arrivesto the place of his exploit
incognito (cf.theparadigm of Christ)whilehispriorinitiation to themissionis
simplyimplied.In the life of the Hebrewprophet,on the otherhand,his
initiationis a prominent toposandis explicitly textualized. ElijahcoversElisha
withhis mantle, thereby initiatinghimto his newquestof theprophet (I King
19:19);Jeremiah's statusofa chosenone is announced to himbyGod (Jer.1.4-
5); and Micahdeclaresthatin orderto makehimhis mouthpiece, God touched
his mouth(Mie. 1.9). Isaiah'spurification by fire (Isa. 6.7) sets him apartfrom
people "whose lips are contaminated by sin" (Isa. 6.5) and who, therefore,

See, forexample,the episode of Andrew's firstmeetingwithEpiphanios,Rydén II, 39;

Andrew tells Epiphanios about his visit to Paradise, Rydén II, 45-51; the episode of
Andrewansweringmiscellaneousquestionsasked by Epiphanios,RydénII, 201-237.
33
RydénII, 171-185, 197.
For example, RydénII, 97, 185-187.
35
RydénII, 37, 137-153, 81-85, 137-141.
RydénII, 103, 99, 33-37.
RydénII, 117-119.
RydénII, 243-245.

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The Paradigmof the HebrewProphetand Iurodstvo 11

neitherunderstand nor heed God's word. Finally,the storyof Ezekiel's

spectacular includesbotha colourful
initiation ofhimeatinga scroll
description
(Ezek.2.9-3.2) andthespeechofhisdivinemaster:
He saidtome,"Sonofman,I amsending youtothehouseofIsrael... donotfear
them, anddo notfeartheir - ... Youmustspeakmywordstothem
words whether
theylisten
ornot,forthey
arerebellious.
(Ezek.2.3-2.7)
After theinitiation,theprophet wouldemergeas a different individualwho
wouldcompletely submitto thewillofYahwehandbecomehismedium.From
thenon, everything he says,does or experiencesformspartof his mission.
Hosea's marriage to a harlotwife(Hosea 1.2) and thesymbolicnamingof his
children;Jeremiah'scelibacy(Jer. 16.1-4); Isaiah's nakedness(Isa. 20.2);
Isaiah's namingof his children(Isa. 8.3); and Ezekiel's refusalto mournhis
wife's death (Ezek. 24.15-24) are not the personaldecisionsof private
individuals, but deliberateactionscommitted at Yahweh's command.These
actionsarealwayspublic,odd andprovocative andas suchare meantto attract
and shockthe audienceintounderstanding the divinemessagebehindthem.
Since- as it was continuouslyemphasizedin Yahweh's commissioning
speeches(cf.Ezek.2.3-2.7)- theprophet was dealingwithaudiencesthatwere
unwilling to listen, the spectacularaspect of his messagewas essentialto
attractingtheirattention.
The dramaof Andrew'sinitiation to theexploitof holyfooleryis in line
withtheprophetic model.It takesplace in a vision,providingtheparallelwith
Isaiah'sinitiationto hisprophetic vocation,is thoroughlytextualized
andmarks
a distinctdivisionbetweenthepre-holy foolishandholyfoolishstagesofhislife.
Andrew'sspecialrelationship withGod is further in thesceneof
underscored
his crowningby Christand in his recognition by St. Anastasiaas Christ's
chosen.39Afterhis initiation, in line withthe propheticparadigm,Andrew
becomesa publicfigurewho drawsthepeople's scornas well as theirawe
beforethechosenone. However,Andrew'sinstancesof clairvoyance, visions
and his apocalyptic - a prophetic
revelation genrepar excellence- validatehis
prophetic stancemostof all.40The importance of thisaspectin Andrew'slife
was reflected in theByzantinereadership's bias. Indeed,themostcopiedand
readpartof Andrew'slifewas his apocalypse,whilethebeginning, themost
asceticpartof thelife,was consistently omitted.41 Furthermore,based on the
factthat,in compilations, lives of holyfoolsare notfrequent companionsof
Andrew'svita,Rydéncomesto theconclusionthat"The copyistsseemto have
feltthatAndrewwas nota realHolyFool andthatotheraspectsof his Lifeare

