2013-36-0113
An Approach of the Engine Cylinder Block Material
Copyright © 2013 SAE International
ABSTRACT
The increasing demand for energy savings in cars of high
production volume, especially those classified as emerging
market vehicles, has led the automotive industry to focus on
several strategies to achieve higher efficiency levels from
their systems and components. One of the most diffuse
initiatives is reducing weight through the application of the
so-called light alloys.
An engine cylinder block can contribute nearly two percent
of the vehicle´s total mass. Special attention and soon
repercussion are given when someone decides to apply a
light alloy such as the aluminum to this component.
Nonetheless, it is known that peculiarities in terms of
physical, chemical and mechanical properties, due to the
material nature, associated with regional market
characteristics make the initial feasibility analysis study
definitely one of the most important stages for the material
choice decision.
The present review study will address the technical aspects
related to the issue of material selection of the four cylinder
block engine most commonly used in emerging markets,
where cost and fuel efficiency is a primordial need. In
addition, a contribution attempt for the understanding on the
correlation of cost impacts with the benefits of improved
efficiency.
INTRODUCTION
The engine cylinder block is one of the main
components in the vehicle propulsion system powered by
internal combustion engine. Metaphorically speaking, it is
the “body” of the engine, whose main function includes, but
is not limited to: support the cylinder head (which contains
the camshaft and valvetrain assembly), support the
cranktrain (crankshaft, piston and rod), transport fluids,
withstand clamping loads that come from several bolts
1
Dinecio dos Santos Filho
General Motors
attached to the block, and locate the main bearings also
supporting vectors of high load magnitude.
In addition, the cylinder block must assure the
suitable sealing condition to the piston assembly in the
cylinders (or liners), as well as keep the ideal oil reserve
required to the cylinder-piston ring system, through the
texture provided by a special process such as the honing.
This cylinder finishing process is specific to each
application, depending on piston skirt and rings package and
vice versa, in order to guarantee the expected durability
working within minimum friction levels.
Several machines essential to the vehicle
auxiliary’s functionality are then fixed to the engine cylinder
block, for instance the generator, hydraulic power steering
pump, air conditioning compressor, automatic belt tensioner
and idler pulleys. This is one of the so-called secondary
functions of an engine cylinder block, and sometimes
involuntarily relegated to oblivion, even though each
machine position is only assured by the bosses provided by
the block. Once said that the bosses must withstand high
compression loads coming from the bolt clamping,
compression strength is definitely a desirable material
property for such engineering component. [1]
Because of the fact the cylinder block houses the
cylinder bores, their surrounding coolant passages and the
top half of the crankcase, the dimensions of the block are
therefore determined above all by the dimensions of the
cylinders and the spacing between them. Compactness has
become an issue, especially for four-cylinder in-line
engines, with the widespread adoption of the transverse-
engine, front-drive layout. Modern cylinder blocks are
designed using CAD/CAE, in order to maximize stiffness
with minimum weight. Noise problems can also be
addressed by studying resonant modes and ensuring they do
not fall within critical or normal operating ranges. [2]
Engine cylinder block design concepts have been
being developed aiming to consider the local mechanical
stresses in the several component regions, taking benefit of
the cast iron mechanical properties, as reported in the General Motors introduced in the United States the
literature. [3] [4] It has been reported that there is a tendency Chevrolet Vega engine, with a die cast aluminum cylinder
for internal pressure increasing in the Otto cycle engine block without cylinder liners. This engine used a technology
cylinders, due to a growing demand of performance of operating the pistons and rings directly on cylinder bores
improving technics, including the direct injection and turbo. of Al alloy with exposed primary silicon particles on
Such pressure increment might difficult the aluminum usage surface. [7] This launch certainly was a result of more than
in certain applications. [5] apud [4] 15 years of research from the laboratory stages to the start or
regular production.
Other statements mention that use of aluminum has
increased in automobiles to reduce weight and fuel
consumption without impairing performance or safety for
the occupants. An example is the substitution of gray iron
engine blocks by high performance aluminum alloys, but
cylinder liners in most engine blocks are of wear resistant
castings made from perlitic irons. In some cases the liners
are inserted after machining, but in others, the liners are
cast-in and generate residual stresses in the surrounding
cylinder bridges. [6]