39
RydénII, 16,21.
Rydén II, 259-283.
RydénI, 160.

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12 SVITLANA KOBETS

moreimportant."42 This interpretation of Andrewwas further developedin

Russian iconic art, wherethis saint is typicallydepictedas part of the
composition of theMotherof God's Intercession, figuringnotas a madascetic
butas a visionary andprophet, modelledon thetwomajorprophetic figuresof
Elijah andJohn the Baptist.43
The factthatin Andrew'sLifetheprophetic planeof holyfoolishness not
only increasesbut also overshadows its ascetic aspects shows that Andrew's
hagiographer, Nikiphoros,did not simplyrely on the available to him
hagiographie patterns ofholyfoolery, buthadan essentially newagenda.Unlike
Simeon'shagiographer, Leontius,he no longerhad to establishthe ascetic
foundation fortheexploitof holyfoolery - at histimesucha foundation was a
datum.Nikiphoros takesthenextstepin thedevelopment of theholyfoolish
paradigm: by explicitly portrayingAndrewas a prophet, he elevateshis social
role,charismaand asceticismto a new level.Thus,relivingthedestinyof the
Hebrewprophet, Nikiphoros' holyfoolassumeshisroleafteryearsofrighteous
life,whichGod- literally - crownsbythewreath ofhisprophetic roleandgifts.
Andrew'sensuingholyfoolishness thoroughly relieson these giftsuntilhisrole
as a prophetreachesa climaxin thetextof his apocalypse.Furthermore, the
ascetic plane of Andrew's life- the key dimensionof his holy foolish
predecessors- is also presented in linewiththeprophetic paradigm: Andrew's
rigorous asceticism follows- rather than precedes - the initiationinto his
vocation.Thereafter, like the Hebrew prophets,Andrew unconditionally
dedicateshislifetoGod.
An unambiguously propheticByzantinehagiography, the Life of St.
AndrewtheFool receiveda newlifein Russia,whereitgainedthestatusofthe
mostreadandpublished vitaofthefoolforChrist.44
The holyfoolenteredKyivanculturalspace bothas a textand a concept,
emerging in his diverseasceticand lay guises.The earliertextualizations of
fooleryforChrist,whichweretransmitted to Rus' as partand parcelof the
ascetic corpus,featurednumerousstoriesabout monksfeigningmadness,
seekingself-denigration, challenginglay congregations by theirsubversive
behaviours, concealingtheirasceticexploitsand virtues. At thesametime,the
urbanparadigm ofholyfoolery was represented intheSlavonicrenditions ofthe
vitaeof SS. SimeonofEmesaandAndrewofConstantinople. Hagiographers of
KyivanRus'drewon all thesesourceswhencreating imagesofiurodstvo which
amounted
initially to episodesin thelivesof ascetics(e.g., St. Isaakiiof Kyiv
Cave Monastery,St. Avraamiiof Smolensk).Holy foolerybecomes a
phenomenon in itsownrighton theNorthern territoriesof KyivanRus',which

42
RydénI, 161. Similarevidenceis notobservablein the Russianmanuscripts
of St.
Andrew'sLife,see Moldovan10-28.
43
Ivanov241-242;255-257.
Moldovan16-18.

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The Paradigmof the HebrewProphetand Iurodstvo 13