In this way, no matter which cylinder block base

material technology is applied, it is imperative having
physical and mechanical properties good enough to insure
both stiffness and strength proper to a long-term durability, Figure 1 - Chevrolet Vega 1971 [8] [9]
relative low cost and easy of obtainment and processing in
the manufacturing region. Moreover, it is expected a Besides the high silicon aluminum alloy usage and
cylinder block being easy to manufacture, with short the special process to provide primary silicon particles
machining times, long intervals for tooling exchange and exposure, the pistons skirt must always be plated, e.g., iron
simple casting process. In summary, not only efficient and and tin, to prevent scuffing. In spite of the fact the process is
robust but of simple design, such is the essence of an diffuse in several countries, likewise North America and
automotive internal combustion engine. Europe ones, in emerging and growing markets such as the
Brazil’s current situation, the most common application
would be the aluminum cylinder block with cast iron liners
and the conventional pistons. Obviously, this can be
THE BASIC CONSTRUCTIONS: explained by both the costs involved and local technology
availability to implement the foregoing mentioned Al
ALUMINUM AND CAST IRON cylinder block sleeveless process with high cost plated
pistons.
Concerning the issue of material choice is said that,
among automotive internal combustion engines, aluminum
alloy is the most popular choice of material on account of its
light weight and thermal qualities. Cast iron may still be
considered for the sake of its stiffness and its ability to damp
noise and vibration, but these advantages are rarely
considered sufficient to tip the balance in the material’s
favor. [2]

The two base cylinder block constructions

dominate the automotive market: the cast iron monolithic
(single piece) and the so-called aluminum block. As a matter
of fact, in small displacement engines such as the in-line
type, the so-called aluminum block normally is an assembly,
composed by the cylinder block itself and the bedplate
containing cast iron bearing inserts lodged into it.
An important consideration with alloy blocks is
whether to run the pistons directly in alloy bores. The more
common technique is still to provide cast iron liners located
within the block. These liners may be either ‘dry’, a push-fit
into the bores, or ‘wet’, with coolant between the liner and
the structure of the block. [2]
The technology of operating the pistons and rings
directly on the aluminum cylinder bores is estimated to be
available at least since the half of last century. As an
example, Wang and Tung [7] have reported that, in 1970
Figure 2 – Aluminum alloy cylinder bore, with primary silicon
particles exposed. The piston skirt must be plated to avoid scuffing.
(Developed based on data provided by [10])
The benefit of aluminum alloy usage for mass
reduction is relatively more prominent for “V type” engines,
having in view its shape concept. In a certain way, for "V
type" engine blocks, the reduction in terms of physical
volume provided by the cast iron usage is often limited by
the cylinder arrangement, which is inherent of this engine
type, differently from the in line concept. In other words,
the benefit provided by the higher strength conferred by the