werecalledby Fedotov"thecradleof RussiansaloiM5There,in starkcontrast

totheasceticmodelofthepreceding Kyivanperiod,holyfoolery emergesas an
urbanphenomenon orientedtowardsthemarkedly prophetic Lifeof St. Andrew
of Constantinople.46In thisrespectthelifeof thequintessential Russianholy
fool,Prokopii ofUstiug(d. 1303)47is representative.48
In his Life,Prokopiiis introduced, identified49 and portrayed as a prophet,
whereashis prophetic is
identity textually realized in severalways.To begin
with,theveryfirst linesofhislifeplacehim,as a iurodivyi, togetherwithangels,
apostles,martyrs and prophets, thus equating all these categoriesof saintsand
introducing the parallel betweenthe holy fool and the prophet.Second,
Prokopii's lifecontainsa number of references to theOld Testament prophets,
including Moses, Isaiah, Jonah, David, John the Baptist and Christ,50which,in
conjunction withtheOld andNew Testament citations, notonlysetsthelifein
thecontext ofcreation,butalso contributesto itsostensible prophetic dimension.
Third,Prokopii'slifeexplicitly statesthathe "receivedhis prophetic giftfrom
God."51Andfourth, a greatnumber
it features ofprophetic topoi.Thus,similar
to theHebrewprophet, Prokopiiof Ustiugis a layperson thatplaystheroleof
God's mouthpiece. He displayssymbolicbehaviour andthecryptic languageof
signsthatarequitein linewithsymbolic dramasoftheprophet. Forexample,he
carriesaroundthreepokers,thepositionof which - headsup or down- alludes
to thequantity of theupcomingharvest.52 In linewiththeprophetic paradigm,

GeorgeFedotov,TheRussianReligiousMind,vol. II (New York:HarperTorchbooks,

1960)333.
Ivanov260,263; Moldovan16.
For the vita of Prokopii,see ZhitiesviatogopravednogoProkopiiaKhristaradi
iurodivogoUstiuzhskogo chudotvortsa (Moskva: Pamiatniki istoricheskoi
mysli,2003)
11-101;forthediscussionof itsliterary historysee A. N. Vlasov,"Literaturnaia istoriia
zhitiiapravednogo ProkopiiaUstiuzhskogo chudotvortsa"(in same) 109-122;andforthe
discussion of Prokopii 's iconographysee V. M. Sorokatyi,"Obraz Prokopiia
Ustiuzhskoeo v ikone"(in same) 123-192.
48
Prokopii'scanonization tookplace in 1547. Most likely,Prokopii'scult as a saint
started inthesecondhalfofthefifteenth century (Vlasov 113,Sorokatyi 134). Prokopii's
hagiography was composedin installments (Vlasov 110) and its completeversion
appearedonlyin mid-seventeenth century (Vlasov 117). WhileProkopii'slifeis notthe
earliestmonument ofurbanholyfoolishhagiography, itrepresents thistraditionwell:itis
oneofthebestcomposedhagiographies oftheiurodivyi andoneoftheearliest.
49
ZhitiieSviatogopravednogo 26-27,28-29.
ZhitiieSviatogopravednogo16-17,30-31,36-37,38-39,46^7.
ZhitiieSviatogopravednogo 26-27'.
Iu. M. Lotman,B. A. Uspenskii,"NewAspectsintheStudyofEarlyRussianCulture,"
(trans,by N. F. C. Owen) Iu. M. Lotman,B. A. Uspenskii,TheSemioticsof Russian
Culture(AnnArbor:TheUniversity ofMichigan,1984).