2
iron may not be fully applied during the optimization, since
the package represents a natural restriction.
By this reason, aluminum alloy usage may result as
the option of choice in many cases for V type engines,
especially those applied in luxury passenger cars. The lack
of strength of the Al alloy with respect to cast iron can be
minimized by the usage of heat treatable Al alloys, such as
the case of AlSiMg alloy solution heat-treated and
artificially aged, despite of the immediate impact on costs
and processing time.
Figure 3 – a) The 6.2L V8 Corvette Engine. b) Sketch picture
illustrating the Al alloy cast-aluminum cylinder block with cast-in
iron liners. (Developed based on data provided by [11] [12])
According to recent publication [12], the fifth-
generation GM small block 6.2L V8 engine provides 72.5
HP / liter, as well as 98.4 N.m / liter of torque. The Figure 3
illustrates the new engine destined for the new Corvette as
stated by the researched literature [12] in the year this article
is being published. The unit is a conventional overhead-
valve, two valve 90º V8, using alloy cast-aluminum cylinder
block with cast-in iron liners and six nodular iron cross-
bolted main bearing caps.
Another recent work focused on Global Engine
Trends and Forecasts [2] mentions that alloy blocks would
be more often gravity die-cast rather than pressure-cast,
because most blocks are large enough to call for major
investment in pressure-casting machines. Several advanced
casting methods have been developed, for example by
Cosworth and Toyota, to improve casting quality and
productivity without resorting to pressure casting. [2]
Contrasting the foregoing statement - for the South
America market - a “status-at-a-glance” would show that
aluminum high pressure die casting technology has
3
increased for “aluminum cylinder block”, especially for
small displacements, such as the four cylinder small engine
in line applications.
This can be justified by the shape and size of these
small blocks assembly, and their respective bedplates,
whose construction and size are relatively smaller, justifying
the high pressure die casting tooling investments.
In the same way, gray cast iron gravity casting
technology has been being applied for new applications of
small in-line cylinder blocks. In this case, the single piece
“monolithic” cylinder block made of gray cast iron is often
the option of choice.
As an example, Ford has selected a cast iron block
for its latest 999cc three-cylinder turbocharged petrol
engine, uniquely for such a small engine. The Ford engine
utilizes an advanced split cooling system to reduce fuel
consumption by warming the engine more quickly, and
using cast iron for the block is credited with reducing the
amount of energy needed for warm-up by up to 50%
compared to an aluminum block. [2]
A second example of cast iron L4 in-line block is
the Cruze 1.8L's cylinder block, developed in Europe, which
is based on the proven hollow-frame concept. According to
[13], gray cast iron provides an extremely durable
foundation, optimized with a deep skirt that minimizes both
wear and vibration. The 1.8L block supports greater loads
than that used in previous generation engines, and it
improves the overall rigidity of the engine/transmission
assembly. As a result, the engine delivers 80.0 HP / liter, as
well as 102.8 N.m / liter of torque, while the cylinder block
weight is comparable to what would be achieved in case of
aluminum cylinder block and bedplate assembly, being
about 20 percent lighter than a conventional casting, thanks
to the thin walls and hollow-frame concept made feasible by
the cast iron strength. [13]
Figure 4 – Sketch picture illustrating 1.8L's cast iron cylinder
block hollow-frame concept. (Developed based on [13] [14])
As reported by Mitchell, 2001 [15], the BMW M3
engine, designated the S54, shares the familiar layout of
other BMW inline 6-cylinder engines. Oriented to the very
highest level of performance, the M3 engine has a cast-iron
block. The reasons reported by the author are compactness
and strength, adding that an inline six is longer than a V-6,
and BMW nurtures the inline layout because of its superior
smoothness and sound. [15] Moreover, the researched
literature showed that given that this engine develops fully
333 HP from 3.2 liters – over 100 HP / liter – its high internal
stresses concurred to cast-iron application instead of
aluminum, and the block could best sustain the engine’s
high cylinder pressures and very high piston speed at
maximum rpm, at the same time being compact. [15]
The present study aims to freely approach the
overall global aspects related to both cast iron and
“aluminum” block available technology, with focus to the
current South America applied technology characteristics.
Current scenario in this market, mainly Brazil
(considering the “in-line four” engine layout), typically
presents a predominance of share in terms of usage between:
 Aluminum block assembly, composed by: Al-Si alloy
cylinder block, nodular cast iron liners, Al-Si alloy
bedplate, and nodular cast iron bearing inserts.
 Single piece “monolithic” cylinder block made of gray
cast iron.
Figure 5 – a) Aluminum block assembly. b) Single-piece
monolithic cast iron cylinder block. Al=Aluminum; C.I.=Cast Iron
Those two technology concepts are illustrated by
the scheme provided in the Figure 5, which includes the
liners and bedplate that usually composes the aluminum
cylinder block assembly.
The single-piece monolithic cast iron cylinder
block (Figure 5b) can also be found in several inline four
(L4) small engines sold in Brazil, likewise the 1.0L, 1.4L,
1.6L and 1.8L for flex-fuel vehicles, applied in relatively
high volume of units.
From now on, it will be used simply the term “cast
iron cylinder block” and “aluminum cylinder block” when
referring to the foregoing defined monolithic cast iron block
and aluminum block assembly.
4
THE PRODUCT AND THE PROCESS
Aluminum Alloy Cylinder Block
The following topics present some relevant product
and process characteristics of the aluminum cylinder block
assembly, considering inline engine application, which has
been illustrated through the Figure 5a:
The whole assembly, including liners and bedplate
can be about 20% lighter than the monolithic cast iron
cylinder block.
High level of discontinuities, such as porosity,
round or elongated, observed as smooth-edged dark spots
occurring individually distributed or in clusters, is inherent
from the aluminum casting process and must be controlled.
The Young’s modulus of aluminum alloys
(modulus of elasticity) represents about fifty to sixty percent
of the cast iron modulus, having impact to stiffness.
There are specific fabrication requirements peculiar
to the aluminum block assembly. In order to be able to reach
dimensional capability and precision after engine assembly,
some machining steps need to be performed with the
bedplate fixed and torqued to the bulkhead. Because of the
thermal expansion sensitiveness, the temperature amplitude
between block and bedplate must usually be controlled and
kept under minimum levels during machining operation.
Because of the inherent but significant porosity
level, production parcels may require post-impregnation,
which is a kind of rework applied depending on the pressure
tightness test result (leakage). Sometimes, a block must be
scrapped/recycled directly depending on the severity of the
Al casting defect.
Dimensional variation on the true position of
under-injected liners as well as the differential of
solidification shrinkage among cast iron (liner) and
aluminum alloy (base block) require special process controls
in order to assure the dimensional tolerances are met.
The bolt bosses size is larger and accommodates
longer thread engagements comparing to cast iron, in such a
manner as the lower compression strength is compensated.
Cast Iron Cylinder Block
The single piece “monolithic” cylinder block made
of gray cast iron, which has been illustrated through the
Figure 5b, has its structure usually composed by lamellar
graphite into a typically perlitic matrix.
The simplicity semblance of its construction,
granted by the virtue of the millennium scale raw material
technology, is characterized by the following relevant
product and process characteristics:
Because of the gray cast iron modulus of elasticity
(about twice the Al Young’s modulus), associated to the
proper design, high degree of stiffness is assured to the part.
 Despite of the lean (or gaunt) single piece
reachable by the cast iron usage, the mass hardly is equal or
lighter than the whole aluminum block assembly, founded
on the fact that the material density is more than twice the
aluminum one.
The cylinder bores use parent material, and by this
reason do not require liners. The honing process operation is
performed directly to the bore material as solidified during
cylinder block casting. In addition, graphite is a solid self-
lubricant.
The high damping capacity of the lamellar gray
cast iron reflects the power of iron cylinder block to absorb
vibration. The energy dissipation is attributed to the
graphite. In case of gray cast irons with a perlitic matrix
structure, the energy dissipation is still determined by the
volume fraction and morphology of the initial graphite
phase, because of its characteristics, such as the strength,
elastic and strain proprieties.
Thermal conductivity in cast irons is less than a
half of the aluminum one. Such factor requires cast iron with
lamellar graphite. This is because lamellar graphite provides
high thermal conductivity comparing to nodular graphite,
and by this reason, it is necessary to control the chemical
content and processing in order to assure the suitable level
of lamellar graphite. As a result, gray cast iron with lamellar
graphite is ideal for cylinder blocks.
Lamellar gray cast iron is known by its good
machinability, the cylinder block fabrication line is
relatively simplified once it is dedicated for only one type of
material.
Homogeneous dilation and contraction is assured
by the single-piece or monolithic cylinder block
construction, assuring reduced distortion levels. Also
superior mechanical properties, such as compression
strength, yield strength and fatigue endurance. As a result,
the block is able to support higher internal loads and
pressures.
SOME DESIGN RELATED ASPECTS
The typical properties of casting Al-Si alloy and
gray cast iron with lamellar graphite and perlite matrix, for
inline cylinder blocks, are summarized. The Table 1,
developed based on collected data ( [16], [17], [4], [18] )
gives a comparative “overview” of these properties relevant
to engine design, function, performance and durability.
Depending on the application features, such as the
mechanical solicitations or program specific targets, the
contrast of material properties among the two technologies
will not offer necessarily a real advantage for a specific
usage. By this reason, the issue of decision based on
material properties is usually approached in a case-by-case
basis.
Various are the factors to be considered during the
cylinder block development, from the initial creation, going
5
through the design phases, in a continuous refinement based
on inputs received from both computational simulation and
several physical and durability tests.
Young’s Modulus
Density
Hardness
Yield Strength
Thermal Expansion
Fatigue Strength
Thermal Conductivity
Stability at High Temperature
Casting Al-Si alloy Gray cast iron lamellar
(The higher, the better) (The lower, the better)
Figure 6 – Casting Al-Si alloy and gray cast iron typical
properties.
The water jacket temperature distribution initially
assessed through the thermal analysis has its geometry
refined aiming to the highest level of optimization, once it
will impact the bore distortion behavior during usage.
This distortion is influenced by the material
Young's modulus, thermal expansion and conductivity. If
the cylinder block assembly contains liners of different
material with respect to the base block, the design must
comprise theses aspects of both materials and in the end, the
bore distortion response. The interbore region can achieve
high temperature levels, and therefore, significant amplitude
of stress and deformation (thermal cyclic stress) is naturally
expected, impacting creep strength.
A structural analysis is used predict stresses levels