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14 SVITLANA KOBETS

Prokopiiis a healerand a miracle-worker. NotunliketheHebrewprophets, he

personifies the dichotomy between the sacred and profane realms.53 As a
prophet, he warns the citizensof Ustiug of God's wrath,tellingthem about the
comingof a destructive fierycloud,and callingthemto repentance. As in the
storyof theprophet Jonah,thepeople's repentance prompts God's mercyand
Ustiugis spareddestruction. In fact,parallelswiththestoryof Jonahprovide
thisepisodewitha structural foundation and are acknowledged by Prokopii's
hagiographer,54 who discussesthemas he contemplates theissueof Prokopii' s
and Jonah's authenticity as prophets.Significantly, in both cases the
hagiographer relies on the Deuteronomytest (Deut. 18.20-22)- special
instructions designedforestablishing the trueidentity of the Old Testament
prophet - unambiguously treatingProkopiias a prophet.Anotherimportant
prophetic featofProkopiiis hisprophecy to thethree-year-old Mania thatwhen
shegrowsup shewillgivebirth tothefuture bishop,StephenofPerm.55
Prokopii' s image as a prophetcan be tracedback to its very first
textualizations, makingit possibleto statethatfromthe verystarthe was
conceptualized as a prophet. Indeed,thelegendof thefierycloudwhichmost
eloquently exemplifies Prokopii's prophetic behaviour- an archetypal prophet's
call to repentance - is regarded as thefirsttextdedicatedto Prokopii' s lifeand
deeds.56 Furthermore, therearea number of iconicportrayals thatrepresent him
as a prophet.57 For example,the oldestextanticon58representing Prokopii
showshimwearingthegarbof a prophet, whichmakeshimlooklikea teacher
and a sage, ratherthana mad ascetic.Textualand visual representations of
Prokopiiof Ustiugprovidejust one, albeiteloquent,exampleof a Russian
conception of theholyfoolas a prophet. These examplespermeate theentire
corpus of Russian holy foolishhagiography to
testifying the factthat fromthe
timeof emergence of theurbanparadigmof iurodstvo Russiavieweditsholy
foolsas prophets.
This tendencyis discerniblein the linguisticprerogative: in Russia's
and
scriptural hagiographie literaturetheir designations largelyoverlapped,
including prophet, manof God, miracle-worker and clairvoyant (Russ.prorok,
chelovek Bozhii,chudotvorets, prozorlivets orprovidets).In thelivesofRussian
foolsforChrist, prophetic topoiarepredominant, whiletheprophetic roleofthe
iurodivyeis usuallyemphasizedover theirasceticism.At timesthe fool's

ZhitiieSviatogopravednogo 28-29.
ZhitiieSviatogopravednogo 38-39.
ZhitiieSviatogopravednogo 54-57.
Vlasov 112.
See illustrations2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9, 11 in ZhitiieSviatogopravednogo.The majority of
Prokopii's iconic depictions,however,represent him as a fool forChrist.See, for
example,illustrations2, 8, 9, 43, 44,46, 47. Also see Sorokatyi's
article.
no. 9 inZhitiieSviatogopravednogo.
Illustration

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The Paradigmof the HebrewProphetand Iurodstvo 15

prophetic imageis reflected in thename(cf. IsidorTverdislov[theone whose

(prophetic)word is firm]).In othercases the fool's propheticfunctionis
disclosedin the titleof the text.For example,the life of St. Michael of
Klopsko - theredaction thatKliuchevskii calledtheredaction of"Prophecies"-
is called"The Lifeand Prophecy of St. MichaeltheFool in Christof Klopsko
Monastery." All inall,inRussianhagiography, theholyfool'simagebecomesa
reflection of thatof the prophet,whereashis propheticcharacteristics gain
centrality.
The holy fool's propheticaspects become especially prominentin
modern - eighteenth to twentieth-century- renditions.Fromthesetextsemerges
a figurecloselyresembling theHebrewprophet:a virtuousmanor womanof
God endowedwithextraordinary abilitiesand prophetic gifts.These opening
linesfrom thefirstkondakion to MatronaofMoscowarerepresentative:
"Letus, Orthodox believers,weavethewreath of praise...to ourblessedelder
Matrona [whowas] chosen by God and endowed fromthecradlewiththegifts of
clairvoyance,miracle-workingandhealing."59
Accordingto thehagiographie accounts,themodernholyfoolno longer
cultivateshis/her
extraordinary but,likea Hebrewprophet,
abilities is endowed
withthembyGod. The livesofthenineteenth-century foolsforChrist, Feofil60
of the Kyivan Cave Monasteryand Pelageia Ivanovna Serebrenikova, 61
exemplify thismodel.Theirvitaestatethatfromtheverybirththeseholyfools
wereinclined tovirtuous living(e.g.,as an infant,Feofilrefusedto suckleon his
mother's thusexpressing
leftbreast, hisrighteousness), aspired be ascetics(cf.
to
PelageiaIvanovna's refusal to marry and have a family),and evenbeforethey
embarked on thepathofholyfoolishness, thesecharactersrevealedabilitiesand
giftsusually attributedto saints and prophets: they both were clairvoyant and
workers.In linewiththemedievalRussianpattern,
miracle- thelives of these
foolsforChriststatetheasceticismof theircharacters yetdo notputit in the
foreground. Nor is it alwaysa life-long commitment and,whenevertextually
itcanbe confined
present, to a shortperiodoftime.Thus,inthehagiography of
Ivan Koreish,explicitasceticism - his itinerancy and successiveseclusion- is
veryshort-lived.62References to theasceticism of Kseniiaof St. Petersburg,on