and fatigue life. The mechanical solicitations resulting from
engine operation and assembled components usually
includes: combustion pressure; main bearing, balance shaft,
cam bearing and piston side loads; thermal loads; assembly
loads; efforts generated by interface components; and so
forth.
Knowing the mechanical solicitations input data, as
well as the material properties, one making use of the
computational simulation tools would be able to output the
stresses and strains, the modal response, and still estimate
fatigue life.
It is prudent practice considering the required
energy to nucleate a microcrack. Provided that engine
cylinder blocks are basically produced by casting process
followed by machining, the Al-Si alloys as well as gray cast
iron are of limited toughness, whose typical elongation is
about less than 2%, and the usual crack nucleation sites are
the internal discontinuities, likewise pores, hard Si particles
in aluminum and graphite lamellas in gray cast iron. By
this reason, - in the current real life scenario - the
component sanity under imposed high stress, as well as the
fatigue life – both initially predicted by computational
simulation – should always be completed by the physical
validation and certification, whatever is the material applied.
 In addition to the issue of structural durability, the
noise and vibration response are assessed. Depending on the
stiffness, the design itself, and so the component natural
frequencies, it is possible to predict, with high confidence
level, whether or not the resonance response will impact
noise and vibration. As a result, the design is refined
through as many interactions as necessary.
Only a few examples of engine cylinder block
design related aspects have been presented in the foregoing
topics as an overview. The singular complexity involved in
such design is than better comprehended. Those aspects are
strong dependent on the base material applied.
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS DUE
TO PRODUCTION – AN OVERVIEW
Aluminum Production
The “production” of primary aluminum metal from
its ore, the bauxite, occurs through a two stage process. The
first stage is the Bayer Process, which involves the refining
of bauxite, resulting in the extraction of pure alumina
(Al2O3). The Hall-Heroult Process is the second stage,
involving the electrolytic reduction of alumina to aluminum
metal.
A bauxite ore which is economically minable could
contain about 45% of Al2O3. [19] High-purity aluminum
oxide (Al2O3) could contain about 53% of aluminum. [19]
The Bayer Process, patented in Germany by Karl
Bayer in 1888, exploits the relatively high solubility of
aluminum oxide minerals in caustic soda solution.
Following separation of the insoluble residue (called red
mud, and rich in iron oxides and quartz) from the pregnant
solution, trihydrate aluminum oxide is precipitated from the
solution by cooling and seeding with gibbsite. As a final
step, this oxide is calcined at about 1000 ºC to produce high-
purity alumina. [19]
Figure 7 – Simplified diagram for primary aluminum and primary
iron “production” from the ore.
6
According to Gow and Lozej [19], electrolytic
reduction of alumina (the Hall-Heroult Process) was first
applied in aluminum foundries in Great Britain and
Switzerland in 1888-1889 to produce aluminum at an
industrial scale. The method had been independently
devised in 1886 by Charles Hall in the United States and
Paul Heroult in France. In the aluminum smelter, a mixture
of molten, high-purity alumina and cryolite (Na3AlF6) is
placed in a carbon-lined steel box and a direct current of up
to 100k amperes is applied at approximately or superior 900
ºC. The box acts as an electrolytic cell, with the box itself
being the cathode and carbon rods dipping into the box
forming the anode. The oxygen from the alumina is
eliminated at the anode, while the aluminum, being denser
than cryolite, accumulates at the bottom of the box.
As a result, four to seven tonnes of bauxite,
depending on its composition, are required to produce two
tonnes of alumina. About two tonnes of alumina are
required to produce one tonne of aluminum. [19]
Iron Production
The “production” of primary iron (called
ironmaking process) in large scale is accomplished through
the blast furnace, whose technology has progressed over the
centuries consisting in a countercurrent exchanger of heat
and of mass. The iron oxide (ore), coke coal, and limestone
are ingredients, successively charged through the furnace
top.
The charge slowly descends through the shaft and is
gradually heated by hot ascending gases (CO, CO2, N2, H2,
H2O). Because the gas that is lower in the furnace is richer
in carbon monoxide, it has a more reducing effect on iron
oxides. Thus, the pellets are gradually reduced as a result of
mass transfer of carbon monoxide (and hydrogen) from the
gas phase into the pellet. [20]
Final deoxidation is accomplished down in the cohesive
zone, where high temperatures and highly reducing
conditions result in the reduction of wustite (FeO) to iron.
Impurities such as silica, sulfur, alumina, and magnesia,
which are present in the original pellets and coke, associate
with the lime/dolomite and are removed as a molten slag.
[20]
The reaction termed indirect reduction occurs when the iron
oxide is reduced through the intervention of a gaseous
reductant. The reaction termed direct reduction occurs when
the direct contact of wustite with coke leads to droplets of
iron that fall through the dripping zone into the hearth. [20]
Relatively antique but accurate 1888's publication
approaches the typical composition of iron ores. In this
research, the magnetic oxide of iron (Fe3O4), the base of
magnetites, would consist about of 72.4% iron and 27.6%
oxygen; the ferric oxide (Fe2O3), the base of hematites,
would be a combination of 70% iron and 30% oxygen.
However, all the ores are mixed with earthy or rock gangue
and carry sulfur, phosphorus, manganese, titanium and more
or less water, and seldom approximate theoretical purity.
[21]
Therefore, a little less than two tonnes of iron ore are
required on the average to produce one tonne of pig iron.
[21]

Environmental Effects Overview –

Cylinder Block Production
Eco-Indicator is a number which aim to express the
total environment impact of a product or process. [22]

The purpose of these indicators, whose complex

calculation comprises scientific basis for the damage model,
considers aspects related to human health, ecosystem quality
and resources, including the additional effects that
contribute to the aforementioned categories. [22]

The methodology rolled-out in the researched

literature establishes systematic drive for continuous
improvement of life cycle environmental performance of
products within sorts of enterprises by integrating
environmental aspects in strategic management decisions. It
focuses particularly on product development and (re)design.
The complexity of decision process involving environmental
aspects means very often an unbridgeable gap. [22]
The indicator considers the impact from the
extraction until the latest production stage of a certain
product and can be expressed by a dimensionless unity: Eco-
indicator point (Pt) or mPt (milipoint). The higher is the
Eco-indicator point, the higher will be the theoretical
damage to the environment and human health. It is applied
often in comparative studies, considering two or more
products, such as the comparison between the aluminum and
cast iron engine block.
The raw aluminum or iron that will be used for the
block production can be obtained via two different routes:
primary metal production from ore and recycling from scrap
and used products.
Figure 8 - Eco-Indicators related to the production of C.I. cylinder
block, adding the sum of reported Pts. (Adapted from [23])
Regarding aluminum cylinder block, the categories
mainly affected were: fossil fuels and minerals about
resources and carcinogens, and respiratory inorganics about
Human Health. As far as the damage source, the main
responsible was primary aluminum production which is
characterized by a high utilization of bauxite mines, and
high amount of electricity in Hall-Heroult process, the need
of disposing the red mud separated in Bayer process, and the
emissions of fluorides. [23] A negative contribution was
attributed to the fact the recycling the aluminum that
solidifies inside the runners, which reduces the damage
caused by primary Al production and helps to decrease the
total impact.