59
Blazhennye MatronaMoskovskaiai KseniiaPeterburgskaia: zhitie,akaflst,chudesa
(Moscow:Tserkov'rozhdestva Presviatoi 2002) 4 (mytranslation).
Bogoroditsy,
VladimirZnosko,Hieroschemamonk Feofil,Fool for Christ'sSake: Ascetic &
Visionary of theKyivo-Pecherskaya Lavra (Jordanville,
NY: Holy TrinityMonastery
Press,1987).
Fr. Seraphim(trans.),Seraphim's Seraphim: The Life of Pelagia Ivanovna
Serebrenikova,Foolfor Christ'sSake oftheSeraphim-Diveyevo Convent(Boston:Holy
Transfiguration Press,1979).
Monastery
A. F. Kireev,Student
khladnykh vod:loannIakovlevichKoreisha(Moskva:Lestvitsa,

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16 SVITLANA KOBETS

theotherhand,do notgo beyondherscantclothing, homelessness and lackof

earthlypossessions.63 In the contextof the modernholy fool's downplayed
asceticism, his/her madnessoftenreceivedan essentially it
new interpretation:
wouldbe seen as real rather thanfeigned, yetwouldbe investedwithdivine
connotations.64 The documentary evidenceaboutthelifeand personof Kseniia
of St. Petersburg, who was initiallyseen as mentally derangedyet laterwas
venerated as a foolforChrist,presentsonesuchcase.65
In conclusion:thispaperhas arguedthatduringthevariousstagesof the
developmental history of holyfoolery,thefigureof theOld Testament prophet
servedas theholyfool's literary and behavioural model.This influence was
exercisedthrough theprominence assignedto theprophet in thewritten,
visual
and audibletextsavailableto theEasternSlavs fromtheearliestKyivantimes.
On theliterary level,thisenduring influence intheprophetic
is discernible topoi
thatreachedholy foolishhagiography directlyand indirectly, throughOld
Testament texts,whichdescribed thelivesandactsoftheHebrewprophets and
through textsrepresentativeoftheNew Testament tradition.
The Byzantine holy
fool'stransition to theurbanspace becamethepointof histransformation into
the prophet. This hagiographiedevelopmentacquired unprecedented
prominence in Russia.As Russiamadetheholyfoolone of itsculturally most
prominent figures,theasceticcomponent of his hagiographie imagerygradually
becameovershadowed bytheprophetic aspects,bringing to theforethetopoiof
power.As a result,in Russianhagiographies thefoolforChristemergesas a
RussianOrthodox versionoftheHebrewprophet: God's mouthpiece, visionary
andscourge.

1996)7,9.
Sviatala blazhennaiamatinasha Kseniia Peterburzhskaia (Sankt-Peterburg:Satis',
1996)4,6.
The majority of thenineteenth-century
literary of holyfoolsrelyon this
portrayals
model. They include Dostoevskii'sLizaveta Smerdiashchaiafrom The Brothers
Karamazovand SemenIakovlevichfromThe Possessed,Sofonushka fromMelnikov-
Pecherskii'sNagorakhandGorkii'seponymous herofromtheshortstoryNilushka.
For a controversial appraisalof Kseniia's hagiography and controversial facts
regardinghercanonization,see N. S. Gordienko,"Pervaiasviataiaiurodivaia(Kseniia
N. S. Gordienko,
Peterburgskaia)," Novyepravoslavnyesviatye:iz istoriikanonizatsii
(Kiev: Ukraina,1991)235-273.
sviatykh

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