A case study performed by Bonollo et all [23] has

presented an example of comparison results between the
environmental load of cast iron and aluminum cylinder
block. The methodological approach adopted for the
analysis was the life cycle assessment, which considered the
environmental effects of the product during the production,
use and end-of-life, applying the eco-indicator numbers.

The chart presented through the Figure 8 shows the

Eco-Indicators related to the production of C.I. cylinder block,
according to data reported by [23], and adding the sum of reported
Pts. The main damage contributors as reported are:
electricity consumption for the running of the furnace, of the
core and sand production lines and to coke, natural gas and
carbon black consumption for the running of the cupola
furnace. Contribution was given also by fuel consumption
during the transport from foundry to engine plant and from
engine plant to vehicle assembly plant and by phenolic
resins used for the cores production. [23] Figure 9 - Eco-Indicators related to the production of Al cylinder
block, adding the sum of reported Pts. (Adapted from [23])
The negative contribution due to cast iron
recycling, e.g., the iron solidified inside the gating and Therefore, the environmental impact related to the
riserings, was not mentioned in the chart. aluminum block is higher than the one related to the cast
iron block. On the other hand, depending on the secondary

7
aluminum content (recycling) usage, - when the purity
requirements allow it - the total eco-indicator value would
decrease in correspondence of an increase in the percentage
of secondary recycled aluminum. It has been reported the
score of -2.4 Pt in case of 100% recycled aluminum. [23]
Figure 10 - Relation between the Eco-Indicator and the percentage
of secondary aluminum during the production phase. (Adapted
from [23])
According to same work, if one considers a cast
iron cylinder block produced only from primary cast iron as
an assumption (which actually is almost unexpected in the
automotive industry), without recycling at all, the total eco-
indicator number would be given by a constant positive
value in the Figure 10. Comparing to the aluminum block,
from the data provided by [23] it is possible to visualize
that, when the percentage of secondary recycled aluminum
usage exceeds a certain value above 50%, aluminum usage
becomes favorable from an environmental point of view.
Recycling aluminum requires much less electricity
than producing it from the bauxite ore, avoids the fluoride
emissions and disposal of red mud. By this reason, the ideal
world to be pursued for the sake of the Nature is recycling
all the aluminum products (aiming to a hundred percent of
secondary Al usage) and reducing bauxite extraction and
processing.
According to The Brazilian Mining Association
[24], a total of 31.70 million tonnes of Bauxite were
extracted in Brazil during the year 2010, positioning the
country between the top three in the aluminum ore
extraction world ranking. Near to 98% of bauxite from
Brazil is used for alumina production. [24]
The actual availability of secondary aluminum in
quantity and purity is especially peculiar from the block
production location and depending on several factors
particular from each country, since the vehicle lifetime until
social characteristics.
8
SUMMARY
Several and countless are the factors to be taken
into consideration during the feasibility analysis, which
should be performed in a case-by-case basis. The strategy
should include but not be limited to:
 Regional market characteristics;
 Product performance and durability targets;
 Engine type, vehicle type and target consumer;
 Vehicle segment;
 Development program magnitude, time and budget
available;
 Supplier basis development technological level;
 Material cost and availability;
 Energy consumption and environmental concerns.
 Considerations regarding costs and return in order
to be able to optimize and prioritize the
implementation of technical initiatives for fuel
economy.
Mass reduction must be always a primordial target to
pursue in a day-by-day basis, whose technical initiatives are
therefore analyzed along with several other factors, in order
to assure quick and smooth implementation of adding value
solutions, consonant to the customer voice.
It is important that the product, i.e., the vehicle and its
engine, will meet the costumer expectation and needs. The
long-term durability and performance targets should not be
competitive set centric, but rather focused on the customers
who will acquire the product, with a relentless compromise
of providing engine torque and power in compliance to what
has been advertised.
Some aspects related to the issue of material selection
of the four cylinder block engine have been presented and
approached freely, through a review study, with focus to the
current local scenario. Contribution to the benefit in the
course of time studies and necessities is what is yearned for.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Dedicated to my friend, my master, my mirror, my hero.

Responsible person for what I am in this Earth.

My dear and beloved father, DINECIO DOS SANTOS.

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